Digital Signal & Image Processing

Lecture-1
 Overview

• Signal
• Continuous or analog signals
• Discrete-time signals
• Causal signals
• Deterministic and Random signals
• Digital Functions (Impulse, Step, Ramp, Power, Exponential, Sine)
• Notation for Digital Signals
• Composite Functions
• Linear, Time-Invariant (LTI), Causal Systems
 Signal
• A signal is a physical quantity, or quality, which conveys
information
• The variation of the signal value as a function of the
independent variable is called a waveform
• The independent variable often represents time
• We define a signal as a function of one independent variable
that contains information about the behavior or nature of a
phenomenon
• We assume that the independent variable is time even in
cases where the independent variable is a physical quantity
other than time
 Continuous or Analog Signals
• Continuous signal is a signal that exists at every instant of time

• A continuous signal is often referred to as continuous time (CT)

or analog

• The independent variable is a continuous variable

• Continuous signal can assume any value over a continuous

range of numbers
 Continuous or Analog Signals
• Most of the signals in the physical world are CT signals.

• Examples: voltage & current, pressure, temperature, velocity,

etc.
 Discrete-Time Signals
• A signal defined only for discrete values of time is called a
discrete-time (DT) signal or simply a discrete signal

• Discrete signal can be obtained by taking samples of an analog

signal at discrete instants of time

• Digital signal is a discrete-time signal whose values are

represented by digits
 Discrete-Time Signals
• Figure (a): CT Signal
• Figure (b): DT Signal

• Examples of DT signals in nature:

• DNA base sequence
• Number of students in a class
• Population of the nth generation of certain species
 Discrete-time signal – Sequence
• A sequence (discrete-time signal, discrete signal, data
sequence, or sample set) is a collection of ordered samples

• In practical applications we process finite-length sequences

• The existing sequence is often a sampled version of a

continuous signal
 Causal Signals
• A signal is causal if it is zero for t < 0

• Causal signals are readily created by multiplying any

continuous signal by the unit step signal

• The instant when the signal begins is called the starting time

• We usually take the starting time to be zero

 Causal Sequence
• A sequence that is nonzero only over a finite interval of
indices is called a finite-length sequence

• A sequence whose samples are zero-valued for negative

indices is causal

• Anti-causal sequence can have nonzero samples only for

negative indices
Deterministic and Random Signal
• Signal that can be described by an explicit mathematical form
is deterministic

• Deterministic signal can be periodic or aperiodic

• Periodic signal consists of a basic shape of finite duration that

is replicated infinitely

• Signal that cannot be described in an explicit mathematical

form is called random, also known as nondeterministic or
stochastic
 Digital Functions
The basic digital functions (signal or sequence) are

• Unit Impulse Function

• Unit Step Function
• Unit Ramp Function
• Power Function
• Exponential Function

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 Unit Impulse Function

The unit impulse function or unit sample sequence is defined as

the sequence with values
 Unit Impulse Function

The unit impulse function δ[n] has an amplitude of zero at all

samples except n = 0, where it has the value 1.

Every digital signal can be written as a sum of impulse functions,

using the amplitude at each sample.
 Unit Impulse Function

Example: Determine the following:

a) δ[0]
b) δ[3]
c) δ[-2]

Answers

a) δ[0] = 1

b) δ[3] = 0

c) δ[-2] = 0
 Scaled Unit Impulse Function

Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = 4δ[n]
 Scaled Unit Impulse Function

Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = -2δ[n]
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function

Example: Draw the following signals:

a) x[n] = δ[n - 2]

b) x[n] = δ[n + 2]
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function

Example: Draw the following signal:

x[n] = δ[n - 3]
 Unit Impulse Function
Example: write a function to describe the signal in the figure.

x[n] = δ[n] + δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + δ[n-3] + δ[n-4]

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 Unit Impulse Function
Example: write a function to describe the signal in the figure.

x[n] = 4δ[n] - 2δ[n-1] + 3δ[n-2] - δ[n-3]

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 Unit Impulse Function

1, k = 0
k = 
0, k  0
Matlab Code
Unit impulse sequence
k1 = -5;
k2 = 10; 1
k = k1:k2;
0.8
x = (k==0); k
0.6

stem(k, x) 0.4

xlabel('k') 0.2
ylabel('\delta_k')
title('Unit impulse sequence') 0
axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) -5 0 5 10
k
 Unit Step Function

The unit step function or unit step sequence is defined as the

sequence with values
 Unit Step Function

The unit step function u[n] has an amplitude of zero for n < 0
and an amplitude of one for all other samples.

The signal u[-n] has the value one up to and including n = 0, and
the value zero thereafter.
 Unit Step Function

Example: Determine the values of the following

a) u[-1], b) u[0], c) u[1]

Answers

a) u[-1] = 0
b) u[0] = 1
c) u[1] = 1
 Scaled Unit Step Function

Example: Draw the signal x[n] = 3u[n]

 Shifted Unit Step Function

Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[n - 2], and x[n] = u[n + 2]
 Unit Step Function

Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[-n]

 Unit Step Function

Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[n - 3]

 Unit Step Function

Example: Draw the signal x[n] = u[3 - n]

 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal
x[n] = u[n] + 2u[n - 2]
 Unit Step Function
Example: Draw the signal
x[n] = u[n] - u[n - 3]
 Unit Step Function

Example: A digital signal is described as x[n] = 4(u[n] - u[n - 1]).

Write the function that describes x[n-3].

Answer

Substituting n = (n – 3) gives

x[n-3] = 4(u[n-3] - u[n - 4])

 Unit Step Function

1, k  0
uk = 
0, k  0
Matlab Code
Unit step sequence
k1 = -5;
1
k2 = 10;
k = k1:k2; 0.8

x = (k>=0); 0.6
uk

stem(k, x) 0.4

xlabel('k') 0.2
ylabel('u_k')
0
title('Unit step sequence')
axis([k1 k2 -0.1 1.1]) -5 0 5 10
k
Connection b/w Impulse and Step Functions

• The step function may be expressed as a sum of impulse

functions:
u[n] = δ[n] + δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + …

𝒖 𝒏 = ෍ 𝜹 𝒏−𝒎
𝒎=𝟎

• Similarly, Impulse function may be expressed as a difference

of two step functions :
δ[n] = u[n] – u[n-1]

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Connection b/w Impulse and Step Functions

Example: write a function to describe the signal in the figure.

Unit Impulse Function

x[n] = 2δ[n] + δ[n-1] - 4δ[n-2] - 4δ[n-3] -4δ[n-4] -……….
Unit Step Function
x[n] = 2u[n] – 6u[n-2]
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 Unit Ramp Function

• The unit-ramp function is defined as

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 Power Function
• Power functions take the form:
x[n] = Aα βn
• In the special case where α = e, such functions are called
exponential functions.
• When β is positive, the function grows.
• When β is negative the function decays.
• When α is negative, the signal samples alternate positive and
negative.
• The value of A is determine the magnitude/amplitude/value
of the function when n = 0

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 Power Function
• Example: Draw a signal x[n] = (-0.6)n

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 Power Function

xe, k = X e a k
Matlab Code
xe,k = Xe ak
Xe = 0.8;
0.8
a = 0.75;

k1 = 0; 0.6
k2 = 10;
k = k1:k2; xe
0.4
x = Xe*a.^k;
0.2
stem(k, x)
xlabel('k')
ylabel('x_e') 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
title('x_{e,k} = X_e a^k') k
 Exponential Function
• Exponential functions take the form:

x[n] = Ae βn

• Where e = 2.71828
• When β is positive, the function grows.
• When β is negative the function decays.
• The value of A is determine the magnitude/amplitude/value
of the function when n = 0

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 Exponential Function
• Example: Draw a signal x[n] = e-0.5n

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 Complex Exponential Function
• A digital signal of the form

x[n] = Aejβn

is called a complex exponential function.

• For all n, samples of this signal lie in the complex plane on a

circle with radius A.

• By Euler’s identity, a complex exponential may be expressed

as a rectangular-form complex number
eβn= cosβn + jsinβn
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 Complex Exponential Sequence
The general form of a complex exponential sequence has the
form

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 Complex Exponential Function
Example: plot the first eight samples of the digital signal
x[n] = e-jπn/6

x[n] = e-jπn/6
Using the Euler’s identity

𝜋𝑛 𝜋𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = cos + 𝑗 sin
6 6

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 Notation for Digital Signals
• A stream of digital codes is presented to a digital signal processor
for processing.

• It is not convenient, however, to represent a digital signal using

these codes.

• Instead, it is more helpful to represent it using the quantization

levels for each sample.

• A digital signal x is given the notation x[n] to indicate that it has

values only where samples are taken.

• The integer n marks the number of the sample, taken at the time t
= nTS, where TS is the sampling interval.
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 Notation for Digital Signals
• A digital signal x[n] may be modified by time shifts and
resampling.

For Example
• Signal x[n-2], shifts x[n] two steps to the right
• Signal x[n+3], shifts x[n] three steps to the left
• Signal x[2n], selects every other sample from x[n]
• Signal x[3n], selects every third sample
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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]

Signal x[n-1] is found by shifting

the sample values of signal x[n] by
1 steps towards right.

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]

Signal x[n-2] is found by shifting

the sample values of signal x[n] by
2 steps towards right.

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]
e) x[2n]

Signal x[2n] selects alternate

sample from the signal x[n].

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 Notation for Digital Signals
Example: Find the Following:

a) x[0] = 0.25
b) x[5] = 0.5
c) x[n-1]
d) x[n-2]
e) x[2n]
f) x[3n]

Signal x[3n] selects every third

sample from the signal x[n].

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 Composite Functions
• They are the combinations of basic functions.

• This give flexibility in defining digital signals.

• To evaluate a composite function, each basic function (such as

unit impulse, unit step, power etc) is constructed first, then the
basic signals are multiplied, added or subtracted, as required.

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 Composite Functions
Example: Draw a signal x[n] = u[n]u[3-n]

The signal can also be expressed as a

sum of Impulse functions.

𝒙 𝒏 = 𝜹 𝒏 + 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝜹 𝒏 − 𝟐 + 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝟑]

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 Composite Functions
Example: Draw a signal x[n] = e-2nu[n]
• First draw two basic signals (e-2n, u[n]) and then multiply as shown in the figure.
• The u[n] has the effect of turning on the other function at n = 0.
• The u[n] is zero for n < 0, so x[n] is also for n < 0.
• The u[n] has a value of 1 for n ≥ 0, so x[n] is the same as e-2n for n ≥ 0.

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 Linear System

• A linear system is illustrated in the figure.

• The linear system obeys the superposition principle.
• 𝑦1(𝑛) is the system output using an input 𝑥1(𝑛)
• 𝑦2(𝑛) the system output with an input 𝑥2(𝑛)

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 Linear System

• The Linear system output due to the weighted sum inputs

∝𝑥1(𝑛) + 𝛽𝑥2(𝑛) is equal to the same weighted sum of the
individual outputs obtained from their corresponding inputs,
that is, 𝑦(𝑛) = ∝𝑦1(𝑛) + 𝛽𝑦2(𝑛), where ∝ and 𝛽 are constants.

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 Linear System

Example: A digital amplifier is represented by 𝑦(𝑛) = 10𝑥(𝑛), the

input is multiplied by 10 to generate the output.

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Linear System

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Linear System
H.W.

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