Computer Science and Information Technology

By:
Eng . Omar Murajia Ali

2022
 Teaching Plan

FACULTY OF MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF TOBRUK
Semester 2 (level I), (2022/2023)

Academic Session &

Course Code / Name Computer Science and Information Technology 2022/2023 Semester 2
Semester

Lecturer(s) Eng. Omar Murajia Ali No. of students 115

1. COURSE MAPPING – CO - PO

Table 1: CO – PO Mapping

Programme
Course Outcome (PO)
Outcome, CO

CO1: Introduction to Computer System

PO1

CO2: Computer Software

PO2
CO3: Operating System
PO3
CO4: Database Management System
PO4

CO5: Data Communication and Computer

PO5

CO6: Internet and WWW

PO6
CO7: Contemporary Technologies
PO7

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 Teaching Plan

2. IMPLEMENTATION

Table 2: Tentative Implementation

Activities Week Tentative Date

Lap 2 17/11/2021

Design Project 1 3 24/11/2022

Partial Exam 5 15/12/2022

Design Project 2 8 31/12/2022

Final Exam - -

3. PROGRAMS

Microsoft Word

Microsoft PowerPoint

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction to Computer System 5

Computer Software 39

Operating System 48

Database Management System 57

Data Communication and Computer 72

Internet and WWW 98

Contemporary Technologies 102

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 1. Introduction to Computer System

Introduction

Computer is derived from the Latin word ‘Computare’ which means ‘calculate’.

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory,
that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules (process), produce results
(output), and store the results (storage) for future use.

Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can include
text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information conveys meaning and is useful to people. During the
output operation, the information that has been created is put into some form, such as a printed report,
or it can be stored on the computer for future use.

Fig: A computer processes data into information. In this simplified example, the item ordered, item price,
quantity ordered, and amount received all represent data. The computer processes the data to produce
the cash register receipt (information).

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 Characteristics of Computer

Word length, speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, reliability, automation and storage capability are
some of the key characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are:

Word length:

A digital computer operates on binary digits – 0 and 1. It can understand information only in binary digits
(bits). The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called word length.
Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. Word length is the measure of the computing power
of a computer. Longer the word length, more powerful the computer is.

Speed:

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The
time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy:

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or
inaccuracy.

Diligence:

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It
doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human
beings.

Versatility:

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy
and efficiency.

Reliability:

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input
any number of times, we will get the same result.

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 Automation:

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.

Storage Capability:

Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also retrieved whenever
required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage
devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.

Generations of Computer

There are five generations of computer:

Classification of Computer

Types of Computers Based on Signal Processing

1. Analog Computer:

Analog computer is that computer, which is use to process continuously varying data. Everything we see
and hear is change continuously. This changeable continuous stream of data is called analog data. Analog
computer can be used in scientific and industrial applications such as measure the electrical current,
frequency and resistance of capacitor, etc.

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 2. Digital Computer:

These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process data by way of
mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They accept input and produce output as discrete
signals representing high (on) or low (off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers, alphabets, symbols are all
represented as a series of 1s and 0s.

3. Hybrid Computer:

- A hybrid computer is a combination of digital and analog computers, and it combines the best features
of both types of computers.

- For example, a petrol pump contains a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into quantity
and price.

- Hybrid computer is used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient.

- Hybrid computers are also used in scientific applications or in controlling industrial processes.

- The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp 250, released by Packard Bell in 1961.

Types of Computers Based on Speed and Size

Computer on the basis of Size can be classified into 4 major types:

1. Super Computer

- Super computers are the fastest, most-powerful and most expensive computers.

- It has the ability to recover automatically from failures.

- It has the ability to support several Giga Bytes of RAM.

- Unlike conventional computers, which have a single processor to process one instruction at a time,
supercomputers have multiple processors (or CPUs) that process multiple instructions at a time.

- Supercomputers are widely used in scientific applications such as aerodynamic design and simulation,
processing of geological data.

- One of the most powerful supercomputers today is “The Cray-2” and some others are CRAY 1, CRAY-MP,
SX-2, HITAC S-300, etc.

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 2. Mainframe Computer

- A mainframe computer is usually slower, less power and less expensive than supercomputers.

- Very large in size with approximately 1000 square ft. area.

- Mainframe process several million instructions per second (MIPS). More than 1000 remote workstations
can be accommodated by a typical mainframe computer.

- Mainframes are used by banks and many more business to update inventory, etc.

- Many modern mainframe have multiprocessing capabilities.

- E.g. IBM 4300 series, IBM 308X series, HP 9000 etc.

3. Mini Computer

- These are also a general-purpose computer, smaller than mainframe computer. Medium sized
computer, occupying approximately 10 sq ft of area.

- They have slower operating speed, smaller backup storage, limited hardware and less memory than
mainframes.

- Minicomputers are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing, database
management, statistical packages for social sciences.

- More than 50 terminals and large storage capacity device than microcomputers but smaller than
mainframe computers. E.g. Prime 9755

4. Micro Computer

- A microcomputer is the smallest, least expensive of all the computers.

- Microcomputers have smallest memory and less power.

- Microcomputers are also called personal computers.

- The most common type of microcomputer is a desktop computer, which is a non-portable personal
computer.

- E.g. Desktop, laptop, notebook computers etc.

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 Anatomy of a Digital Computer

The computer system consists of three main components:

1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and

3. Memory Unit.

The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and processing on
the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the data, the instructions and
the output information. The following figure illustrates the typical interaction among the different
components of the computer.

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 Fig: Interaction among the different components of computer

Input/Output Unit

The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts data from the user and the
Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the user. The Input unit converts the data
that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output
unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the user. The input is provided to the
computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the commonly used output
devices are monitor and printer.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer. It is responsible for processing
of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.

• CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of execution of
instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer.

Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions, addresses and
intermediate results of calculation.

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 Memory Unit

Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the
processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the computer. The
input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before processing. The instructions
required for processing of data and any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The
output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the
information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary
memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are stored permanently in the storage
unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary
memory.

Applications of Computer

Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below:

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 Education

Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance performance in
learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through internet and video-based
classes. Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their work from the starting to till the end
of their scholarly work.

Entertainment

Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can download and view
movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate
visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share
music, create music using computers, etc.

Sports

A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games (like PUBG,
chess, ludo etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training players.

Advertising

With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and
disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

Home

Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use computers to
play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and relatives via Internet, for
paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like,
washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.

Science and Engineering

Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex scientific calculations, for designing and
making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are
used for storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3–dimensional
objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space exploration, etc., are not
possible without the computers.

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 Medicine

Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports. Computation in
the field of medicine allows us to offer varied miraculous therapies to the patients. ECG’s, radiotherapy
wasn’t possible without computers.

Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made it an
integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business organizations for: Payroll
calculations, Sales analysis, Budgeting, Financial forecasting, Managing employees database and
Maintenance of stocks etc.

Military
Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other equipment in the deference
system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only through computers. Computer builds the links
between the soldiers and commanders through the satellite. Construction of weapons and controlling
their function is not possible without the aid of computers. The list of the criminals and the records of the
cops are maintained regularly in the system.

Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the facilities of:
Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

etc.

Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or any
other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link

In other words, "Mobile computing is a technology that is used to transmit data through a mobile device
to a wireless network."

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 The main concept involves: −

• Mobile communication

• Mobile hardware

• Mobile software

Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication refers to the exchange of data and voice using existing wireless networks. The
data being transferred are the applications including File Transfer (FT), the interconnection between
Wide-Area-Networks (WAN), facsimile (fax), electronic mail, access to the internet and the World Wide
Web. The wireless networks utilized in communication are IR, Bluetooth, W-LANs, Cellular, W-Packet Data
networks and satellite communication system. It is the mobile communication infrastructure which takes
care of seamless and reliable communication between mobile devices.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile Hardware is a small and portable computing device with the ability to retrieve and process data.
Smartphones, handheld and wearable devices fall under mobile hardware. These devices typically have
an Operating System (OS) embedded in them and able to run application software on top of it. These
devices are equipped with sensors, full-duplex data transmission and have the ability to operate on
wireless networks such as IR, WiFi, and Bluetooth.

Mobile Software

Mobile Software is the software program which is developed specifically to be run on mobile
hardware. This is usually the operating system in mobile devices. These operating systems provide
features such as touchscreen, cellular connectivity, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GPS mobile navigation, camera,
video camera, speech recognition, voice recorder, music player, near field communication and sensors.
The device sensors and other hardware components can be accessed via the OS.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

1. Portability - The Ability to move a device within a learning environment or to different environments
with ease.

2. Social Interactivity - The ability to share data and collaboration between users.

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 3. Context Sensitivity - The ability to gather and respond to real or simulated data unique to a current
location, environment, or time.

4. Connectivity - The ability to be digitally connected for the purpose of communication of data in any
environment.

5. Individual - The ability to use the technology to provide scaffolding on difficult activities and lesson
customization for individual learners.

6. Small Size - Mobile devices are also known as handhelds, palmtops and smart phones due to their
roughly phone-like dimensions. A typical mobile device will fit in the average adult's hand or pocket. Some
mobile devices may fold or slide from a compact, portable mode to a slightly larger size, revealing built-in
keyboards or larger screens. Mobile devices make use of touch screens and small keypads to receive input,
maintaining their small size and independence from external interface devices. The standard form of a
mobile device allows the user to operate it with one hand, holding the device in the palm or fingers while
executing its functions with the thumb.

Netbooks and small tablet computers are sometimes mistaken for true mobile devices, based on their
similarity in form and function, but if the device's size prohibits one-handed operation or hinders
portability, then it cannot be considered a true mobile device.

7. Wireless Communication - Mobile devices are typically capable of communication with other similar
devices, with stationary computers and systems, with networks and portable phones. Base mobile devices
are capable of accessing the Internet through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi networks, and many models are
equipped to access cell phone and wireless data networks as well. Email and texting are standard ways of
communicating with mobile devices, although many are also capable of telephony, and some specialized
mobile devices, such as RFID and barcode.

Computer Memory

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.

Different types of memories, each having its own unique features, are available for use in a computer.
The cache memory, registers, and RAM are fast memories and store the data and instructions temporarily
during the processing of data and instructions. The secondary memory like magnetic disks and optical
disks have large storage capacities and store the data and instructions permanently but are slow memory

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 devices. The memories are organized in the computer in a manner to achieve high levels of performance
at the minimum cost.

Memory Representation

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

The main memory storage units are:

Bit (Binary Digit): A bit is a single binary digit, i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest unit of representation of
data in a computer.

Nibble: A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte: A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data item or a
character.

Word: A group of bytes can be further combined to form a word. A word can be a group of 2, 4 or 8 bytes.

1 bit = 0 or 1

1 Byte (B) = 8 bits

1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 Bytes

1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024KB

1 Gigabyte (GB) =1024 MB

1 Terabyte (TB) =1024 GB

Types of Memory

There are mainly two types of memory:

1. Primary Memory

2. Secondary Memory

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 1. Primary Memory

Primary memory is the main memory of computer which is used to store the information (programs and
data) that the computer is currently using. Primary memory is categorized into two main types:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM), and

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

A. Random Access Memory (RAM)

• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the
machine is switched of, data is erased.

• Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is
as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed
randomly but it is very expensive.

• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch of the computer or if there is a power failure.
Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers.

• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

i) Static RAM (SRAM):

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM need not have to be
refreshed on a regular basis in order to maintain the data. SRAM is used as cache memory and has very
fast access.

SRAM uses multiple transistors (four to six), for each memory cell. It does not have a capacitor in each
cell.

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 Characteristic of the Static RAM:

• It has long life

• There is no need to refresh

• Faster

• Used as cache memory

• Large size

• Expensive

• High power consumption

ii) Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed (recharged) in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM
is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small.

It uses transistors and capacitors. The transistors are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns. The
capacitor holds the bit of information 0 and 1. The transistor and capacitor are paired to make a memory
cell. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor
or change its state.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM:

• It has short data lifetime

• Need to be refreshed continuously

• Slower as compared to SRAM

• Used as RAM

• Lesser in size

• Less expensive

• Less power consumption

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 B. Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM:

i) MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

ii) PROM (Programmable Read only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only
once by a user. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

iii) EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM can be erased by exposing it
to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.

iv) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EEPROM is programmed
and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.

v) Flash Memory: Flash Memory is a kind of semiconductor-based non-volatile, rewritable computer

memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is a specific type of EEPROM.

o It combines the features of RAM and ROM. It is a random access memory and its content can be stored
in it at any time. However, like ROM, the data is not lost when the machine is turned off or the electric
power is cut. Flash memory stores bits of data in memory cells.

o Flash memories are high-speed memories, durable, and have low-energy consumption. Since flash
memory has no moving part, it is very shock-resistant. Due to these features, flash memory is used in
devices such as digital camera, mobile phone, printer, laptop computer, and record and play back sound
devices, such as MP3 players.

2. Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Common secondary
storage devices are the hard disk and floppy disks. Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the
slowest and cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It must first be copied

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 into primary storage (also known as RAM ). Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard
drives and floppy disks; optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which were the first
forms of secondary memory.

Types of Secondary Memory:

1. Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the most popular storage medium for large data, which are sequentially accessed and
processed. The magnetic tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which is ½” or ¼” wide and 50 to 2400 feet long.
It is coated with a magnetically recording material, such as iron oxide. This type of device is still used for
large data backup because these are cheaper than other devices. Like audio or videotape, the magnetic
tape used in computer system which can also erased and reused indefinitely. Old data on a tape are
automatically erased, as new data are recorded in the same area. Tapes for computer are similar to the
tapes used to store music. Accessing data on tapes however is much slower than accessing data on disk.

Fig: Magnetic Tape

The features of magnetic tape are:

o Inexpensive storage device

o Can store a large amount of data

o Easy to carry or transport

o Not suitable for random access data

o Slow access device

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 o Needs dust prevention, as dust can harm the tape

o Suitable for back-up storage or archiving.

2. Magnetic Disk

Magnetic disk is a circular disk which is coated with magnetic material. The disk rotates with very high
speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most
popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of indivisible concentric circles
called tracks. Information recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of magnetic spots.

Fig: Track and sectors of disk

The features of magnetic disk are:

o Cheap storage device

o Can store a large amount of data

o Easy to carry or transport

o Suitable for frequently read/write data

o Fast access device

o More reliable storage device

o To be prevented from dust, as the read/write head flies over the disk. Any dust particle in between can
corrupt the disk.

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 Floppy disk, hard disk and zip disk are the different types of magnetic disks: -

a) Hard Disk:

The hard disk is direct-access storage medium with a rigid magnetic disk. The disk is divided into number
of tracks and each tracks are divided into sectors.

A hard disk uses round, flat disks called platters, coated on both sides with a special media material
designed to store information in the form of magnetic patterns. The platters are mounted by cutting a
hole in the center and stacking them onto a spindle. The platters are rotated at very high speed, driven
by a special spindle motor connected to the spindle. Each platters consists of READ/WRITE head to read
and write data. The disks are rotated at very high speed (usually around 7200RPM-revolution per minute.)

Fig: Parts of hard disk

b) Floppy Disk:

Floppy disk is a round, flat piece of flexible plastic coated with magnetic oxide. These are small removal,
media storage device. The data is recorded on thin plastic film. Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk and it is
a thin piece of flexible plastic called floppy disk, or also called floppy Diskette .They are removable disks.

A floppy disk is inserted inside the computer the floppy drive when needed. These are different sizes of
floppy disk 5.25” or 3.5” having capacity 1.2MB and 1,44MB respectively.

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 Fig: Floppy disk

c) Zip Disk:

• They are high-capacity removable disk and drive.

• They have the speed and capacity of hard disk and portability of floppy disk.

• Zip disk are of the same size as floppy disk, i.e., 3–½ inch but have a much higher capacity than the
floppy disk.

• Zip disk and drive were made by Iomega Corp. It comes as a complete unit—disk, drive, connection
cable, power cord and operating system. It can be connected to the computer system externally using a
parallel chord or SCSI cable.

• Their capacity ranges from 100 MB to 750 MB. They can be used to store large files, audio and video
data.

Fig: Zip disk

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 3. Optical Disk

An optical disk is random access storage medium. It is made up glass. Optical disks uses light technology
where laser beam is projected and reflected light is observed. As compared to magnetic tape and disk,
optical disk is relatively new secondary storage medium. An optical disk storage system consists of a
rotating disk which is coated with a thin metal or some material that is highly reflective. This type of disk
uses laser beam technology for READ/WRITE data. Due to the use of laser beam technology, optical disks
are also known as laser disk or optical laser disks. Unlike magnetic disks, which have several concentric
tracks, an optical disk has one long track, which starts at the outer edge and spirals inwards to the center.
The optical disk has no mechanical R/W arm movements.

Advantages of optical disks:

a) The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low, because of their low cost.

b) The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal storage medium for reading large blocks of
sequential data such as music.

c) Optical disks have no mechanical read/write, which makes optical disks a more reliable storage
medium than magnetic tapes or disks.

d) Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to handle, store and port from one
place to another.

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 Limitation:

-The data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks.

- Optical disk requires a more complicated drive mechanism than magnetic disks.

Types of optical disks:

a) CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The data is written onto the CDROM disk before it is
sold and cannot be changed by the user. CD-ROMs are used for applications such as distributing software,
digital videos or multimedia products.

b) CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The user can write data to
it just once. After data has been written to the disk it cannot be changed. CD-Rs are often used for making
permanent backups of data and distributing software when only a small number of copies are required.

c) CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable): CD-RW disks can be read from and written to.

DVDs

d) DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk - Read Only Memory): DVD disks are able to store much more data
than CD disks. The DVD standard includes disk capacities up to 30Gb. DVD-ROM disks can be read from
but cannot be written to.

e) DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory): DVD-RAM disks have all of the benefits
of DVD-ROM disks and can be written to as well. These very high capacity disks are ideal for producing
backups. Because of their high capacity, DVD disks are used to store high quality video such as complete
movies.

Magneto-Optical Disk

• Magneto-optical disks use laser beam to read data and magnetic field to write data to disk.

• These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written.

• They are expensive and outdated. They were used during the mid-1990s. They have now been
replaced by CD-RW and DVD-R.

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 Input and Output Devices (Introduction)

A computer interacts with the external environment via the input-output (I/O) devices attached to it.
Input device is used for providing data and instructions to the computer. After processing the input data,
computer provides output to the user via the output device. The I/O devices that are attached, externally,
to the computer machine are also called peripheral devices. Different kinds of input and output devices
are used for different kinds of input and output requirements.

Input-Output Unit

An I/O unit is a component of computer. The I/O unit is composed of two parts: input unit and output
unit. The input unit is responsible for providing input to the computer and the output unit is for receiving
output from the computer.

1. Input Unit:

The input unit gets the data and programs from various input devices and makes them available for
processing to other units of the computer. The input data is provided through input devices, such as
keyboard, mouse, trackball and joystick. Input data can also be provided by scanning images, voice
recording, video recording, etc. The transformation of the input data to computer acceptable form is done
by the input interface of input device.

2. Output Unit:

The output unit gets the processed data from the computer and sends it to output devices to make them
available to the user of computer. The output data is provided through output devices like display screen,
printer, plotter and speaker. The processed data which is in machine understandable form is converted
to human readable form by the output interface of output device.

Input Devices

The devices which allow users and other applications to input the data and the programs into
the computer , for processing are known as "Input Devices". Input device can read data and convert them
to a form that a computer can use.

27 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Input devices are classified as follows:

1. Human data entry devices

• Keyboard

• Pointing devices—mouse, trackball, joystick, digitizing tablet

• Pick devices—light pen, touch screen

2. Source data entry devices

• Audio input—speech recognition

• Video input—digital camera

• Scanner—hand-held scanner, flat-bed scanner

• Optical Scanner—OCR, OMR, MICR, barcode reader

Human Data Entry Devices

Input devices that require data to be entered manually to the computer are identified as human data
entry devices. The data may be entered by typing or keying in, or by pointing a device to a particular
location.

1. Keyboard:

It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and other characters. It
consists of a set of keys mounted on a board. Keyboard consists following types of keys:

Alphanumeric keys: Letters, and numbers

Punctation keys: comma, period, semicolon and so on.

Special keys: function keys, control keys, arrows keys cap lock key, and so on.

28 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Fig: The Keyboard

There are different types of keyboard having different number of keys, for example the original PC
keyboard has 84 keys, AT keyboard has also 84 keys, similarly the enhanced keyboard has 101 keys, other
keyboard consists up to 104 keys.

2. Mouse:

The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and select in order to perform
one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size windows, start programs etc. The
most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used most frequently.

Mouse Actions:

Left Click: Used to select an item.

Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file.

Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.

Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To achieve this
place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and while holding the button
down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and then release it.

Fig: The Mouse

29 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 3. Track Ball:

Track ball is similar to mouse except that it requires less space than mouse. When space is limited trackball
is used. The user moves the ball directly, while the device itself remains stationary. The user spins the ball
in various directions to effect the screen movements.

There are usually one to three buttons on trackball. Trackball is popular than mouse because it is
stationary so it does not require much space and we can place it into any type of surface.

Fig: The Trackball

4. Joystick:

The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is moved. It typically
has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor. Joystick is used as an input
device primarily used with video games, training simulators and controlling robots.

Fig: The Joystick

30 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 5. Digitizing tablet:

It is an input device used primarily to input drawings, sketches, etc. Digitizing tablet is used for Computer
Aided Design (CAD) for the design of buildings, automotive designs, and designing of maps, etc.

Digitizing tablet consists of two parts: electronic tablet and pen. The electronic tablet is a flat bed tablet.
The pen looks like a ball pen but has an electronic head. The pen in moved on the tablet. Each position on
the tablet corresponds to a fixed position on the screen. Drawings can be made on the tablet using a pen,
and is provided as input to computer, where, a location on the tablet corresponds to a specific location
on the screen.

Fig: The Digitizing tablet

6. Light Pen:

It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse (in its
functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object on the screen by pointing to
the object. It uses a light-sensitive detector to select objects on display screen.

It is used for making drawing, graphics and for menu selection. Figures and drawings can be made by
moving the pen on computer screen.

Fig: The Light Pen

31 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 7. Touch Screen:

It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen. Common examples
of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.

Source Data Entry Devices

Source data entry devices are used for audio input, video input and to enter the source document
directly to the computer. Source data entry devices do not require data to be typed-in, keyed-in or
pointed to a particular location.

1. Speech recognition Input Device:

The “Microphones - Speech Recognition” is a speech Input device. To operate it we require using a
microphone to talk to the computer. Also we need to add a sound card to the computer. A sound card
translates analog audio signals from microphone into digital codes that the computer can store and
process. Sound card also translates back the digital sound into analog signals that can be sent to the
speakers. A speech recognition program can process the input and convert it into machine-recognized
commands or input.

Fig: The microphone

2. Digital Camera:

A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a digital
camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera to
it. A digital camera takes pictures by converting the light passing through the lens at the front into a digital
image.

32 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Fig: The digital camera

3. Scanner:

Scanner is an input device that accepts paper document as an input. Scanner is used to input data directly
into the computer from the source document without copying and typing the data. The input data to be
scanned can be a picture, a text or a mark on a paper. It is an optical input device and uses light as an
input source to convert an image into an electronic form that can be stored on the computer. Scanner
accepts the source paper document, scans the document and translates it into a bitmap image to be
stored on the computer. The denser the bitmap, the higher is the resolution of the image. The quality of
scan increases with the increase in resolution. Scanners come with utility software that allow the stored
scanned documents to be edited, manipulated and printed.

Fig: The Scanner

33 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 4. Optical Character Recognition (OCR):

OCR is the ability of machine to recognize characters. OCR is a type of optical scanner, which can detect
alphanumeric characters printed on paper. The OCR uses special light, or optic to read text from a piece
of paper. A special font standard is needed to recognize character. The OCR system consist combination
of hardware and software to recognize characters. The advanced OCR system can read variety of fonts,
but still have difficulty to read hand written text.

The OCR devices examine each character by analyzing point of characters then when the whole character
is scanned, it is compared with standard fonts in which OCR devices are programmed to recognize the
optical characters. OCR is used for large volume processing application such as reading of passenger
tickets, processing motor vehicles registration etc.

Fig: OCR

5. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR):

OMR is used to detect marks on a paper. The marks are recognized by their darkness. OMR uses an optical
mark reader to read the marks. The OMR reader scans the forms, detects the mark that is positioned
correctly on the paper and is darker than the surrounding paper, and passes this information to the
computer for processing by application software. For this, it uses a beam of light that is reflected on the
paper with marks, to capture presence and absence of marks. The optical mark reader detects the
presence of mark by measuring the reflected light. The pattern of marks is interpreted and stored in the
computer.

34 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 OMR is widely used to read answers of objective type tests, where the student marks an answer by
darkening a particular circle using a pencil. OMR is also used to read forms, questionnaires, order forms,
etc.

Fig: OMR scanner

6. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

MICR is used in banks to process large volumes of cheques. It is used for recognizing the magnetic
encoding numbers printed at the bottom of a cheque. The numbers on the cheque are human readable,
and are printed using an ink which contains iron particles. These numbers are magnetized. MICR uses
magnetic ink character reader for character recognition. When a cheque is passed through Magnetic Ink
Character Reader, the magnetic field causes the read head to recognize the characters or numbers of
cheque. The readers are generally used in banks to process the cheques. The numbers in the bottom of
the cheque include the bank number, branch number and cheque number. The reading speed of MICR is
faster than OCR.

Fig: MICR

35 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 7. Barcode Reader:

Barcodes are adjacent vertical lines of different width that are machine readable. Goods available at
supermarkets, books, etc. use barcode for identification. Barcodes are read using reflective light by
barcode readers. This information is input to the computer which interprets the code using the spacing
and thickness of bars. Hand-held barcode readers are generally used in departmental stores to read the
labels, and in libraries to read labels on books.

Barcode readers are fast and accurate. They enable faster service to the customer and are also used to
determine the items being sold, number of each item sold or to retrieve the price of item.

Fig: The Barcode reader

Output Devices

Output devices provide output to the user, which is generated after processing the input data. The
processed data, presented to the user via the output devices could be text, graphics, audio or video. The
output could be on a paper or on a film in a tangible form, or, in an intangible form as audio, video and
electronic form.

Output devices are classified as follows:

1. Hard Copy Devices

• Printer

• Plotter

2. Soft Copy Devices

• Monitor

36 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 • Visual Display Terminal

• Video Output

• Audio Response

Hard Copy Devices

The output obtained in a tangible form on a paper, or any surface is called hard copy output. The hard
copy can be stored permanently and is portable. The hard copy output can be read or used without a
computer. The devices that generate hard copy output are called hard copy devices. Printer, plotter are
common hard copy output devices.

1. Printer:

Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the technology
used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper through a
ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical signals
to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this category of printers.

When we talk about printers, we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution, and
speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in
terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-second (cps),
lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).

2. Plotter:

Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and makes line
drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts,
maps etc. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

Plotters are of two kinds: drum plotter and flatbed plotter. In a drum plotter, pens mounted on the
carriage are stationary and move only horizontally; for vertical movement, the drum on which the paper

37 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 is fixed moves clockwise and anti-clockwise. In a flatbed plotter, the paper is fixed on a flat bed. The paper
is stationary and the pens mounted on the carriage move horizontally and vertically to draw lines.

Soft Copy Devices

The output obtained in an intangible form on a visual display, audio unit or video unit is called soft copy
output. The soft copy allows corrections to be made, can be stored, and, can be sent via E– to other users.
The soft copy output requires a computer to be read or used. The devices that generate soft copy output
are called soft copy devices. Visual output devices like computer monitor, visual display terminal, video
system and audio response system are common soft copy output devices.

1. Monitor:

Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to
display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays
the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television,
monitors are also available in different sizes.

The two basic types of monitors used are Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).The
CRT monitor look much like television and are used with non-portable computer system. On the other
hand LCD monitor are thinner and lighter are commonly used with portable computer systems like laptop
and notebook computers.

2. Video Output:

Screen image projector or data projector is an output device that displays information from the computer
onto a large white screen. The projector is mainly used to display visual output to a large gathering of
people required for the purposes of teaching, training, meetings, conference presentations, etc.

3. Audio Output:

The Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound. Two components are needed: Sound
card – Plays contents of digitized recordings, Speakers – Attached to sound card.

Audio output device like speakers, headset or headphone is used for audio output sound from computer.
The signals are sent to the speakers via the sound card that translates the digital sound back into analog
signals. The audio response from the computer may be generated by synthesizing the input human speech
to give audio output, or may be a result of a set of rules that are used to create artificial speech.

38 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 2. Computer software

Introduction

Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides
the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it.

Any set of instructions that guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task.

Firmware: Firmware are also software (program or data) that has been permanently written onto ROM.

Software may enter the computer through one of following three ways.

• It may be build into the computer circuit in the form of firmware.

• It may be loaded into the computer from a secondary storage device such as CD-ROM or hard disk
drives.

• It is also be typed into the computer with the aid of the keyboard and programming tools.

Relation between Hardware and Software

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system, and hardware refers
to all the visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. The blending of
software and hardware gives life to a computer system. Even though hardware is the physical part of a
computer, it is nothing unless it has software to control it. Hardware and software then share a special
relationship. If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary
to each other. Hardware is of no use without software and software cannot be used without hardware.

Types of Software

Based on the kind of task they perform; software can be divided into two major groups:

• System software

• Application software.

39 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 System Software

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide basic
functionality and to provide a platform for running application software.

- It also provides the interface between the user and component of the computer.

- Depending on the functionality, the system software can be further divided into two major categories:

• For system management and functionality.

• For developing software.

A. For system management and functionality

It relates to the functioning of different components of the computer like processor, input and output
devices etc. It provides support for various services, as requested by the application software. It includes
operating system, device drivers and system utilities.

40 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 1. Operating System:

It consists of programs, which controls, coordinates and supervises the activities of the various
components of a computer system. Its function is to provide link between the computer hardware and
the user.

It performs all internal management functions (disk access, memory management, task scheduling and
user interfacing) and ensures systematic functioning of a computer system. It provides an environment to
run the programs. e.g., MS-DOS, windows XP/2000/98, Unix Linux, etc.

2. Device drivers:

A software, which is written with the objective of making a device functional when it is connected to the
computer is called device driver. It is a system software that acts like an interface between the device and
the user. Every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard has a driver program
associated with it for its proper functioning.

For example, when we give a command to read data from the hard disk, the command is sent to the hard
disk driver and is translated to a form that the hard disk can understand.

3. System Utilities:

System utility software is required for the maintenance of computer. System utilities are used for
supporting and enhancing the programs and the data in computer.

Some examples of system utilities are:

-Anti-virus utility to scan computer for viruses.

-Data Compression utility to compress the files.

-Cryptographic utility to encrypt and decrypt files.

-Disk Compression utility to compress contents of a disk for increasing the capacity of a disk.

- Disk Partitioning to divide a single drive into multiple logical drives. Each drive is then treated as an
individual drive and has its own file system.

- Disk Cleaners to find files that have not been used for a long time. It helps the user to decide what to
delete when the hard disk is full.

41 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 B. System software for developing application software

It is required for the development and execution of application software. It provides services required for
the development and execution of application software. The programming language software, translator
software, loader, and linker are also categorized as system software, and are required for the application
software development.

1. Programming languages:

A Programming Language consists of a set of vocabulary and grammatical rules, to express the
computations and tasks that the computer has to perform. Programming languages are used to write a
program, which controls the behavior of computer, codify the algorithms precisely, or enables the human-
computer interface. Programming Language usually refers to high-level languages like COBOL, BASIC,
FORTRAN, C, C++, Java etc. Programming languages fall into three categories:

-Machine Language is what the computer can understand but it is difficult for the programmer to
understand.

-Assembly Language falls in between machine language and high-level language. They are similar to
machine language, but easier to program in, because they allow the programmer to substitute names for
numbers.

-High-level Language is easier to understand and use for the programmer but difficult for the computer.

2. Translator Software:

Translator software is used to convert a program written in high-level language and assembly language to
a form that the computer can understand. Translator software converts a program written in assembly
language, and high-level language to a machine-level language program. The translated program is called
the object code. There are three different kind of translator software:

· Assembler: It is a software that converts a program written in assembly languages into machine code.

· Compiler: It is a software that translates the program written in high-level languages to machine
languages.

· Interpreter: It is a software that converts the high-level language program into computer
understandable form.

42 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 3. Linker:

Linker is a program that links several object modules and libraries to a single executable program.

A source code may also include reference to libraries (header) and independent modules (functions)
which may not be stored in a single object file. The code is broken down into many independent modules
for easy debugging and maintenance. Before execution of the program, these modules and the required
libraries are linked together using the linker software. The compiled and the linked program are called the
executable code.

4. Loader:

The loader software is used to load and re-locate the executable program in the main memory. Software
must be loaded into the main memory during execution. Loader assigns storage space to the program in
the main memory for execution.

Application Software

The software that a user uses for accomplishing a specific task is the application software. Application
software may be a single program or a set of programs. A set of programs that are written for a specific
purpose and provide the required functionality is called software package.

There are two types of application software:

1. General Purpose Software:

General purpose software’s are designed to perform general tasks. Some of the general-purpose
application software are:

- Word processing software: For writing letters, reports, documents etc. E.g., MS-Word

- Spreadsheet software: Used for creating budgets, tables etc. E.g., MS-Excel

- Presentation software: To make presentations, slides show etc. E.g., MS-PowerPoint.

- Image processing software: For drawing, editing photos or images, manipulating graphics etc. E.g.,
Adobe photoshop.

etc.

43 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 2. Specific purpose software:

Specific purpose software is designed to perform specific tasks. This type of application software generally
has one purpose to execute.

Some of the specific purpose application software’s are:

-Reservation system: It is used to store and retrieve information and conduct transaction related to air
travel, hotels, car rental or other activities.

- Attendance system: It is used to track and optimize the presence of a person/ student in an organization
or school.

-Billing system: It is used to perform the billing process. It handles the tracking of ladled products and
services delivered to a customer or set of customers.

etc.

Program vs. Software

Program Software

Program is a set of instructions written in a Software is a set of Programs used to execute for
programming language used to execute for a an entire application. There are Many programs
specific task or particular function. combine together to form software. It is also used
to perform a task.

A program does not have further categorization. Software can be categorized into two categories:
application software and system software.

A program consists of a set of instructions which Software consists of bundles of programs and data
are coded in a programming language like c, C++, files. Programs in specific software use these data
PHP, Java etc. files to perform a dedicated type of tasks.

Programs do not have a user interface. Every software has a dedicated user interface.

A program is compiled every time when we need Whole software is compiled, tested and debugged
to generate some output from it. during the development process.

44 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Program has limited functionality and less Software has lots of functionality and features
features. such as GUI, input/output data, process etc.

A program takes less time to build/make. Software takes relatively more time to build/make
when compared to program.

The size of a program ranges from kilobytes (Kb) The size of a software ranges from megabytes
to megabytes (Mb). (Mb) to Gigabytes (Gb).

Program development approach is un-procedural, Software development approach is systematic,

un-organized and unplanned. organized and very well planned.

Dependent on Compiler Dependent on operating System

It has no Documentations only Comments All Documentations

E.g., add two numbers, factorial, greatest of two E.g., Application software are: Microsoft Word,
number, greatest of three number, etc. Microsoft Excel, Google Chrome, VLC media
player, Firefox, Adobe Reader etc.
System Software are: Windows, Linux, Unix, Mac
etc.

Computer Virus and Antivirus

Computer Virus

Computer Virus is a software program that is destructive in nature. Virus programs have the following
properties:

- It can attach itself to other healthy programs.

- It can replicate itself and thus can spread across a network.

- It is difficult to trace a virus after it has spread across a network.

- Viruses harm the computer in many ways

- corrupt or delete data or files on the computer,

45 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 - change the functionality of software applications,

- use e-mail program to spread itself to other computers,

- erase everything on the hard disk, or,

- degrade performance of the system by utilizing resources such as memory or disk space.

- Virus infects an executable file or program. The virus executes when a program infected with virus is
executed or you start a computer from a disk that has infected system files.

- Once a virus is active, it loads into the computer’s memory and may save itself to the hard drive or copies
itself to applications or system files on the disk.

Phases of virus:

1. Dormant phase – the virus is idle, waiting for trigger event.

2. Propagation phase – the virus places an identical copy of itself into another programs.

3. Trigging phase – the virus is activated to perform the function for which it was intended.

4. Execution phase – the desired function is performed such as massage on the screen, damaging the
programs and data files.

Types of viruses:

1. Parasitic Virus: It attaches itself to executable files and replicates when the infected program is
executed.

2. Memory-resident Virus: Lodges in the main memory and infects every program that executes.

3. Boot Sector Virus: Infects a boot record and spreads when the system is booted from the disk containing
virus.

4. Stealth Virus: A virus explicitly designed to hide itself from antivirus software.

5. Polymorphic Virus: A virus that mutates with every infection, making detection very difficult.

6. Metamorphic Virus: Mutates with every infection, rewriting itself completely at each iteration changing
behavior or appearance, increasing the difficulty of detection.

46 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Signs of Virus Infection

• Slower system performance

• Pop-ups bombarding the screen
• Programs running on their own
• Files multiplying/duplicating on their own
• New files or programs in the computer
• Files, folders or programs getting deleted or corrupted
• The sound of a hard drive

Antivirus

Antivirus is a type of program designed and developed to protect a computer from malware like computer
virus, worm, spyware, botnets, boot-kits, keylogger, etc. Antivirus function to scan, detect and remove
such viruses from the computer. Most antivirus incorporates both automated and manual filtering
abilities. Instant scanning option may check files downloaded from the internet, disks that are embedded
into PCs and files that are made by software installers.

Features of Antivirus:

1. Default deny protection

It is implemented to prevent the entry of suspicious files by default.

2. Auto sand-box technology

A virtual environment where suspicious and unknown files are secluded and run to check for any
malicious activity without interfering the normal operations.

3. Containment technology
It validates and authorizes the programs that are executable and ensure that processes are running
without affecting the regular operation of the system.

4. Host intrusion protection system (HIPS)

It terminates any malicious activity once found. This prevents malware from infecting the operating
system, registry keys, personal data or the system memory.

47 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 3. Operating System

Introduction

An operating system is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs.
The primary goal of an operating system is thus to make the computer system convenient to use.

A secondary goal is to use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

Examples of OS

Some of the commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Disk Operating System (MSDOS), Windows
7, Windows XP, Linux, UNIX, and Mac OS X Snow Leopard.

Types of Operating System

OS are classified into different types depending on their capability of processing as follows:

48 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 ▪ Single User and Single Task OS: As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. Operating system for Personal
Computers (PC) are single user OS. MSDOS is an example of single user OS.

▪ Single-user, multi-tasking: It allows execution of more than one task or process concurrently. For this,
the processor time is divided amongst different tasks. This division of time is also called time sharing.
The processor switches rapidly between processes. The user can switch between the applications and
also transfer data between them. Windows 95 and all later versions of Windows are examples of
multitasking OS.

▪ Multi-user OS: A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the
computer's resources simultaneously. Multi-user is used in computer networks that allow same data
and applications to be accessed by multiple users at the same time. The users can also communicate
with each other. Linux, UNIX, and Windows 7 are examples of multiuser OS.

▪ Multiprocessing OS: These OS have two or more processors for a single running process. Processing
takes place in parallel and is also called parallel processing. Each processor works on different parts
of the same task, or, on two or more different tasks. Since execution takes place in parallel, they are
used for high-speed execution, and to increase the power of computer. Linux, UNIX and Windows 7
are examples of multiprocessing OS.

▪ Real-time operating system (RTOS): Real Time OS are designed to respond to an event within a
predetermined time. These operating systems are used to control processes. Processing is done
within a time constraint. OS monitors the events that affect the execution of process and respond
accordingly. LynxOS is an example of real time OS. RTOS is used to control machinery, scientific
instruments and industrial systems.

▪ Embedded: Embedded OS is embedded in a device in the ROM. They are specific to a device and are
less resource intensive. They are used in appliances like microwaves, washing machines, traffic control
systems etc.

▪ Distributed: A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes
them appear to be a single computer.

49 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Functions of Operating System

Operating system is a large and complex software consisting of several components. Each component of
the operating system has its own set of defined inputs and outputs. Different components of OS perform
specific tasks to provide the overall functionality of the operating system.

Functions of operating systems are as follows:

A brief overview of functions of OS are:

1. Process Management

A process is a program in a state of execution. It is a unit of work for the operating system. A process can
be created, executed, and stopped. There are many processes can be running the same program.

The process management activities handled by the OS are

• Control access to shared resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU,

• Control execution of applications

• Create, execute and delete a process (system process or user process),

• Cancel or resume a process

• Schedule a process, and

• Synchronization, communication and deadlock handling for processes.

50 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 2. Memory Management

The task of memory management is to handle the allocation of memory to different processes and on
completion of process execution, the memory is de-allocated and made available to another process.
Additionally, different processes that have been allocated memory should not interfere into each other’s
memory space. This requires some memory protection and sharing mechanism.

Memory allocation, de-allocation, reallocation of free memory, and memory protection & sharing are the
jobs of OS and is called memory management.

3. File Management

The file management function of the operating system involves handling the file system which consists of
two parts: -a set of files, and a directory structure.

File is a collection of related information. Directory structure provides information about the files stored
on the secondary storage. Directory contains information about all the files within it.

The file management tasks include: -

• Create and delete both files and directories,

• Provide access to files,

• Allocate space for files,

• Keep back-up of files, and

• Secure files.

4. Device Management

OS manages and controls the devices attached to the computer. It handles the devices by combining both
hardware and software techniques.

The device management tasks handled by OS are: -

- Open, close and write device drivers, and

- Communicate, control and monitor the device driver.

51 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 OS also provides various services related to I/O like I/O scheduling, buffering, spooling and error handling.
Scheduling of I/O requests involves ordering the requests to improve performance of the system. Buffer
is a memory area that stores the data, while it is being transferred between two devices or between a
device and an application. Spool is a buffer in memory area or disk where spooling stores the jobs in a
spool which the device can access it when it is ready.

5. Protection and Security

OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like read, write, encryption, and
back-up of data are used by OS to provide basic protection.

6. User Interface or Command Interpreter

Operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the computer hardware. The
user interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via which the user interacts with the
applications and the hardware.

Open-Source Operating System

Open Source is a methodology or approach towards the design and development of software with the
intention of giving the user the access to the code. If we use open-source software, not only we will be
able to use it but also be able to see how it works, debug it, modify it and redistribute it. Open-source
software is licensed in a way that marked it legal to use as many copies as user wants. There’s a core
difference between open source and free software, both represent the same core idea, but the open
resource allows the commercial utilization of code with the motive of profit.

An open-source operating system is an operating system whose code has been made publicly and freely
available to anyone who wants to see it and modify.

• Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed-source

• Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM) movement

• Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copy left” GNU Public License (GPL)

• Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and Sun Solaris
Linux: It is a popular operating system, and it is free software as well as an open-source software, i.e. Linux
is freely available along with the underlying source code. Linux was originally written by Linus Torvalds, a

52 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 student of Finnish University in 1991. After that, many programmers and students from all over the world
have contributed a lot in its further refinement, development and improvement. Linux can be downloaded
from www.linux.org. As an operating system, its aim is to provide interoperability (work together) with
other operating systems and establish computing standards.

OS DOS Commands

Internal DOS Commands

These are those commands for which the code for executing them is stored in COMMAND.COM and they
execute without the requirement of any other file. When an internal command is issue by the user, the
transient portion knows what to do and executes that command.

MKDIR (or MD)

It creates a multilevel directory.

Syntax: C:\>MKDIR (or MD) < drive: > < path >

E.g., md c:\test --> Create the "test" directory in the c:\ directory.

md c:\test1\test2 --> Create the "test1" directory (if it does not already exist), and then the "test2"
sub-directory, in the c:\ directory.

CHDIR (or CD)

It changes the current directory or displays the name of the current directory.
Syntax: C:\>CHDIR (or CD) < drive: > < path >

Dir

It displays the list of the files and sub-directories that are in the directory specified.
Syntax: C:\> dir < drive: > < path > < filename >

Copy

It copies one or more files to the location specified and can also be used to combine.
Syntax: C:\>copy < source > < target >

53 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Del

It deletes the files specified.

Syntax: C:\>del < drive: > < path > < filename >

RMDIR (or RD)

It removes the directory.

Syntax: C:\>RMDIR (or RD) < drive: > < path >

Rename (or REN)

It changes the name of the file or files specified and can also rename all files matching the specified
filename.
Syntax: C:\>rename (or REN) < drive: > < path >< original filename > < changed filename >

Type

It displays the contents of a text file or view the contents of any text file without modifying it.
Syntax: C:\>type < drive: > < path > < filename >

Path

It is used to each for the executable files in the directories specified.

Syntax: C:\> path < drive: > < path > < ………… >

Verify

It verifies that the files are written correctly to the disk.

Syntax: C:\>verify

Clear Screen

It clears the screen. The cleared screen shows only the command prompt and the blinking cursor.
Syntax: C:\>cls

Date

It displays the current system date and prompts you to change the date, if necessary.
Syntax: C:\>date < mm-dd-yy >.

54 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Design Project 1

FACULTY OF MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF TOBRUK
Semester 2 (level I), (2022/2023)

Academic Session &

Course Code / Name Computer Science and Information Technology 2022/2023 Semester 2
Semester

Lecturer(s) Eng. Omar Murajia Ali No. of students 115

1. Choose one of the following diseases and design a project using Microsoft Word and PowerPoint

Table 1: Names of diseases

Names of diseases in English

Cholecystitis

Renal failure

Adenoids

Pneumonia

Color blindness

Liver Cirrhosis

55 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Design Project 1

2. REQUISITES
Table 2: Requisites

Paper Format

A4 paper Font: Tw Cen MT

Min page: 3 Max page: 6 Font Size: 12

Page Numbering Spacing: 1.5

3. EXCELLENT MARKS

The outstanding quality of the proposal including both text and figures.
Following all the instructions mentioned earlier in terms of the type and shape of the font and the number of
papers.
Well explained description of key points.
Unique presentation design.
Be reasonable when choosing a design paper

4. SUBMISSION

✗ DESIGN PROJECT DUE DATE: Wednesday, 30th November 2022 (Week 4) by 11:59 PM
✗ PRESENTATION DUE DATE: Thursday, 1st December 2022 (Week 4) by 8:30 AM
✗ Submission through Email, MY EMAIL: [email protected]
DEADLINE AND TIME WILL NOT BE EXTENDED FURTHER

56 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 4. Database Management System

Database

A database is organized collection of related data of an organization stored in formatted way which is
shared by multiple users.

The main feature of data in a database are:

1. It must be well organized

2. It is related.

3. It is accessible in a logical order without any difficulty.

4. It is stored only once.

E.g. University database maintains information about students, courses and grades in university.

Approaches of Data Management

There are two approaches of data management:

1. File-oriented approach

2. Database approach

1. File Oriented Approach

The term 'file-based approach' refers to the situation where data is stored in one or more separate
computer files defined and managed by different application programs. Typically, for example, the details
of customers may be stored in one file, orders in another, etc. Computer programs access the stored files
to perform the various tasks required by the business. Each program, or sometimes a related set of
programs, is called a computer application. For example, all of the programs associated with processing
customers' orders are referred to as the order processing application.

The drawbacks of file-oriented approach are following:

• Data redundancy (Each application has its own data file so, same data may have to be recorded and
stored in many times).

57 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 • Data inconsistency (Due to the same data items that appear in more than one file do not get updated
simultaneously in each and every file).

• Data dependence (Program and application in the file processing system are data dependent but, the
problem is incompatible with file format).

• Limited data sharing.

• The problem with security.

• Retrieval (retrieval is not easy).

• Time-consuming.

• Inefficient to maintain the record of the big firm having a large number of items.

• Required Lots of labor work to do.

2. Database Approach

In order to overcome the limitation of a file system, a new approach was required.

Hence a database approach emerged. A database is a persistent collection of logically related data. The
initial attempts were to provide a centralized collection of data. A database has a self-describing nature.
It contains not only the data sharing and integration of data of an organization in a single database.

A small database can be handled manually but for a large database and having multiple users it is difficult
to maintain it, In that case a computerized database is useful.

The advantages of database system over file system are:

- Data Redundancy is Minimized: Database system keeps data at one place in the database. The data is
integrated into a single, logical structure. Different applications refer to the data from the centrally
controlled location. The storage of the data, centrally, minimizes data redundancy.

- Data Inconsistency is Reduced: Minimizing data redundancy using database system reduces data
inconsistency too. Updating of data values becomes simple and there is no disagreement in the stored
values.

58 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 - Data is Shared: Data sharing means sharing the same data among more than one user. Each user has
access to the same data, though they may use it for different purposes. Authorized users are permitted
to use the data from the database. Users are provided with views of the data to facilitate its use.

- Data Independence: It is the separation of data description (metadata) from the application programs
that use the data. Data descriptions are stored in a central location called the data dictionary. This
property allows an organization’s data to change and evolve (within limits) without changing the
application programs that process the data.

- Data Integrity maintain: Stored data is changed frequently for variety of reasons such as adding new
data item types and changing the data formats. The integrity and consistency of the database are
protected using constraints on values that data items can have.

- Data Security improve: The database is kept secure by limiting access to the database by authorized
personnel. Authorized users are generally restricted to the particular data they can access, and whether
they can update it or not. Access is often controlled by passwords.

- Backup and Recovery Support: Backup and recovery are supported by the software that logs changes
to the database. This support helps in recovering the current state of the database in case of system
failure.

- Standards are Enforced: Since the data is stored centrally, it is easy to enforce standards on the
database. Standards could include the naming conventions, and standard for updating, accessing and
protecting data. Tools are available for developing and enforcing standards.

- Application Development Time is Reduced: The database approach greatly reduces the cost and time
for developing new business applications. Programmer can focus on specific functions required for the
new application, without having to worry about design, or low-level implementation details; as related
data have already been designed and implemented. Tools for the generation of forms and reports are also
available.

Database System

A database system consists of database, database management system, and application programs.
Simply, we can say that application software that uses DBMS for data management is called database
management system. Thus MS word is just an application program but it is not database system because

59 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 it does not use DBMS for purpose of managing data. On the other hand library management information
system can be database system id it uses DBMS for the purpose managing data.

Components of Database System

An effective database system comprises four main components as follows:

1. Data: The most crucial component of a database is the data stored in it. Real-world applications
demand the storing and processing of a large amount of date, A database stores two types of data: user
data and meta data, User data contains data specific to a given user's applications. On the other hand,
meta data stores data about data it describes the structure of the database.

2. Hardware: This consists of the secondary storage devices on which data is stored, the input and output
devices for receiving or providing data to users, and the processor and main memory for processing the
data in a fast and efficient manner.

3. Software: This consists of the database management system (DBMS), which acts as a bridge between
the user and the database, The DBMS software interacts with the user's application programs and
database to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data.

4. Users: These are the people who access the data from the database to perform their primary business
responsibilities. Users may be clerical staff, managers, executives and so on. Based on the job profile, they
are given either full or partial access to the database data, Database users can be broadly classified into
the following categories:

- Database Administrator (DBA): Person who designs the database and writes database schema in DDL
based on the design

- Sophisticated Users: People who know DML commands and operate on database directly.

- Application Programmers: People who operate on the database through the application programs
usually written in some high-level computer language like C, Java, VB etc.

- Naïve Users: People who executes the application programs through APIs written specifically for their
requirements. They are generally not aware of the computer technology e.g. tellers, agents, registrars,
librarian etc.

60 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Database System Architecture

The architecture of a database system provides a general framework for database systems. Different
database systems, small or big, may not support all aspects of the architecture; however, different
systems can be matched to the framework.

- ANSI/SPARC study group proposed the architecture for database and is called ANSI/SPARC architecture.

- The purpose of the architecture is to make databases more independent of the application that is using
the database.

The ANSI/SPARC architecture is divided into three levels, as follows:

· Internal (Physical) Level: The internal schema describes the physical storage structure of the database.
It is concerned about how data is stored physically. It describes the organization of files, the access path
to the database etc. The physical data model is used to describe the physical schema.

· Conceptual Level: The conceptual schema describes the structure of whole database for the users. It
describes the entities in the database, their relationships, and constraints. The representation or
implementation data model is used to describe the conceptual schema.

· External Level or View Level: It provides a user’s and application’s view of the data. It includes one or
more external schema. For a particular user, the external schema describes the structure of the database
relevant to it and hides rest of the information.

61 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Database Management System (DBMS)

Data are the raw facts that can be found after some experiment, observation or experience. Data itself do
not provide any meaning but after processing it becomes information. The collection of related data
organized in some specific manner is known as database. The database, its processing methods and the
set of rules and conditions to be followed; collectively known as database management system (DBMS).
Here, related data refers logically consistent facts of the real world. Random collection of data can not
consider database. The primary goal of DBMS is to store and manage data both conveniently and
efficiently. Database systems are generally designed to manage large volume of information.
Management of data involves defining structure for storage of information and providing mechanisms for
manipulation of information.

DBMS can also define as a general purpose software system that enables user to create, maintain and
manipulate database. It provides fast and convenient access to information from data stored in database.
DBMS interfaces with application programs so data contained in database can be accessed by multiple
applications and users. Some popular DBMS software are: Oracle, SQL – Server, IBM-DB2, MySQL, MS
Access, Sybase etc.

Some application areas of database system are:

• Banking: customer and their account info

• Airlines: reservations and schedules info

• Universities: student info, grades etc.

• Credit card transactions: for purchases on credit cards and generation of statements.

• Telecommunications: record of calls made

• Finance: for storing information about holding, sales and purchases etc.

• Sales: for customer, product and purchase information.

• Manufacturing: for management of supply chain.

• Human resources: for information about employee.

62 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Data Models

The basic structure or design of the database is the data model. A data model is a collection of conceptual
tools for describing data, data relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints. Some data
models are given below:

Entity-Relationship Model

Entity-relationship (E-R) model is a high-level data model based on a perception of a real world that
consists of collection of basic objects, called entities, and of relationships among these entities. An entity
is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects. Entities are described in a
database by a set of attributes. A relationship is an association among several entities. The set of all
entities of the same type is called an entity set and the set of all relationships of the same type is called a
relationship set. Overall logical structure of a database can be expressed graphically by E-R diagram. The
basic components of this diagram are:

• Rectangles (represent entity sets)

• Ellipses (represent attributes)

• Diamonds (represent relationship sets among entity sets)

• Lines (link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets)

E.g.

Fig: E-R diagram

63 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Relational Model

It is the current favorite model. The relational model is a lower-level model that uses a collection of tables
to represent both data and relationships among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each
column has a unique name. Each table corresponds to an entity set or relationship set, and each row
represents an instance of that entity set or relationship set. Relationships link rows from two tables by
embedding row identifiers (keys) from one table as attribute values in the other table. Structured query
language (SQL) is used to manipulate data stored in tables.

Hierarchical Model

In a Hierarchical database, model data is organized in a tree-like structure. Data is Stored Hierarchically
(top down or bottom up) format. Data is represented using a parent-child relationship. In Hierarchical
DBMS parent may have many children, but children have only one parent.

E.g.

Fig: Hierarchical Model

64 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Network Model

The network database model allows each child to have multiple parents. It helps you to address the need
to model more complex relationships like as the orders/parts many-to-many relationship. In this model,
entities are organized in a graph which can be accessed through several paths.

E.g.

Fig: Network Model

SQL

◘ SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing data in relational
database management system(RDMS).

◘ It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to create, read, update and
delete relational databases and tables.

◘ All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL as their standard
database language.

Why SQL?
• Allows users to access data in relational database management systems.
• Allows users to describe the data.
• Allows users to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
• Allows embedding within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
• Allows users to create and drop databases and tables
SQL Process

• When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out the best way to carry
out the request and the SQL engine determines that how to interpret the task.

65 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 • In the process, various components are included. These components can be optimization Engine, Query
engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.

• All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query engine won't handle
logical files.

Some SQL Commands

• SELECT - extracts data from a database

• UPDATE - updates data in a database

• DELETE - deletes data from a database

• INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database

• CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

• ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database

• CREATE TABLE - creates a new table

• ALTER TABLE - modifies a table

• DROP TABLE - deletes a table

• CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)

• DROP INDEX - deletes an index

Data Warehouse

- Data warehouse is a collection of data designed to support management decision making. It is the main
repository of an organization's historical data in it’s corporate memory.

- The term data warehouse generally refers to the combination of many different databases across an
entire enterprise.

- The main purpose of data warehouse is that a data analyst can perform complex queries and analysis,
such as data mining on the information without slowing down the operational systems.

66 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Goals of Data Warehouse:

- Provide access to the data of an organization

- Data consistency

- Capacity to separate and combine data

- Inclusion of tools set to query, analyze and prevent information

- Publish used data

- Drive business re-engineering

Characteristics of Data Warehouse:

1. Subject Oriented : Data to be organized towards the major subject areas of organization i.e. an
insurance company orient data by customer, premium and claims etc.

2. Integrated : The way data is extracted and transformed is uniform, regardless of the original source.

3. Non-volatile: A data warehouse is not updated in real-time. It is periodically updated via the uploading
of data, protecting it from the influence of momentary change.

4. Time-Variant: Data is organized via time-periods (weekly, monthly, annually, etc.

Uses/Advantages of Data Warehouse:

- Easy to retrieve and find information

- More cost-effective decision making

- Better enterprise intelligence

- Fast retrieval of information

- Help management in decision making support system

- Enhance the value of Business

- Enhance customer service

67 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Data Mining

Generally, Data mining (called knowledge discovery) is the process of analyzing data from different
perspectives and summarizing it into useful to increase revenue, cuts, costs or both.

Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It allows users to analyze
data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize at, and summarize the relationships identified.
Technically, data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among dozens of fields in large
relational databases.

Data mining is the principle of sorting through large amounts of data and picking out relevant information.
It is usually used by business intelligence organizations, and financial analysts, but it is increasingly used
in the sciences to extract information from the enormous data sets generated by modern experimental
and observational methods. It has been described as "the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously
unknown, and potentially useful information from data" and "the science of extracting useful information
from large data sets or databases".

Advantages of Data Mining:

- Data Mining tool is used for searching valuable business information in a large database. Data Mining
technology can help business by providing following capabilities:

- Automated prediction of trends and behaviours: Data mining technologies automates the process of
finding predicting information in large databases. Statistical analytical tool can use to predict the
behaviours / trends of business from analyzing large databases.

- Automated discovery of previously unknown patterns: Data mining tools can also identify hidden
patterns like fraudulent credit card transaction; finding fraudulent (untrue) VAT bill as of recent news.

- Databases can be large in both depth and breadth: Usually, analysts must often limit the number of
variables they examine when doing hands-on analysis due to time constrains. But with the evolution of
data mining technologies, analysis being done in full databases (or samples) and yield lower estimation
errors and variance.

68 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Database Administrator

The person who has control over both data and the program that accesses those data are called database
administrator (DBA).

The functions of database administrator are:

• schema definition:

The DBA creates the original structure of the database by using DDL.

• schema and physical organization modification:

The changes needed in any organization is analyzed and then appropriate change is made in the database
schema by the DBA.

• granting of authorization:

By granting different types of the authorization, DBA can regulate which part of the database various users
can access. The authorization information is kept in a special system structure that the database system
consults whenever someone attempts to access the data in the system.

• runtime maintenance:

DBA periodically backup the database, ensures that enough free disk space is available for normal
operations.

69 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Design Project 2

FACULTY OF MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF TOBRUK
Semester 2 (level I), (2022/2023)

Academic Session &

Course Code / Name Computer Science and Information Technology 2022/2023 Semester 2
Semester

Lecturer(s) Eng. Omar Murajia Ali No. of students 115

1. Choose one of the following microorganisms and design a project using Microsoft Word and PowerPoint

Table 1: Names of microorganisms

Names of
microorganisms
in English

Bacteria

Viruses

Fungi

Protozoa

Algae

70 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Design Project 2

2. REQUISITES
Table 2: Requisites

Paper Format

Academic Paper Template Font: Times New Roman

Min page: 3 Max page: 6 Font Size: 10

Page Numbering Spacing: 1.15

3. EXCELLENT MARKS

The outstanding quality of the proposal including both text and figures.
Following all the instructions mentioned earlier in terms of the type and shape of the font and the number of
papers.
Well explained description of key points.
Unique presentation design.
Be reasonable when choosing a design paper

4. SUBMISSION

✗ DESIGN PROJECT DUE DATE: Friday, 30th December 2022 (Week 7) by 11:59 PM
✗ PRESENTATION DUE DATE: Saturday, 31st December 2022 (Week 8) by 8:30 AM
✗ Submission through Email, MY EMAIL: [email protected]
DEADLINE AND TIME WILL NOT BE EXTENDED FURTHER

71 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 5. Data Communication and Computer Network

Data Communication

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part
of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable

3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.

72 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.

Modes of Communication

The direction in which data can be transmitted between any two linked devices is of three types:

(1) Simplex,

(2) Half-duplex, and

(3) Full- duplex, or duplex.

In simplex mode the data transmits in one direction only, from one system to another system. The sender
device that sends data can only send data and cannot receive it. On the other hand the receiver device
can only receive the data and cannot send it. Television is an example of simplex mode transmission as
the broadcast sends signals to our TV but never receives signals back from our TV. This is a unidirectional
transmission.

In half-duplex mode the communication between sender and receiver occurs in both directions, but only
one at a time. The sender and receiver can both send and receive the information, but only one is allowed
to send at any given time. For example, in walkie-talkies, the speakers at both ends can speak, but they
have to speak one by one. They cannot speak simultaneously.

In full duplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver can occur
simultaneously. The sender and receiver can both transmit and receive at the same time. For example, in
a telephone conversation, two people communicate, and both are free to speak and listen at the same
time.

Fig: Transmission Modes

73 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are
linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing
among a wide range of users. Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics.

Networks are used to:

• Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.

• Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner

• Enable file sharing across the network

• Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems

• Make information easier to access and maintain among network users

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security

1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on
a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

2. Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

74 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other through a transmission medium that
enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

• A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical
area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings.

• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by multiple
users.

• It is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile.

• It is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

• LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fiber optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s.

• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include: Bus, Ring & Star.

Fig: LAN

75 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus.

• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings
to entire cities.

• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many
individuals and organizations.

• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.

• Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers and cable
TV network.

Fig: MAN

3. Wide area network (WAN)

• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.

• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.

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 • To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links
such as satellites.

• Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which
enable them to share data.

• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

Fig: WAN

Network Topology

Network topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the computers, cables, and other
components within a data communications network are interconnected, both physically and logically. The
physical topology describes how the network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes how
the data actually flow through the network.

The topologies commonly used are:-Bus topology, Star topology, and Ring topology. Other topologies are
Tree topology, Mesh topology and Hybrid topology.

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 1. Bus Topology

• Each machine is connected to a single cable.

• Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector.

• A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it
finds the address on the network that is the intended recipient.

• If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data.

• Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted.

Fig: Bus Topology

Advantages:

i. If any node or cable (except backbone) fails, it does not affect the whole network.

ii. They are relatively cheap and easy to install

iii. Don't require much cabling

iv. Easy to add and remove any node or cable except the backbone cable

Disadvantages:

i. If the backbone cable fails, the entire network goes down

ii. Since all the data are transmitted through the backbone cable, data traffic is high

iii. Bus networks work best with a limited number of devices

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 2. Star Topology

• Each machine is connected to a central hub or switch.

• It allows each machine on the network to have a point to point connection to the central hub.

• All of the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub.

• The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the signal to travel greater distances.

• Most widely implemented

• Hub is the single point of failure

Fig: Star Topology

Advantages:

i. A failure in any node or cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire
LAN.

ii. Easy to diagnose the fault

iii. Easy to add and remove a node or cable

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 Disadvantages:

i. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable

ii. If the hub fails, the entire network also fails

3. Ring Topology

• Each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring

• Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification purposes

• The signal passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction

• Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the network

• By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit on the network at a time.

Fig: Ring Topology

Advantages:

i. Short cables are required compared to other topologies

ii. It works where there is no central site computer system

iii. It is not dependent in a single cable or node

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 Disadvantages:

i. A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

ii. It is rarely used in modern LAN

iii. It is difficult to find out the error

iv. Adding and removing any node or cable is difficult

4. Tree Topology

• Tree topology uses bus and star topology together to create a network. This topology combines many
star topologies using the main cable.

• The whole network is divided into many chunks that can be easily managed and maintained.

• In this topology, all devices are connected to the main cable in the form of star topologies.

• Tree topology is similar to bus topology because all the devices are connected to the main cable. So the
main cable acts as a backbone of the network.

Fig: Tree Topology

Advantages:

- Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

- If any devices damaged, other hierarchical networks are not affected.

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 - Other segments are not affected if any node or any segment gets damage.

- Easy to manage and maintain.

Disadvantages:

- If the main backbone line breaks then the entire network shut down.

- Huge amount of cable is needed.

- Maintenance is difficult if more devices are added.

- If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also disabled.

5. Mesh Topology

• In mesh topology, each computer on the network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point
connection between every device on the network.

• Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination.

• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.

Fig: Mesh Topology

Advantages:

i. Failure in any one wire or node does fail the entire network

ii. It is the most secure topology

iii. Faster communication because of point-to-point connection

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 Disadvantages:

i. Most complicated network topology

ii. Expensive in comparison to other topologies.

iii. Difficult to find the error and trouble shoot.

6. Hybrid Topology

• This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining various different topologies to
form a larger, more complex topology.

• Main aim is being able to share the advantages of different topologies.

Fig: Hybrid Topology

Advantages:

• Easy network growth

• Manages troubleshooting

Disadvantages:

• Expensive network management.

• Loss of cabling.

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 Transmission Media

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a
destination. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.

Transmission media can be generally categorized as either unguided or guided.

Guided Media

In the guided media, the data signals are sent along a specific path, through a wire or a cable. Copper wire
and optical fibers are the most commonly used guided media that transmits data as electric signals.
Copper wires offer low resistance to current signals, facilitating signals to travel longer distances.

Types of guided media:

• Twisted Pair

• Coaxial Pair

• Optical fiber

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.

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 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.

• Twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk

• Crosstalk is the interference due to the magnetic filed of 2 wires nearby

• Used to transmit both analog and digital transmission

The two basic types of twisted-pair transmission lines specified are unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP).

STP cable has an extra layer of metal foil between the twisted pair of copper wires and the outer covering.
The metal foil covering provides additional protection from external disturbances. However, the covering
increases the resistance to the signal and thus decreases the length of the cable. STP is costly and is
generally used in networks where cables pass closer to devices that cause external disturbances.

UTP is the most commonly used medium for transmission over short distances up to 100m. Out of the
four pairs of wires in a UTP cable, only two pairs are used for communication.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination
of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor,

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 which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover.

• Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted
pair

• Coaxial cable is a versatile transmission medium, used in a wide variety of applications, including:
Television distribution - aerial to TV systems

3. Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. An optical fiber
cable consists of

1) Core - optical fiber conductor (glass) that transmits light,

2) Cladding - an optical material that surrounds the core to prevent any light from escaping the core, and

3) Jacket - outer covering made of plastic to protect the fiber from damage.

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 Optical fibers are being used for transmission of information over large distances more cost effectively
than the copper wire connection. Communication systems are now unthinkable without fiber optics.

Unguided Media

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through
free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them. Radio, microwave
and satellite transmissions fall into this category.

1. Radio Transmission

The electromagnetic radio waves that operate at the audio frequency are also used to transmit computer
data. This transmission is also known as Radio Frequency (RF) transmission. The computers using RF
transmission do not require a direct physical connection like wires or cable. Each computer attaches to an
antenna hat can both send and receive radio transmission.

Fig: Radio Transmission

2. Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission refers to the technique of transmitting information over a microwave link.
Microwaves have a higher frequency than radio waves. Microwave transmission can be aimed at a single
direction, instead of broadcasting in all directions (like in radio waves). Microwaves can carry more
information than radio waves but cannot penetrate metals. Microwaves are used where there is a clear
path between the transmitter and the receiver.

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 Fig: Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission has the advantage of not requiring access to all contiguous land along the path
of the system, since it does not need cables.

Disadvantages:

a) Needs expensive towers and repeaters, and

b) They are subject to interference from passing airplanes and rain.

3. Satellite Transmission

The communication across longer distances can be provided by combining radio frequency transmission
with satellites. Geosynchronous satellites are placed in an orbit synchronized with the rotation of the
earth at a distance of 36,000 km above the surface of the earth. Geosynchronous satellites appear to be
stationary when viewed from the earth. The satellite consists of transponder that can receive RF signals
and transmit them back to the ground at a different angle. A ground station on one side of the ocean
transmits signal to the satellite which in turn sends the signal to the ground station on the other side of
the ocean.

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 Communication Protocol and OSI Reference Model

A protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient. For example, while
flying an airplane, pilots obey very specific rules for communication with other airplanes and with air
traffic control.

A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines the format and
transmission of data.

The network communication protocol is organized as a stack of layers with one layer built upon the other.
Each layer has a specific function and interacts with the layers above and below it. The outgoing data from
a computer connected to the network passes down through each layer and the incoming data passes up
through each layer. The corresponding layers on the different machines are called peers. The peers
interact with each other using the protocol.

OSI Reference Model

The International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed a seven-layer reference model for data
networks, known as Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model specifies the functions of
each layer. It does not specify how the protocol needs to be implemented. It is independent of the
underlying architecture of the system and is thus an open system.

The seven layers of the OSI model are:

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 The functions of the different layers are as follows:

1. Physical Layer:

This layer specifies the basic network hardware. Some of the characteristics defined in the specification
are - interface between transmission media and device, encoding of bits, bit rate, error detection
parameters, network topology, and the mode of transmission (duplex, half-duplex or simplex).

Layer 1 is anything that carries 1’s and 0’s between two nodes.

2. Data Link Layer:

This layer specifies the functions required for node-to-node transmission without errors. It specifies the
organization of data into frames, error detection in frames during transmission, and how to transmit
frames over a network. Data Link layer is to deliver packets from one NIC to another.

Layer 2 uses MAC addresses and is responsible for packet delivery from hop to hop.

3. Network Layer:

The network layer specifies the assignment of addresses (address structure, length of address etc.) to the
packets and forwarding of packets to the destination i.e. routing.

Layer 3 uses IP addresses and is responsible for packet delivery from end to end.

4. Transport Layer:

It specifies the details to handle reliable transfer of data. It handles end-to-end error control and flow
control, breaking up data into frames and reassembling the frames.

Layer 4 is responsible for service to service delivery.

5. Session Layer:

The session layer maintains a session between the communicating devices. It includes specifications for
password and authentication and maintaining synchronization between the sender and the receiver.

6. Presentation Layer:

This layer specifies the presentation and representation of data. Its functions include translation of the
representation of the data into an identifiable format at the receiver end, encryption, and decryption of
data etc.

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 7. Application Layer:

This layer specifies how an application uses a network. It deals with the services attached to the data. It
contains the protocols used by users like HTTP, protocol for file transfer and electronic mail.

Note:

Each layer at the sender’s side transforms the data according to the function it handles. For this it attaches
headers to the data. At the receiver’s side, the corresponding layer applies the inverse of the
transformation that has been applied at the source.

As an example, if the Data link layer at the sender’s side adds an error detection code to the frame, then
at the receiver’s side, the Data link layer verifies the error detection code and removes it from the frame
before passing it to the next higher level, i.e. the Network layer.

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 Network Devices

Network Devices are the devices that connects two or more LANS, or segments with each other or with
the Internet. These connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model. Some of
them are:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware device through which the computer connects to a network. It
works at both the data link layer and physical layer of the OSI reference model.

At the data link layer, NIC converts the data packets into data frames, adds the Media Access address
(MAC address) to data frames.

At the physical layer, it converts the data into signals and transmits it across the communication medium.
2. Repeater

Repeaters are used to extend LAN. It has only two ports and can connect only two segments of the
network. It retimes and regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other
segments. Signals that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation
endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater receives a signal and before it becomes too weak or
corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal. It can extend
the physical length of a LAN.

Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay
which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network
architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row. Repeaters work only at the physical
layer of the OSI network model.

Fig: Repeater

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 3. Bridge

Bridge is used to connect two LAN segments like a repeater; it forwards complete and correct frames to
the other segment. It works in both the physical and the data link layer. As a physical layer device, it
regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC)
address contained in the frame. A bridge has a filtering capabilities i.e. it can check the destination
address of a frame and decide if the frame should be forwarded or dropped.

A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. It
reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets. Bridges can be
programmed to reject packets from particular networks. Bridges forward all broadcast messages. Only a
special bridge called a translation bridge will allow two networks of different architectures to be
connected. Bridges do not normally allow connection of networks with different architectures.

Fig: Bridge

4. Hub

It is a device that centrally connects devices in a computer network. There are two types of a hub i.e.
active hub which is a multiport repeater that is used to create connections between stations in a physical
star topology; and passive hub which is just a connector that connects the wires coming from different
branches.

Every computer is directly connected with the hub. When data packets arrives at hub, it broadcast them
to all the LAN cards in a network and the destined recipient picks them and all other computers discard
the data packets. Hub has four, eight, sixteen and more ports and one port is known as uplink port, which
is used to connect with the next hub. Hubs work at the physical layer of the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) model. The device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in
collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.

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 Fig: Hub

5. Switch

Like hub, switch also connects multiple computers in a network or different segments of the same
network. Switches work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI reference model. Hence, switches consider data
as frames and not as signals. Unlike the hubs, a switch does not broadcast the data to all the computers;
it sends the data packets only to the destined computer.

A switch receives a signal as a data frame from a source computer on a port, checks the MAC address of
the frame, forwards the frame to the port connected to the destination computer having the same MAC
addresses, reconverts the frame back into signal and sends to the destination computer.

Fig: Switch

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 6. Router

A router is a communication device that is used to connect two logically and physically different networks,
two LANs, two WANs and a LAN with WAN. The main function of the router is to sorting and the
distribution (i.e. routing) of the data packets to their destinations based on their IP addresses. Routers
provides the connectivity between the enterprise businesses, ISPs and in the internet infrastructure,
router is a main device. Every router has routing software, which is known as IOS. Router operates at the
network layer of the OSI model. Router does not broadcast the data packets. Routers connect two or
more logical subnets, each having a different network address.

A router determines which way is the shortest or fastest in a network, and routes packets accordingly
based on the IP addresses.

Fig: Router

7. Gateway

Gateway is a generic term used to represent devices that connect two dissimilar networks. A gateway at
the transport layer converts protocols among communications networks. It can accept a packet formatted
for one protocol and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol. An application gateway can
translate messages from one format to the other.

A gateway can be implemented in hardware, software, or in both hardware and software. Generally,
gateway is implemented by software installed within a router.

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 Fig: Gateway

Centralized and Distributed System

Centralized System

In Centralized system, the network resources are placed and managed from a main location. Centralized
network model allows administrators to manage the resources centrally, which other users can access.
The network servers and other critical network resources are located in a central location in a secure and
dedicated server room.

Fig: Centralized System

Centralized System Characteristics:

• One component with non-autonomous parts

• Components shared by users all the time

• All resources accessible

• Software runs in a single process

• Single point of control

• Single point of failure

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 Distributed System

A distributed system is a collection of independent computers, interconnected via a network, capable of

collaborating on a task.

A distributed system consists of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a computer
network. The computers interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. A computer program
that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the
process of writing such programs.

Fig: Distributed System

Distributed System Characteristics:

• Multiple autonomous components

• Components are not shared by all users

• Resources may not be accessible

• Software runs in concurrent processes on

• Different processors

• Multiple points of control

• Multiple points of failure

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 6. Internet and WWW

Internet and its Applications

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to serve billions of users
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and
optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and
services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support email.

Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork, the result of interconnecting computer
networks with special gateways or routers. The Internet is also often referred to as the Net.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction.
However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet establishes a
global data communications system between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services
communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked
by hyperlinks and URLs.

Applications of Internet

Internet is used for different purposes by different people. Some uses of the Internet are listed below:

• E-Commerce (auction, buying, selling products etc.)

• Research (on-line journals, magazines, information etc.)

• Education (e-learning courses, virtual classroom, distance learning)

• E-Governance (online filing of application (Income Tax), on-line application forms etc.)

• On-line ticket booking (airplane tickets, rail tickets, cinema hall tickets etc.)

• On-line payments (credit card payments etc.)

• Video conferencing

• Exchange of views, music, files, mails, folders, data, information etc.

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 • Outsourcing jobs (work flow software)

• Social networking (sites like facebook, linkedin, twitter)

• E-Telephony (sites like skype)

Connecting to the Internet

Requirements for connecting computer to the internet are as follows:

1. TCP/IP enabled computer

2. Internet service provider (ISP): an internet service provider provides you with a connection to the
internet and the software you will need to navigate.

3. Telecommunication line: a telephone line is required to connect you to the internet service provider.

4. Modem: a modem converts a digital signal received from a computer into an analogue signal that can
be sent along ordinary telephone lines, and back to digital at the other end.

5. Web browser: a web browser is software used to view and download Web pages and various types of
files such as text, graphics and video. Examples are Microsoft Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome.

Fig: Connecting to Internet

How the internet works?

1: Request data from the a server on Internet.

2: Modem converts digital to analog signals.

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 3: Data travels through telephone lines to a local ISP.

4: Data passes through routers.

5: Regional ISP uses leased lines to send data to a national ISP.

6: National ISP routes data across the country.

7: National ISP passes data to local ISP.

8: Server sends data back to you.

Client Server Technology

The client–server model is a computing model that acts as distributed application which partitions tasks
or workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters, called
clients. Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both

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 client and server may reside in the same system. A server machine is a host that is running one or more
server programs which share their resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources but
requests a server's content or service function. Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with
servers which await incoming requests.

Client/Server Architecture

Client server network architecture consists of two kinds of computers: clients and servers. Clients are the
computers that that do not share any of its resources but requests data and other services from the server
computers and server computers provide services to the client computers by responding to client
computers requests. Normally servers are powerful computers and clients are less powerful personal
computers.

Fig: Client/server architecture

Internet as client/server technology

Internet is massive network of networks and world wide web is a system of interlinked hypertext
documents accessed via the internet. To complete the flow of accessing information over the web there
is need of client/server architecture. Client/server describes the flow of information between two
computer programs in which one computer program (client) makes a service request to another computer
program (the server), which provide service requested by the client. Clients rely on servers for required
resources. It is network architecture in which each computer or process on the network is either a client
or a server. Hence, we could describe internet as client/server technology.

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 7. Contemporary Technologies

Multimedia

Multimedia means that computer information can be represented through audio, video, and animation
in addition to traditional media (i.e., text, graphics/drawings, images).

Multimedia is the field concerned with the computer controlled integration of text, graphics, drawings,
still and moving images (Video), animation, audio, and any other media where every type of information
can be represented, stored, transmitted and processed digitally.

Multimedia is a media that uses multiple form of information content and information processing.

Characteristics of Multimedia

A multimedia system has four basic characteristics:

1. Multimedia systems must be computer controlled.

2. Multimedia systems are integrated.

3. The information they handle must be represented digitally.

4. The interface to the final presentation of media is usually interactive.

Elements of Multimedia

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 1. Text

- Text is the basic element of multimedia. It involves the use of text types, sizes, colors and background
colors.

- In multimedia, text is mostly use for titles, headlines, menu, paragraph, list etc.

- In a multimedia application, other media or screen can be linked through the use of text. This is what
you call Hypertext.

- The most commonly used software for viewing text files are Microsoft Word, Notepad, Word pad
etc. Mostly the text files are formatted with , DOC, TXT etc extension.

2. Graphics

- It is a digital representation of non-text information, such as a drawing, chart, or photograph.

- Graphics make the multimedia application attractive. They help to illustrate ideas through still pictures.

- There are two types of graphics used: bitmaps (paint graphics) and vectors (draw graphics).

- Bitmaps graphics also called raster graphics. A bitmap represents the images as an array of dots called
pixels. Bitmap graphics are resolution-dependent and generate large file sizes.

- Vectors graphics are images drawn on the computer with software that uses geometrical formulas to
represent images and only require a small amount of memory.

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 3. Video

- Video is the technology of electronically capturing, recording, processing, storing, transmitting, and
reconstructing a sequence of still images representing scenes in motion.

- Photographic images that are played back at speeds of 15 to 30 frames a second and the provide the
appearance of full motion.

The use of video:

- The embedding of video in multimedia applications is a powerful way to convey information which can
incorporate a personal element which other media lack.

- Promoting television shows, films, or other non-computer media that traditionally have used trailers in
their advertising.

- Giving users an impression of a speaker’s personality.

- Showing things that move. For example, a clip from a motion picture. Product demos of physical
products are also well suited for video.

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 4. Audio

- In multimedia audio means related with recording, playing etc.

- Audio is an important components of multimedia because this component increase the

understandability and improves the clarity of the concept.

- Audio includes speech, music or any other sound.

The use of sound:

- Music

• Background

• Attention grabber

• Sound effect

- Speech

• Narration

• Instruction

5. Animation

- Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D artwork or model positions in order to
create an illusion of movement.

- It is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created
and demonstrated in a number of ways.

- Entertainment multimedia titles in general, and children’s titles specifically, rely heavily on animation.

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 The use of animation:

- To attract attention

- To inform about the state of process

- Demonstrations

- Interactive simulations

Advantages of Multimedia

- It is very user-friendly. It doesn’t take much energy out of the user, in the sense that you can sit and
watch the presentation, you can read the text and hear the audio.

- It is multi sensorial. It uses a lot of the user’s senses while making use of multimedia, for example
hearing, seeing and talking.

- It is integrated and interactive. All the different mediums are integrated through the digitization process.
Interactivity is heightened by the possibility of easy feedback.

- It is flexible. Being digital, this media can easily be changed to fit different situations and audiences.

- It can be used for a wide variety of audiences, ranging from one person to a whole group.

Disadvantages of Multimedia

- Information overload. Because it is so easy to use, it can contain too much information at once.

- It takes time to compile. Even though it is flexible, it takes time to put the original draft together.

- It can be expensive. As mentioned in one of my previous posts, multimedia makes use of a wide range
of resources, which can cost you a large amount of money.

- Too much makes it unpractical. Large files like video and audio has an effect of the time it takes for your
presentation to load. Adding too much can mean that you have to use a larger computer to store the files.

106 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 E-commerce

E-commerce (Electronic Commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services, or the transmitting of
funds or data, over the internet.

E-commerce is a methodology of modern business which addresses the need of business organizations,
vendors and customers to reduce cost and improve the quality of goods and services while increasing the
speed of delivery.

E-commerce refers to paperless exchange of business information using EDI, E-mail, electronic fund
transfer etc.

E-commerce web sites are like on-line market places where you can sell and buy items, and facilitate it by
advertising your product, establishing newsgroups and blogs, posting job-oriented resumes etc.

Types of E-commerce models

There are four main types of ecommerce models that can describe almost every transaction that takes
place between consumers and businesses.

1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C)

The B2C model involves transaction between business organization and customer. The business
organization sells its products directly to a consumer. Customer can view the products shown on the
website. The customer can choose a product and order the same. The website will then send a notification
to the business organization via email and the organization will dispatch the product/goods to the
customer.

2. Business-to-Business (B2B)

The B2B model involves the transaction between companies/businesses, such as between a manufacture
and a wholesaler or between wholesaler and a retailer. The business/company sells its products to an
intermediate buyer who then sells the product to the final customer.

3. Consumer-to-Business (C2B)

The C2B model involves a transaction between a consumer and business organization. It is similar to B2C
model; however, the difference is that in this case the consumer is the seller and business organization is

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 the buyer. In this kind of transaction, the consumer decides the price of a particular product, which
business accept or decline.

4. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

The C2C model involves transaction between consumers. Here, a consumer sells directly to another
consumer. A well-known example is eBay.

Advantages of e-commerce

1. It makes buying selling procedure faster, as well as easy to find products.

2. It makes buying/selling possible 24/7.

3. There are no theoretical geographical limitations hence more reach to customers.

4. It reduces operational costs and provides better quality of services.

5. It does not require physical company set ups.

Disadvantages of e-commerce:

1. Anyone, good or bad can easily start a business. And there are many bad sites which eat up customer's
money.

2. There is no guarantee of product quality.

3. Mechanical failures can cause unpredictable effects on the total processes.

4. There are many hackers who look for opportunities and thus an ecommerce site, service payment
gateways all are always prone attack.

5. The start-up costs of the e-commerce portal are very high. The setup of the hardware and the software,
the training cost of employees, the constant maintenance and upkeep are all quite expensive.

E-Governance

E-governance is the application of information and communication technology (ICT) for delivering
government services, exchange of information communication transactions, integration of various stand-
alone systems and services between government-to-customer (G2C), government-to-business (G2B),

108 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 government-to-government (G2G) as well as back office processes and interactions within the entire
government framework.

Through e-governance, government services will be made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient
and transparent manner. The three main target groups that can be distinguished in governance concepts
are government, citizens and businesses/interest groups. In e-governance there are no distinct
boundaries.

E-learning

E-learning is the use of electronic media and information and communication technology (ICT) in
education. E-learning includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation and
streaming video, and includes technology applications and processes such as audio or video tape, satellite
TV, CD-ROM and computer-based learning and, as well as local intranet/extranet and web-based learning.

E-learning system is defined as an entire technological management system that facilitates learning and
teaching for students and learners through electronic form such as internet, CDs and DVDs, TVs etc.

The main concept of the E-learning is that which acts as the student centered learning area. E-learning
forms an essential way of teaching and learning to improve skills and knowledge.

Delivery of digital content is the main characteristic of e-learning.

109 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 Advantages of E-learning

• Class work can be scheduled around work and family.

• Students can study anywhere they have access to a computer and internet connection.

• It maintains the consistency of content.

• It is easy for customization.

• There is no any geographical limitation for learning.

• It is quite favorable for learner as it can happen at any time and anywhere.

• It reduces or eliminates travel costs to attend learning events.

• It reduces or eliminates need for classroom/instructor infrastructure.

Disadvantages of E-learning

• Learners with low motivation or bad study habits may fall behind

• Without the routine structures of a traditional class, students may get lost or confused about course
activities and deadlines

• Students may feel isolated from the instructor and classmates

• Instructor may not always be available when students are studying or need help

• Slow Internet connections or older computers may make accessing course materials frustrating

• Managing computer files and online learning software can sometimes seem complex for students with
beginner-level computer skills

• Hands-on or lab work is difficult to simulate in a virtual classroom.

E-Banking

E-banking is defined as the automated delivery of new and traditional banking products and services
directly to customers through electronic, interactive communication channels. E-banking includes the
system that enable financial institution customers, individuals or businesses, to access accounts, transact
business, or obtain information on financial products and services through public or private network,

110 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 including the internet. Customers access e-banking services using an intelligent electronic device, such as
a personal computer (PC), personal digital assistant (PDA), automated teller machgine (ATM) etc.

Two approaches E-banking

1. Dial-in Approach: Requires users to have a separate finance software, so that they can do all the
process offline and connect to the bank just for transactions.

2. Internet Approach: Users directly log on to their bank website and complete all their work online.

Benefits of E-banking

• Anytime banking, and anywhere banking.

• Online banking is much cheaper for the bank. A survey says that online banking costs only 10% of
branch services.

• Reduction in cost of transaction.

• Pay bills online there by saving postal services.

• Easy to make utility payment.

• Online purchases

• The service are available seven days a week, 24 hours a day.

Drawbacks of E-banking

• Difficult in adoption technology

• Fear of technology

• High cost of technology

• Lack of preparedness

• Restriction on usage of technology

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 Geographic Information System

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze,
manage, and present geographic data.

The 4 main ideas of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are:

o Create geographic data.

o Manage it in a database.

o Analyze and find patterns.

o Visualize it on a map

• GIS integrates many types of data. It analyzes geographic location and organizes layers of information
into visualizations using maps and 3D scenes.

112 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali

 • Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have various industrial applications, and technological
advancements have significantly enhanced GIS data, specifically how it can be used and what can be
achieved as a result.

• Geographic Information Systems are powerful decision-making tools for any business or industry since
it allows the analyzation of environmental, demographic, and topographic data.

• Data intelligence compiled from GIS applications help companies and various industries, and consumers,
make informed decisions.

Scopes of GIS:

• Land registration system

• Utilities such as Water supply, Electricity, Telephone, Irrigation networks

• Topographical database

• Forestry planning management

• Transportation networks

• Land use and land cover planning

• Urban planning

• Natural resource planning

• Disaster management and mitigation

• Environment impact studies

Thank You, I wish you success

113 BY: Eng. Omar Murajia Ali