Summary

A nuclear reaction occurs when two nuclei collide and two or made in confining the collection of charged ions known as
more other nuclei (or particles) are produced. In this process, a plasma. The two main methods are magnetic confinement,
as in radioactivity, transmutation (change) of elements occurs. using a magnetic field in a device such as the donut-shaped
The reaction energy or Q-value of a reaction tokamak, and inertial confinement in which intense laser beams
a + X S Y + b is compress a fuel pellet of deuterium and tritium.
Q = AMa + MX - Mb - MY B c2 (31;2a) Radiation can cause damage to materials, including biolog-
= keb + keY - kea - keX . (31;2b) ical tissue. Quantifying amounts of radiation is the subject of
dosimetry. The curie (Ci) and the becquerel (Bq) are units
In fission, a heavy nucleus such as uranium splits into two
that measure the source activity or rate of decay of a sample:
intermediate-sized nuclei after being struck by a neutron. 235
92 U is
1 Ci = 3.70 * 1010 decays per second, whereas 1 Bq = 1 decay!s.
fissionable by slow neutrons, whereas some fissionable nuclei
The absorbed dose, often specified in rads, measures the amount
require fast neutrons. Much energy is released in fission
of energy deposited per unit mass of absorbing material: 1 rad
( L 200 MeV per fission) because the binding energy per
is the amount of radiation that deposits energy at the rate of
nucleon is lower for heavy nuclei than it is for intermediate-
10 –2 J!kg of material. The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray:
sized nuclei, so the mass of a heavy nucleus is greater than the
1 Gy = 1 J!kg = 100 rad. The effective dose is often specified
total mass of its fission products. The fission process releases
by the rem = rad * RBE, where RBE is the “relative bio-
neutrons, so that a chain reaction is possible. The critical mass
logical effectiveness” of a given type of radiation; 1 rem of any
is the minimum mass of fuel needed so that enough emitted
type of radiation does approximately the same amount of
neutrons go on to produce more fissions and sustain a chain
biological damage. The average dose received per person per
reaction. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, a moderator
year in the United States is about 360 mrem. The SI unit for
is used to slow down the released neutrons.
effective dose is the sievert: 1 Sv = 100 rem.
The fusion process, in which small nuclei combine to form
[*Nuclear radiation is used in medicine for cancer therapy,
larger ones, also releases energy. The energy from our Sun origi-
and for imaging of biological structure and processes.
nates in the fusion reactions known as the proton;proton chain
Tomographic imaging of the human body, which can provide
in which four protons fuse to form a 42He nucleus producing
3-dimensional detail, includes several types: PET, SPET
25 MeV of energy. A useful fusion reactor for power generation
(= SPECT), MRI, and CT scans (discussed in Chapter 25).
has not yet proved possible because of the difficulty in containing
MRI makes use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).]
the fuel (e.g., deuterium) long enough at the extremely high
temperature required (L 108K). Nonetheless, progress has been

Questions
1. Fill in the missing particles or nuclei: 11. Why must the fission process release neutrons if it is to be
(a) n + 232 90 Th S ? + ;
g useful?
(b) n + 137 137
56 Ba S 55 Cs + ?; 12. Why are neutrons released in a fission reaction?
(c) d + 21H S 42He + ?; 13. What is the reason for the “secondary system” in a nuclear
(d) a + 197 79 Au S ? + d reactor, Fig. 31–8? That is, why is the water heated by the
where d stands for deuterium. fuel in a nuclear reactor not used directly to drive the
2. When 22 2 turbines?
11Na is bombarded by deuterons A 1HB, an a particle
is emitted. What is the resulting nuclide? Write down the 14. What is the basic difference between fission and fusion?
reaction equation. 15. Discuss the relative merits and disadvantages, including
3. Why are neutrons such good projectiles for producing pollution and safety, of power generation by fossil fuels,
nuclear reactions? nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion.
4. What is the Q-value for radioactive decay reactions? 16. Why do gamma particles penetrate matter more easily
(a) Q 6 0. (b) Q 7 0. (c) Q = 0. than beta particles do?
(d) The sign of Q depends on the nucleus. 17. Light energy emitted by the Sun and stars comes from the
5. The energy from nuclear fission appears in the form of fusion process. What conditions in the interior of stars
thermal energy—but the thermal energy of what? make this possible?
6. (a) If 235
92 U released only 1.5 neutrons per fission on average 18. How do stars, and our Sun, maintain confinement of the
(instead of 2.5), would a chain reaction be possible? (b) If plasma for fusion?
so, how would the chain reaction be different than if 19. People who work around metals that emit alpha particles
3 neutrons were released per fission? are trained that there is little danger from proximity or
7. Why can’t uranium be enriched by chemical means? touching the material, but they must take extreme precau-
8. How can a neutron, with practically no kinetic energy, tions against ingesting it. Why? (Eating and drinking while
excite a nucleus to the extent shown in Fig. 31–3? working are forbidden.)
9. Why would a porous block of uranium be more likely to 20. What is the difference between absorbed dose and effective
explode if kept under water rather than in air? dose? What are the SI units for each?
10. A reactor that uses highly enriched uranium can use ordi- 21. Radiation is sometimes used to sterilize medical supplies
nary water (instead of heavy water) as a moderator and and even food. Explain how it works.
still have a self-sustaining chain reaction. Explain. *22. How might radioactive tracers be used to find a leak in a pipe?

Questions 909
 MisConceptual Questions
1. In a nuclear reaction, which of the following is not 8. If two hydrogen nuclei, 21H, each of mass mH , fuse together
conserved? and form a helium nucleus of mass mHe ,
(a) Energy. (a) mHe 6 2mH .
(b) Momentum. (b) mHe = 2mH .
(c) Electric charge. (c) mHe 7 2mH .
(d) Nucleon number. (d) All of the above are possible.
(e) None of the above.
9. Which radiation induces the most biological damage for a
2. Fission fragments are typically given amount of energy deposited in tissue?
(a) b± emitters. (a) Alpha particles.
(b) b– emitters. (b) Gamma radiation.
(c) Both. (c) Beta radiation.
(d) Neither. (d) All do the same damage for the same deposited energy.

3. Which of the following properties would decrease the crit- 10. Which would produce the most energy in a single reaction?
ical mass needed to sustain a nuclear chain reaction? (a) The fission reaction associated with uranium-235.
(a) Low boiling point. (b) The fusion reaction of the Sun (two hydrogen nuclei
(b) High melting point. fused to one helium nucleus).
(c) More neutrons released per fission. (c) Both (a) and (b) are about the same.
(d) Low nuclear density. (d) Need more information.
(e) Filled valence shell. 11. The fuel necessary for fusion-produced energy could be
(f ) All of the above. derived from
4. Rather than having a maximum at about A L 60, as shown (a) water.
in Fig. 31–12, suppose the average binding energy per nucleon (b) superconductors.
continually increased with increasing mass number. Then, (c) uranium.
(a) fission would still be possible, but not fusion. (d) helium.
(b) fusion would still be possible, but not fission. (e) sunlight.
(c) both fission and fusion would still be possible. 12. Which of the following is true?
(d) neither fission nor fusion would be possible. (a) Any amount of radiation is harmful to living tissue.
5. Why is a moderator needed in a normal uranium fission (b) Radiation is a natural part of the environment.
reactor? (c) All forms of radiation will penetrate deep into living
(a) To increase the rate of neutron capture by tissue.
uranium-235. (d) None of the above is true.
(b) To increase the rate of neutron capture by 13. Which of the following would reduce the cell damage due
uranium-238. to radiation for a lab technician who works with radioactive
(c) To increase the rate of production of plutonium-239. isotopes in a hospital or lab?
(d) To increase the critical mass of the fission fuel. (a) Increase the worker’s distance from the radiation source.
(e) To provide more neutrons for the reaction. (b) Decrease the time the worker is exposed to the radiation.
(f ) All of the above. (c) Use shielding to reduce the amount of radiation that
strikes the worker.
6. What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear
(d) Have the worker wear a radiation badge when working
fusion?
with the radioactive isotopes.
(a) Nuclear fission is used for bombs; nuclear fusion is
(e) All of the above.
used in power plants.
(b) There is no difference. Fission and fusion are different 14. If the same dose of each type of radiation was provided over
names for the same physical phenomenon. the same amount of time, which type would be most harmful?
(c) Nuclear fission refers to using deuterium to create a (a) X-rays.
nuclear reaction. (b) g rays.
(d) Nuclear fusion occurs spontaneously, as happens to (c) b rays.
the C 14 used in carbon dating. (d) a particles.
(e) In nuclear fission, a nucleus splits; in nuclear fusion, 235
nucleons or nuclei and nucleons join to form a new 15. 92 U releases an average of 2.5 neutrons per fission com-

nucleus. pared to 2.9 for 239

94 Pu. Which has the smaller critical mass?
(a) 235
92 U.
7. A primary difficulty in energy production by fusion is (b) 239
94Pu.
(a) the scarcity of necessary fuel. (c) Both the same.
(b) the disposal of radioactive by-products produced.
(c) the high temperatures necessary to overcome the
electrical repulsion of protons.
(d) the fact that it is possible in volcanic regions only.

910 CHAPTER 31
For assigned homework and other learning materials, go to the MasteringPhysics website.

Problems
(NOTE: Masses are found in Appendix B.) 17. (I) Calculate the energy released in the fission reaction
n + 235 88 136
92 U S 38Sr + 54 Xe + 12n. Use Appendix B, and
31–1 Nuclear Reactions, Transmutation
assume the initial kinetic energy of the neutron is very small.
1. (I) Natural aluminum is all 27
13Al. If it absorbs a neutron,
what does it become? Does it decay by b± or b–? What will 18. (I) How many fissions take place per second in a 240-MW
be the product nucleus? reactor? Assume 200 MeV is released per fission.
2. (I) Determine whether the reaction 21H + 21H S 32He + n 19. (I) The energy produced by a fission reactor is about
requires a threshold energy, and why. 200 MeV per fission. What fraction of the mass of a 235
92 U
3. (I) Is the reaction n + 238 239
92 U S 92 U +
g possible with nucleus is this?
slow neutrons? Explain.
20. (II) Suppose that the average electric power consumption,
4. (II) (a) Complete the following nuclear reaction, day and night, in a typical house is 960 W. What initial
p + ? S 32
16S + . (b) What is the Q-value?
g
mass of 235
92 U would have to undergo fission to supply the
5. (II) The reaction p + 188 O S 189 F + n requires an input electrical needs of such a house for a year? (Assume
of energy equal to 2.438 MeV. What is the mass of 189 F? 200 MeV is released per fission, as well as 100% efficiency.)
6. (II) (a) Can the reaction n + 24 23
12Mg S 11Na + d occur if 21. (II) Consider the fission reaction
the bombarding particles have 18.00 MeV of kinetic
energy? (d stands for deuterium, 21H.) (b) If so, how much 235
92 U + n S 133
51 Sb + 98
41Nb + ?n.
energy is released? If not, what kinetic energy is needed?
(a) How many neutrons are produced in this reaction?
7. (II) (a) Can the reaction p + 73Li S 42He + a occur if the
(b) Calculate the energy release. The atomic masses for
incident proton has kinetic energy = 3100 keV? (b) If so,
Sb and Nb isotopes are 132.915250 u and 97.910328 u,
what is the total kinetic energy of the products? If not,
respectively.
what kinetic energy is needed?
8. (II) In the reaction a + 147 N S 178 O + p, the incident 22. (II) How much mass of 235
92 U is required to produce the
a particles have 9.85 MeV of kinetic energy. The mass of same amount of energy as burning 1.0 kg of coal (about
17
8 O is 16.999132 u. (a) Can this reaction occur? (b) If so,
3 * 107 J)?
what is the total kinetic energy of the products? If not,
23. (II) What initial mass of 235
92 U is required to operate a
what kinetic energy is needed?
950-MW reactor for 1 yr? Assume 34% efficiency.
9. (II) Calculate the Q-value for the “capture” reaction
a + 168 O S 20
10Ne + .
g 24. (II) If a 1.0-MeV neutron emitted in a fission reaction
loses one-half of its kinetic energy in each collision with
10. (II) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the products of the
moderator nuclei, how many collisions must it make to
reaction d + 136 C S 147 N + n if the incoming deuteron
reach thermal energy A 32 kT = 0.040 eVB?
has kinetic energy ke = 41.4 MeV.
11. (II) Radioactive 146 C is produced in the atmosphere when a 25. (II) Assuming a fission of 23692 U into two roughly equal
neutron is absorbed by 147 N. Write the reaction and find its fragments, estimate the electric potential energy just as
Q-value. the fragments separate from each other. Assume that the
12. (II) An example of a stripping nuclear reaction is fragments are spherical (see Eq. 30–1) and compare your
d + 63Li S X + p. (a) What is X, the resulting nucleus? calculation to the nuclear fission energy released, about
(b) Why is it called a “stripping” reaction? (c) What is the 200 MeV.
Q-value of this reaction? Is the reaction endothermic or 26. (III) Suppose that the neutron multiplication factor is
exothermic? 1.0004. If the average time between successive fissions in a
13. (II) An example of a pick-up nuclear reaction is chain of reactions is 1.0 ms, by what factor will the reaction
3 12
2He + 6 C S X + a. (a) Why is it called a “pick-up” rate increase in 1.0 s?
reaction? (b) What is the resulting nucleus? (c) What is the
Q-value of this reaction? Is the reaction endothermic or
exothermic? 31–3 Nuclear Fusion
14. (II) Does the reaction p + 73Li S 42He + a require energy, 27. (I) What is the average kinetic energy of protons at the
or does it release energy? How much energy? center of a star where the temperature is 2 * 107 K?
15. (II) Calculate the energy released (or energy input [Hint: See Eq. 13–8.]
required) for the reaction a + 94Be S 126 C + n.
28. (II) Show that the energy released in the fusion reaction
2 3 4
31–2 Nuclear Fission 1H + 1H S 2He + n is 17.59 MeV.

16. (I) What is the energy released in the fission reaction of 29. (II) Show that the energy released when two deuterium
Eq. 31–4? (The masses of 141 92
56 Ba and 36Kr are 140.914411 u nuclei fuse to form 32He with the release of a neutron is
and 91.926156 u, respectively.) 3.27 MeV (Eq. 31–8b).

Problems 911
30. (II) Verify the Q-value stated for each of the reactions of 45. (II) About 35 eV is required to produce one ion pair in air.
Eqs. 31–6. [Hint: Use Appendix B; be careful with electrons Show that this is consistent with the two definitions of the
(included in mass values except for p, d, t).] roentgen given in the text.
31. (II) (a) Calculate the energy release per gram of fuel for the 46. (II) A 1.6-mCi source of 32
15P (in NaHPO4), a b emitter, is
reactions of Eqs. 31–8a, b, and c. (b) Calculate the energy implanted in a tumor where it is to administer 32 Gy. The
release per gram of uranium 235 92 U in fission, and give its half-life of 32
15P is 14.3 days, and 1.0 mCi delivers about
ratio to each reaction in (a). 10 mGy!min. Approximately how long should the source
remain implanted?
32. (II) How much energy is released when 23892 U absorbs a
slow neutron (kinetic energy L 0) and becomes 239
92 U? 47. (II) What is the mass of a 2.50-mCi 146 C source?
33. (II) If a typical house requires 960 W of electric power on 48. (II) 57
27Co emits 122-keV
g rays. If a 65-kg person swallowed
average, what minimum amount of deuterium fuel would 57
1.55 mCi of 27Co, what would be the dose rate (Gy!day)
have to be used in a year to supply these electrical needs? averaged over the whole body? Assume that 50% of the
Assume the reaction of Eq. 31–8b. g-ray energy is deposited in the body. [Hint: Determine
34. (II) If 63Li is struck by a slow neutron, it can form 42He and the rate of energy deposited in the body and use the defi-
another nucleus. (a) What is the second nucleus? (This is a nition of the gray.]
method of generating this isotope.) (b) How much energy 49. (II) Ionizing radiation can be used on meat products to
is released in the process? reduce the levels of microbial pathogens. Refrigerated
35. (II) Suppose a fusion reactor ran on “d–d” reactions, meat is limited to 4.5 kGy. If 1.6-MeV electrons irradiate
Eqs. 31–8a and b in equal amounts. Estimate how much 5 kg of beef, how many electrons would it take to reach the
natural water, for fuel, would be needed per hour to run a allowable limit?
1150-MW reactor, assuming 33% efficiency. 50. (III) Huge amounts of radioactive 131
53 I were released in the
36. (III) Show that the energies carried off by the 4 accident at Chernobyl in 1986. Chemically, iodine goes to
nucleus
2He
and the neutron for the reaction of Eq. 31–8c are about the human thyroid. (It can be used for diagnosis and
3.5 MeV and 14 MeV, respectively. Are these fixed values, treatment of thyroid problems.) In a normal thyroid,
131
independent of the plasma temperature? 53 I absorption can cause damage to the thyroid. (a) Write
down the reaction for the decay of 13153 I. (b) Its half-life is
37. (III) How much energy (J) is contained in 1.00 kg of water 8.0 d; how long would it take for ingested 131 53 I to become
if its natural deuterium is used in the fusion reaction of 5.0% of the initial value? (c) Absorbing 1 mCi of 131 53 I can
Eq. 31–8a? Compare to the energy obtained from the burn- be harmful; what mass of iodine is this?
ing of 1.0 kg of gasoline, about 5 * 107 J.
51. (III) Assume a liter of milk typically has an activity of
38. (III) (a) Give the ratio of the energy needed for the first 2000 pCi due to 40
19K. If a person drinks two glasses (0.5 L)
reaction of the carbon cycle to the energy needed for a per day, estimate the total effective dose (in Sv and in rem)
deuterium–tritium reaction (Example 31–9). (b) If a received in a year. As a crude model, assume the milk
deuterium–tritium reaction actually requires a temperature stays in the stomach 12 hr and is then released. Assume
T L 3 * 108 K, estimate the temperature needed for the also that roughly 10% of the 1.5 MeV released per decay is
first carbon-cycle reaction. absorbed by the body. Compare your result to the normal
allowed dose of 100 mrem per year. Make your estimate
31–5 Dosimetry for (a) a 60-kg adult, and (b) a 6-kg baby.
39. (I) 350 rads of a-particle radiation is equivalent to how 52. (III) Radon gas, 222
86 Rn, is considered a serious health hazard
many rads of X-rays in terms of biological damage? (see discussion in text). It decays by a-emission. (a) What is
40. (I) A dose of 4.0 Sv of g rays in a short period would be the daughter nucleus? (b) Is the daughter nucleus stable or
lethal to about half the people subjected to it. How many radioactive? If the latter, how does it decay, and what is its
grays is this? half-life? (See Fig. 30–11.) (c) Is the daughter nucleus also
a noble gas, or is it chemically reactive? (d) Suppose 1.4 ng
41. (I) How many rads of slow neutrons will do as much bio- of 222
86 Rn seeps into a basement. What will be its activity?
logical damage as 72 rads of fast neutrons? If the basement is then sealed, what will be the activity
42. (II) How much energy is deposited in the body of a 65-kg 1 month later?
adult exposed to a 2.5-Gy dose?
31–9 NMR
43. (II) A cancer patient is undergoing radiation therapy in
which protons with an energy of 1.2 MeV are incident on a 53. (II) Calculate the wavelength of photons needed to pro-
0.20-kg tumor. (a) If the patient receives an effective dose duce NMR transitions in free protons in a 1.000-T field. In
of 1.0 rem, what is the absorbed dose? (b) How many what region of the spectrum is this wavelength?
protons are absorbed by the tumor? Assume RBE L 1.
44. (II) A 0.035-mCi sample of 3215P is injected into an animal
for tracer studies. If a Geiger counter intercepts 35% of
the emitted b particles, what will be the counting rate,
assumed 85% efficient?

912 CHAPTER 31 Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation

 General Problems
54. Consider a system of nuclear power plants that produce 64. Estimate how many solar neutrinos pass through a 180-m2
2100 MW. (a) What total mass of 235 92 U fuel would be ceiling of a room, at latitude 44°, for an hour around
required to operate these plants for 1 yr, assuming that midnight on midsummer night. [Hint: See Problems 62
200 MeV is released per fission? (b) Typically 6% of the and 63.]
235 90 –
92 U nuclei that fission produce strontium–90, 38Sr, a b emit-
ter with a half-life of 29 yr. What is the total radioactivity 65. Estimate how much total energy would be released via
of the 90 fission if 2.0 kg of uranium were enriched to 5% of the
38Sr, in curies, produced in 1 yr? (Neglect the fact
that some of it decays during the 1-yr period.) isotope 235
92 U.

55. J. Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding 94Be 66. Some stars, in a later stage of evolution, may begin to fuse
with the popular projectile of the day, alpha particles. two 126 C nuclei into one 24
12Mg nucleus. (a) How much energy
(a) If one of the reaction products was the then unknown would be released in such a reaction? (b) What kinetic energy
neutron, what was the other product? (b) What is the must two carbon nuclei each have when far apart, if they can
Q-value of this reaction? then approach each other to within 6.0 fm, center-to-center?
56. Fusion temperatures are often given in keV. Determine (c) Approximately what temperature would this require?
the conversion factor from kelvins to keV using, as is com- 67. An average adult body contains about 0.10 mCi of 40 19K,
mon in this field, G = kT without the factor 32 . which comes from food. (a) How many decays occur per
57. One means of enriching uranium is by diffusion of the gas second? (b) The potassium decay produces beta particles
UF6 . Calculate the ratio of the speeds of molecules of this with energies of around 1.4 MeV. Estimate the dose per
gas containing 235 238
92 U and 92 U, on which this process depends. year in sieverts for a 65-kg adult. Is this a significant frac-
58. (a) What mass of 235 tion of the 3.6-mSv!yr background rate?
92 U was actually fissioned in the first
atomic bomb, whose energy was the equivalent of about 68. When the nuclear reactor accident occurred at Chernobyl
20 kilotons of TNT (1 kiloton of TNT releases 5 * 1012 J)? in 1986, 2.0 * 107 Ci were released into the atmosphere.
(b) What was the actual mass transformed to energy? Assuming that this radiation was distributed uniformly
59. The average yearly background radiation in a certain town over the surface of the Earth, what was the activity per
consists of 32 mrad of X-rays and g rays plus 3.4 mrad of square meter? (The actual activity was not uniform; even
particles having a RBE of 10. How many rem will a person within Europe wet areas received more radioactivity from
receive per year on average? rainfall.)
60. A shielded g-ray source yields a dose rate of 0.048 rad!h at 69. A star with a large helium abundance can burn helium in
a distance of 1.0 m for an average-sized person. If workers the reaction 42He + 42He + 42He S 126 C. What is the
are allowed a maximum dose of 5.0 rem in 1 year, how Q-value for this reaction?
close to the source may they operate, assuming a 35-h
work week? Assume that the intensity of radiation falls off 70. A 1.2-mCi 137
55 Cs source is used for 1.4 hours by a 62-kg
as the square of the distance. (It actually falls off more worker. Radioactive 137 –
55 Cs decays by b decay with a half-
rapidly than 1!r2 because of absorption in the air, so your life of 30 yr. The average energy of the emitted betas is
answer will give a better-than-permissible value.) about 190 keV per decay. The b decay is quickly followed
61. Radon gas, 222 by a g with an energy of 660 keV. Assuming the person
86 Rn, is formed by a decay. (a) Write the
decay equation. (b) Ignoring the kinetic energy of the absorbs all emitted energy, what effective dose (in rem) is
daughter nucleus (it’s so massive), estimate the kinetic received?
energy of the a particle produced. (c) Estimate the 71. Suppose a future fusion reactor would be able to put out
momentum of the alpha and of the daughter nucleus. 1000 MW of electrical power continuously. Assume the
(d) Estimate the kinetic energy of the daughter, and show reactor will produce energy solely through the reaction
that your approximation in (b) was valid. given in Eq. 31–8a and will convert this energy to electrical
62. In the net reaction, Eq. 31–7, for the proton–proton chain in energy with an efficiency of 33%. Estimate the minimum
the Sun, the neutrinos escape from the Sun with energy of amount of deuterium needed to run this facility per year.
about 0.5 MeV. The remaining energy, 26.2 MeV, is available
to heat the Sun. Use this value to calculate the “heat of 72. If a 65-kg power plant worker has been exposed to the maxi-
combustion” per kilogram of hydrogen fuel and compare it mum slow-neutron radiation for a given year, how much
to the heat of combustion of coal, about 3 * 107 J!kg. total energy (in J) has that worker absorbed? What if he
were exposed to fast protons?
63. Energy reaches Earth from the Sun at a rate of about
1300 W!m2. Calculate (a) the total power output of the 73. Consider the fission reaction
Sun, and (b) the number of protons consumed per second in 235 92
n+ 92U S 38Sr + X + 3n.
the reaction of Eq. 31–7, assuming that this is the source of
all the Sun’s energy. (c) Assuming that the Sun’s mass of (a) What is X? (b) If this were part of a chain reaction in a
2.0 * 1030 kg was originally all protons and that all could be fission power reactor running at “barely critical,” what
involved in nuclear reactions in the Sun’s core, how long would happen on average to the three produced neutrons?
would you expect the Sun to “glow” at its present rate? See (c) (optional) What is the Q-value of this reaction? [Hint: Mass
Problem 62. [Hint: Use 1!r2 law.] values can be found at www.nist.gov/pml/data/comp.cfm.]

General Problems 913

74. A large amount of 90
38Sr was released during the Chernobyl 76. A 55-kg patient is to be given a medical test involving the
nuclear reactor accident in 1986. The 90
38Sr enters the body ingestion of 99m
43 Tc (Section 31–7) which decays by emitting
through the food chain. How long will it take for 85% of a 140-keV gamma. The half-life for this decay is 6 hours.
the 90
38Sr released during the accident to decay? See Assuming that about half the gamma photons exit the body
Appendix B. without interacting with anything, what must be the initial
activity of the Tc sample if the whole-body dose cannot
75. Three radioactive sources have the same activity, 35 mCi. exceed 50 mrem? Make the rough approximation that
Source A emits 1.0-MeV g rays, source B emits 2.0-MeV biological elimination of Tc can be ignored.
g rays, and source C emits 2.0-MeV alphas. What is the
relative danger of these sources?

Search and Learn

1. Referring to Section 31–2, (a) state three problems that 4. The energy output of massive stars is believed to be due to
must be overcome to make a functioning fission nuclear the carbon cycle (see text). (a) Show that no carbon is
reactor; (b) state three environmental problems or dangers consumed in this cycle and that the net effect is the same as
that do or could result from the operation of a nuclear for the proton–proton chain. (b) What is the total energy
fission reactor; (c) describe an additional problem or danger release? (c) Determine the energy output for each reaction
associated with a breeder reactor. and decay. (d) Why might the carbon cycle require a higher
temperature AL 2 * 107 KB than the proton–proton chain
AL 1.5 * 107 KB?
2. Referring to Section 31–3, (a) why can small nuclei com-
bine to form larger ones, releasing energy in the process? 5. Consider the effort by humans to harness nuclear fusion as
(b) Why does the first reaction in the proton–proton chain a viable energy source. (a) What are some advantages of
limit the rate at which the Sun produces energy? (c) What using nuclear fusion rather than nuclear fission? (b) What
are the heaviest elements for which energy is released if is the major technological problem with using controlled
the elements are created by fusion of lighter elements? nuclear fusion as a source of energy? (c) Discuss two
(d) What keeps the Sun and stars together, allowing them different approaches to solving this problem. (d) What
to sustain fusion? (e) What two methods are currently fuel is necessary in a nuclear fusion reaction? (e) Write a
being investigated to contain high-temperature plasmas on nuclear reaction using two nuclei of the fuel in part (d) to
the Earth to create fusion in the laboratory? create a third nucleus. (f) Calculate the Q-value of the
reaction in part (e).
3. Deuterium makes up 0.0115% of natural hydrogen on 6. (a) Explain how each of the following can cause damage to
average. Make a rough estimate of the total deuterium in materials: beta particles, alpha particles, energetic neutrons,
the Earth’s oceans and estimate the total energy released and gamma rays. (b) How might metals be damaged?
if all of it were used in fusion reactors. (c) How can the damage affect living cells?

A N S W E R S TO E X E R C I S E S
A: 138
56 Ba. D: (e).
B: 3 neutrons. E: (b).
C: 2 * 1017.

914 CHAPTER 31 Nuclear Energy; Effects and Uses of Radiation