8.

Wastewater treatment
In this unit we will discuss the following:

Introduction, Sources of wastewater, Types of wastewater collection system, Physical

wastewater characteristics, Biological wastewater characteristics, Chemical
wastewater characteristics, Physical wastewater treatment methods, Biological
wastewater treatment methods, Chemical wastewater treatment methods, and
Disinfection treatment method

8.1 Introduction
Wastewater treatment was introduced in response to the growing number of cities,
public health, and adverse conditions caused by the discharge of wastewater to the
environment. Wastewater treatment was first introduced on the 1900. Wastewater is
treated for a number of reasons which are: removal of suspended and floatable
material, treatment of biodegradable organics, and elimination pathogenic organisms,
long term health and environmental impacts, and the discharge of nutrients.
Wastewater discharge to the environment must meet certain effluent standards that
comply with the environmental policies. Department of Water and Sanitation, and
Department of Environment affairs provides regulations on the treatment and
discharge permits of treated wastewater to the environment. Other international
standards includes U.S Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the World
Health Organisation (WHO).

8.2 Sources of wastewater

There are four common sources of wastewater. The sources are: Domestic
wastewater, Industrial wastewater, Infiltration/Inflow, and Storm-water

Domestic wastewater

• Domestic wastewater is also referred to as sanitary wastewater.

• This type of wastewater results from residences, commercial, institutional, and
public facility.

Industrial wastewater
• This type of wastewater results from Industries.
• Examples of industries are: Generating of electricity, and manufacturing of steel
and other products.

Infiltration/Inflow

• Infiltration and inflow enter the sewer line directly or indirectly.

• Infiltration wastewater enters the sewer line through leaking joints, cracks, and
breaks.
• Inflow wastewater enters the sewer line through roof ladders, foundation,
basement drains, and manhole covers.

Storm-water

• Runoff water resulting from precipitation.

• Precipitation can be in the form of rainwater, snowmelt, glaze, sleet, and drizzle

8.3 Types of wastewater collection system

There are three types of wastewater collection systems that common: Domestic
wastewater collection system, Storm-water collection system, and Combined
wastewater and storm-water collection systems

Domestic wastewater collection system

• This types of collection system collects domestic wastewater only.

• The collection system separates the domestic wastewater from storm-water.
• This type of collection system is composed of domestic wastewater, industrial
wastewater, and infiltration and inflow.

Storm-water collection system.

• This type of collection system only collects storm-water that resulted from
rainwater, and snowmelt.
• Storm-water enters the sewer line through catch pits located on the side of the
road.

Combined wastewater and storm-water collection systems

• This type of collection system is composed of domestic wastewater, industrial

wastewater, infiltration and inflow, and storm-water
8.4 Physical wastewater characteristics
Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for domestic use. They include
colour, turbidity, pH, temperature, Electrical conductivity, and, in particular, taste and
odour.

Colour

Dissolved organic material from decaying vegetation and certain inorganic matter
cause colour in water. Occasionally, excessive blooms of algae or the growth of
aquatic microorganisms may also impart colour. Colour in water is not true colour but
apparent colour that results from a colloidal suspension. Tea is an example of
apparent colour. While colour itself is not usually objectionable from the standpoint of
health, its presence is aesthetically objectionable and suggests that the water needs
appropriate treatment.

pH

pH measures acidity or alkalinity of a solution. pH of water is measured using a pH

Meter. Used to determine the condition of water for proper coagulation, softening, and
stabilization. For drinking water supply 6.0 < pH < 9.0.

Electrical conductivity

Capacity of water to carry electric current. Used to measure the presence and
concentration of dissolved solids in water. Good conductivity may indicate the
presence of salts and hence may be used to indicate total dissolved solids (TDS).

Taste and Odour

Taste and odour in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic
compounds, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases. These materials may come from
domestic, agricultural, or natural sources. Algae are frequently the source of taste and
odour in surface water supplies. Taste and odour can also result as a by-product of
chlorine disinfection. Drinking water should be free from any objectionable taste or
odour at the point of use.

Temperature

The most desirable drinking waters are consistently cool and do not have temperature
fluctuations of more than a few degrees. Groundwater and surface water from
mountainous areas generally meet these criteria. Most individuals find that water
having a temperature between 10° C–15° C is most palatable. Municipal drinking water
is not treated to adjust the temperature. However, the temperature of the water may
be an important water quality objective for a client and may be an important
consideration in the selection of the water source.

Turbidity

The presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, finely divided organic material,
plankton, and other particulate material in water is known as turbidity. The unit of
measure is a Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU). It is determined by reference to a
chemical mixture that produces a reproducible refraction of light. Turbidities in excess
of 5 NTU are easily detectable in a glass of water and are usually objectionable for
aesthetic reasons. Clay or other inert suspended particles in and of themselves may
not adversely affect health, but water containing such particles may require treatment
to make it suitable for disinfection. In general, turbidity reduces disinfection efficiency
by consuming the disinfectant and shielding the microorganisms.

8.5 Biological wastewater characteristics

Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be made free from pathogens. These
organisms include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths (worms). The techniques
for comprehensive bacteriological examination are complex and time consuming. The
most widely used test estimates the number of microorganisms of the coliform group.
This grouping includes two generals: Escherichia coli and Aerobacter aerogenes.
While E. coli are common inhabitants of the intestinal tract, Aerobacter are common
in the soil, on leaves, and on grain; on occasion they cause urinary tract infections.
The test for these microorganisms, called the Total Coliform Test, was selected for the
following reasons:

• The coliform group of organisms normally inhabits the intestinal tracts of humans
and other mammals. Thus, the presence of coliforms is an indication of faecal
contamination of the water.
• Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coliform organisms excreted in the
faeces out number the disease-producing organisms by several orders of
 magnitude. The large numbers of coliforms make them easier to culture than
disease-producing organisms.
• The coliform group of organisms survives in natural waters for relatively long
periods of time but does not reproduce effectively in this environment. Thus, the
presence of coliforms in water implies faecal contamination rather than growth of
the organism because of favourable environmental conditions. These organisms
also survive better in water than most of the bacterial pathogens. This means that
the absence of coliforms is a reasonably safe indicator that pathogens are not
present.
• The coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture. Thus, laboratory
technicians can perform the test without expensive equipment.

8.6 Chemical wastewater characteristics

Chemical water quality parameters are: Arsenic, Chloride, Fluoride, Iron, Lead,
Manganese, Sodium, Surfate, Zinc, etc. Toxic inorganic substances, and Toxic
organic substances.

Arsenic

Occurs naturally in some geologic formation. Widely used in timber treatment,

agricultural chemicals (pesticides), and manufacture of computer chips, glass, and
alloys. Linked to lung and urinary bladder cancer.

Chloride

Most waters contain some chloride. Normally caused by the leaching of marine
sedimentary deposits. Also caused by pollution from sea water, brine, wastewater, etc.

Iron

Water normally contains small amounts of iron due to the large amount of iron in the
geologic materials. Imparts a reddish colour to the water, stains bathroom fixtures and
laundered goods with a yellow to reddish-brown colour. Also, affects the tastes of
beverages such as tea and coffee.
Lead

Results from corrosion of lead pipes, (Thanks – lead pipes are no longer in use today).
Causes a number of health problems.

• Red blood cell formation.

• Kidney damage.

Naturally occurring manganese is often present in significant amounts in groundwater.

• Anthropogenic sources.
• Discarded batteries.
• Steel alloy production.
• Agricultural production.
• Stains fixtures and cloth that is washed in it.

Sodium

Affects persons suffering from heart, kidney, or circulatory ailments. Some home water
softeners may add large quantities of sodium to water.

Toxic inorganic substances

Nitrates

Cyanosis or “blue baby syndrome”.

Cyanides.

Oxygen deprivation.

Heavy metals.

Arsenic (As), Barium (Ba), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg),
Selenium (Se), and Silver (Ag).

Toxic organic substances

• Pesticides.
• Insecticides.
• Solvents.
8.7 Physical wastewater treatment methods
Physical unit process is also referred to as preliminary and primary treatment method.
Physical unit process involves the treatment of wastewater through physical forces to
treat wastewater. The physical unit processes are as follows: screening, coarse solids
reduction, mixing, flocculation, Grit removal, Primary sedimentation, flotation, filtration,
and adsorption

8.7.1 Screens
A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size, that is used to retain
large solids found in the influent wastewater to the wastewater treatment plant. The
role of screenings is to remove coarse solids that may damage or clog process
equipment, reduce treatment process reliability and effectiveness, and contaminate
water ways. Screenings are the materials retained on the screens. The materials
retained on the fine screens are usually small rags, paper, plastic material, razor
blades, grit, undecomposed food wastes, and faeces. Screenings consists of parallel
bars, rods or wires, gratings, wire mesh, or perforated plate. Screens can be divided
into two: Fine and coarse screens.

Fine screens are used to remove fine organic solids. Micro-screens are an example
of fine screens. Coarse screens are used to protect pumps, valves, pipelines, and
other appurtenances from damage and clogging. Coarse screens are classified
according to the method used to clean them. The classification is manually cleaned or
mechanically cleaned. Manually screened coarse screens are used as standby when
mechanically cleaned coarse screens are being cleaned or during power failure.
Mechanically cleaned coarse screens can be further classified into 4 types. These are:
Chain driven, reciprocating rake, catenary, and continuous belt screens.

8.7.2 Chain driven screens

Chain driven mechanically cleaned screens can be divided into categories based on
whether the screens are raked to clean from the front side or the back side and
whether the rakes return to the bottom of the bar screen from the front or back. Front
cleaned front return screens are more efficient in terms of retaining captured solids,
but they are less rugged and are susceptible to jamming by solids that collect at the
base of the rake. In the front cleaned back return screens, the cleaning rakes return
to the bottom of the screen and clean the bar screen as the rake rises. In back cleaned
screens the bars protect the rake from damage by the debris. Back cleaned screens
are susceptible to solids carry over to the down stream side particularly as the rake
wipers wear out.

8.7.3 Reciprocating rake

The reciprocating rake bar screens imitates the movement of a person raking the
screens. The rake moves to the base of the screen and engages the bars and pulls
the screenings to the top of the screen where they are moved. The advantage of this
type of screen is that all parts requiring maintenance are above the water line and can
be easily inspected and maintained without dewatering the channel. The downside of
the reciprocating rake is that they are limited to small quantities of screenings.

8.7.4 Catenary screen

A catenary screen is a type of front cleaned fronty return chain driven screen but it has
no submerged sprockets. The rake is held against the rack by the weight of the chain.
This type of screen requires large space of installation.

8.7.5 Continuous belt screen

The continuous belt screen is a continuous self cleaning screening belt that can be
used to remove both fine and coarse solids. A large number of screening elements
are attached to the drive chains. The number of screening elements depends on the
depth of the screen channel.

8.7.6 Screenings handling, processing, and disposal

Screenings are discharged onto a traveling belt conveyor or a hydraulic transport
system or pneumatic ejector system. The belt conveyor and pneumatic ejectors are
the primary means of mechanically transporting screenings. Belt conveyors offers the
simplicity of operation, low maintenance, freedom from clogging, and low cost.
Screening compactors can be used to dewater and reduce the volume of screenings.
Compactors reduce the volume of water in the screenings by up to 50%. Macerators
can be mounted above the pneumatic ejectors to grind up material and prevent
clogging. The disposal of screenings include the following: (1) removal of hauling to
disposal areas including co-disposal with municipal solid wastes, (2) disposal by burial
on the plant site, (3) incineration either alone or combination with sludge, (4) discharge
to grinders or macerators where they are ground and returned to the wastewater.
8.7.7 Coarse solids reduction
Three alternative techniques can be used for coarse and fine screens: Comminutors,
Macerators, and Grinders. Comminutors, Macerators, and Grinders can be used to
eliminate the messy and offensive task of screenings and handling and disposal.

8.7.8 Comminutors
Are used commonly in small wastewater treatment plants, less than 0.2 m³/s.
Communitors are installed in a wastewater flow channel to screen and shred materials
to small sizes such as 6 and 20 mm without removing the shredded solids from the
stream. A typical communitor uses a stationary horizontal screen to intercept the flow
and a rotating or oscillating arm that contains cutting teeth to mesh with the screen.
Communitors may create a string of material, namely rags, that can collect on the
downstream treatment equipment.

8.7.9 Macerators
Macerators are slow speed grinders that typically consists of two sets of counter
rotating assemblies with blades. The assemblies are mounted vertically in the flow
channel. The blades or teeth on the rotating assemblies have a close tolerance that
effectively chops material as it passes through the unit. Macerators can be used in
pipeline installations to shred the solids particularly ahead of wastewater and sludge
pumps or in channels at smaller wastewater treatment plants.

8.7.10 Grinders
High speed grinders typically referred to as hammermills receive screened material
from bar screens. The material is pulverised by a high-speed rotating assembly that
cuts the materials passing through the unit.

8.7.11 Mixing and Flocculation

Mixing is an important operation in wastewater treatment.

Mixing in wastewater treatment is important in order to achieve the following: (1)

mixing of one substance together with another, (2) blending of miscible liquids, (3)
flocculation of wastewater particles, (4) continuous mixing of liquid suspensions and
(5) heat transfer.

Mixing in wastewater can be classified into two: continuous rapid mixing, and
continuous mixing. Continuous rapid mixing is used when one substance is to be
mixed with another. Three conditions can be satisfied with continuous rapid mixing:
blending chemicals with wastewater, blending miscible liquids, and addition of
chemicals to sludge and bio-solids. Continuous mixing is used when the contents in
the holding tank need to be kept in suspension. Flocculation is important for the
formation of flocs in wastewater. Flocculation causes the small particles to collide with
each other to form large particles that can settle at the bottom of the tank.

8.7.12 Grit removal

Grit in wastewater consists of sand, gravel, cinders, and other heavy solid material.

Grit removal is important for a number of reasons such as: (1) reduce the formation of
heavy deposits in the aeration tank and pipelines, (2) reduce the frequency of
digesters cleaning caused by excessive accumulation of grit, and (3) protect moving
mechanical equipment from abrasion and abnormal wear. A complete grit removal
system consists of the following: grit separation, grit washing, and grit dewatering. Grit
removal in wastewater can be accomplished by the use of grit chambers. Grit
chambers can be classified into two: horizontal and aerated grit chambers. Horizontal
grit chambers can be classified into two: Rectangular and square horizontal flow grit
chamber.

8.7.13 Rectangular horizontal flow grit chamber

This is the oldest type of grit chamber. The horizontal flow grit chamber removes grit
through the use of a conveyor with a scraper, buckets, or plows. The screw conveyors
or bucket are used to elevate the removed grit for washing or disposal.

8.7.14 Square horizontal flow grit chambers

Square grit chambers are designed on the basis of overflow rates that are dependent
on particle size and the temperature of wastewater. The solids are removed by a
rotating raking mechanisms to a sump at the side of the tank. Settled grit may be
moved up an incline by a reciprocating rake mechanisms or an inclined screw
conveyor.

8.7.15 Aerated grit chambers

In aerated grit chambers air is introduced along one side of a rectangular tank to create
a spiral flow pattern perpendicular to the flow through the tank. The heavier particles
settle at the bottom and the lighter particle remain in suspension. The particles are
then removed by the use of a scraper.

8.7.16 Grit washing, drying, and disposal

The objective of the grit washing process is to achieve a clean grit with a low volatile
solids content. Grit washers are used to provide a second stage of volatile solids
suspension. Grit separated by from the main wastewater flow is transported in slurry
to a washing process to remove organic material.

8.7.17 Vortex grit chambers

Grit is also removed in devices that use a vortex flow pattern. Three types of vortex
type grit chamber: Mechanically induced vortex, Hydraulically induced vortex, and
multi-tray grit separator.

8.7.18 Mechanically induced vortex

In mechanically induced vortex unit is directed to the vortex unit by a long, straight
inlet channel that is designed to guide the wastewater flow into the vortex unit while
the grit is directed downward. The toroidal motion caused by the tangential entry is
enhanced by a rotating turbine impeller within the unit that causes the grit to move
along the flat floor towards the centre where it passes under a separating plate into a
grit slurry hopper while the lighter organic materials are maintained in suspension and
are guided to the surface where they leave the unit through the tangential exit.

8.7.19 Hydraulically induced vortex

In hydraulically induced vortex unit, the vortex is generated by the flow entering the
unit without any mechanical rotating devices. Wastewater is directed to the unit by a
long, straight inlet channel and enters tangentially into the cylindrical unit causing the
contents to rotate slowly about the vertical axis. Flow spirals down the perimeter,
allowing the grit and sand particles to settle. The internal components direct the main
flow away from the perimeter and back to the middle where the degritted effluent is
discharged near the centre where it passes under a centre cone to the grit slurry
hopper.

8.7.20 Multi-tray vortex grit separator

The proprietary multi-tray vortex grit separator consists of multiple stacked trays which
maximizes surface area and minimizing settling distances. This allows for a very
compact installation with low head-loss. Flow is directed into the multiple tray unit by
an influent distributor header which feeds a manifold which evenly distributes influent
tangentially into the multiple tray system. The tangential feed establishes a
hydraulically forced vortex flow pattern where grit settles by gravity along the sloped
surface of each tray and through a centre opening which allows collected grit from
each tray to settle into a single sump located below the centre of the unit.

8.7.21 Grit drying

The objective of the drying process is to achieve a clean dry grit with a total solids
concentration greater than 60 percent while retaining atleast 95 percent of the
deposited grit. The clean grit must be dewatered to remove all free water prior to
disposal. Grit is usually disposed in sanitary landfills and depending on local
regulations may have to pass a paint filter liquid test.

8.7.22 Grit disposal

The most common method of grit disposal is transport to a landfill.

Grit can also be incinerated with solids.

8.7.23 Primary Sedimentation

The purpose of sedimentation is to remove readily settleable solids and floating
material found in wastewater. Sedimentation can remove up to 70 percent of the
suspended solids and 40 percent of the BOD found in wastewater. There are two types
of sedimentation tanks commonly used in wastewater treatment. These are:
rectangular and circular sedimentation tanks. Rectangular sedimentation tanks may
use either chain and flight solids collectors or travelling bridge type collectors.
Rectangular sedimentation tanks requires less site space for construction. Circular
sedimentation tanks are arranged in groups of two or four. Circular sedimentation
tanks are challenged with the methods of introducing flow, energy dissipation, and
sludge removal.

8.7.24 Flotation
Flotation is the process of separating solid particles with liquid by introducing air in the
tank. The air bubbles attach to the particles and rise to the surface. The particles with
higher density than wastewater will be forced to rise to the surface. The most
commonly used flotation system in municipal wastewater treatment is the dissolved
air flotation. In dissolved air flotation, air is dissolved in the wastewater under a
pressure of several atmospheres.

8.8 Biological wastewater treatment methods

In a conventional wastewater treatment plant, biological treatment succeeds the
physical treatment method. Biological unit method is also referred to as secondary
treatment process. The biological treatment process receives influent flow from the
physical treatment process. The objective of the biological treatment of domestic
wastewater are to: (1) Transform dissolved and particulate biodegradable constituents
into acceptable end products, (2) Capture and incorporate suspended and non-
settleable colloidal solids into a biological floc or film, (3) transform or remove nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and (4) remove traces of organic constituents.
Biological treatment is achieved by the use of microorganisms. The microorganisms
are used to decompose the organic and inorganic matter into simple end products.
There are two types of biological processes in wastewater treatment: suspended
growth and attached growth.

8.8.1 Suspended growth process

In suspended growth process the microorganisms responsible for treatment are
maintained in liquid suspension by appropriate mixing methods. Many suspended
growth processes used in municipal and industrial wastewater treatment for
biodegradation of organic substances are operated with dissolved oxygen (aerobic) or
nitrate/nitrite (anoxic) utilization. Others are operated in the absence of dissolved
oxygen (anaerobic). The most commonly used suspended growth treatment process
is the activated sludge. Activated sludge treatment process application requires the
supply of oxygen for microorganisms to decompose the organic matter. There are 14
types of activated sludge treatment processes used for the removal of BOD and
nitrification.

The 14 types are as follows: Complete mix activated sludge, Conventional plug flow,
Step feed, Contact stabilization, Two sludge AB process, High purity oxygen,
Conventional extended aeration, Oxidation ditch, Orbal, Counter current aeration
system, Biolac process, Sequence batch reactor, Intermittent cycle extended aeration
system, and Cyclic activated sludge system.
The most commonly used activated sludge processes are: Complete mix activated
sludge, Conventional plug flow, Step feed, Contact stabilization, Oxidation ditch, and
Sequence batch reactor.

8.8.2 Complete mix activated sludge (CMAS)

The CMAS process is an application of the flow regime of a continuous flow stirred
tank reactor. Settled wastewater and recycled activated sludge are introduced typically
at several points in the aeration tank. The organic load on the aeration tank, MLSS
concentration, and oxygen demand are uniform throughout the tank. The advantage
of the CMAS process is the dilution of shock loads that occur in the treatment of
industrial wastewaters. The CMAS process is relatively simple to operate but tends to
have low organic substrate concentrations that encourage the growth of filamentous
bacteria, causing sludge bulking problems.

8.8.3 Conventional plug flow

Conventional plug flow activated sludge originated from the use of narrow aeration
tank widths as a result of using sidewall, coarse bubble aeration for mixing and
aeration. The area provided by the limited width and the use of liquid depths in the
range 5 to 6 m required tank lengths typically greater than 100m. Settled wastewater
and return activated sludge enter the front end of the aeration tank and typically travel
through 3 to 4 channels before flow to the secondary clarifier. The oxygen demand is
very high at the front of the tank and decreases with increasing tank length. The
aeration system must be designed to meet the changing oxygen demand and has
been referred to as tapered aeration to reflect the change from higher rates at the front
of the plug flow tanks to lower aeration rates at the end.

8.8.4 Step feed

Step feed is a modification of the conventional plug flow process in which the settled
wastewater is introduced at 3 to 4 feed points in the aeration tank to equalise the F/M
ratio. Generally, three or more parallel channels are used. Flexibility of operation is
one of the important features of this process because the apportionment of the
wastewater feed can be changed to suit operating conditions. The concentration of
MLSS may be as high as 5000 to 9000 mg/l in the first pass, with lower concentrations
in subsequent passes as more influent feed is added. The steep feed is capable of
carrying higher solids.
8.8.5 Contact stabilization
Contact stabilization uses two separate tanks or compartments for the treatment of the
wastewater and stabilization of the activated sludge. The stabilized activated sludge
is mixed with influent wastewater in a contact zone. Rapid removal of soluble BOD
occurs in the contact zone and colloidal and particulate organics are captured in the
activated sludge floc degradation later in the stabilization zone. In the stabilization
zone return activated sludge is aerated and the detention time is in the order of 1 to 2
hours to maintain sufficient SRT for sludge stabilization. The process was developed
for BOD removal and short contact time limits the amount of soluble BOD degraded
and ammonium oxidation.

8.8.6 Oxidation ditch

The oxidation ditch consists of a ring or race track shaped channel equipped with
mechanical aeration and mixing devices. Screened and degritted wastewater enters
the channel and is combined with the return activated sludge. The tank configuration
and aeration and mixing devices promote unidirectional channel flow so that energy
used for aeration is sufficient to provide mixing in a system with relatively long
hydraulic retention time. As wastewater leaves the aeration zone the DO concentration
decreases, and denitrification may occur downstream from the aeration zone.

8.8.7 Sequence batch reactor (SRB)

The SRB is a fill and draw type reactor system involving a single complete mix reactor
in which all steps of the activated sludge process occur. For municipal wastewater
treatment with a continuous flow, at least 2 basins are used so that one basin is in the
fill mode while the other goes through react, solids settling, and effluent withdrawal. A
SRB goes through a number of cycles per day: 3 hours fill, 2 hours aeration, 0.5 hour
settle and 0.5 hour for withdrawal of supernatant. The MLSS remains in the reactor
during all cycles thereby eliminating the need for separate secondary sedimentation
tank. SRB hydraulic retention times generally range from 18 to 30 hours based on
influent flowrate and tank volume used.

8.8.8 Attached growth process

In the attached growth process the microorganisms for the conversion of organic
matter or nutrients are attached to an inert packing material. The attached growth is
also known as biofilm. Materials used in attached growth include rock, gravel, slag,
sand, redwood, and a wide range of plastic and other synthetic materials. The attached
growth can be either fully submerged or partially submerged in the wastewater. The
most commonly used attached growth process is the trickling filter in which wastewater
is distributed over the top area of a vessel containing non-submerged parking material.
Two types of attached growth processes are: Trickling filters and rotating biological
contactors.

The advantages and disadvantages of trickling filters are as follows:

Advantages

• Less energy required

• Simpler operation with no issues of mixed liquor inventory control and sludge
wasting.
• No problems of bulking sludge in secondary clarifiers
• Better sludge thickening properties
• Less equipment maintenance needs
• Better recovery from stock toxic loads

Disadvantages

• Poor effluent quality for BOD and TSS concentrations.

• Sensitive to temperature changes.

• Odour production.

• Uncontrolled solids sloughing events.

• Difficulty in accomplishing nitrogen and phosphorus removal

There are 5 different types of attached growth processes commonly used in

wastewater treatment. The types are as follows: (1) non-submerged attached growth
aerobic process, (2) partially submerged attached growth aerobic process, (3)
sequential non-submerged attached growth activated sludge process, (4) submerged
attached growth aerobic processes, and (5) activated sludge processes with biofilm
carriers.
8.8.9 Non-submerged attached growth aerobic process
First developed at the Lawrence Experimental Station in Massachusetts in 1887. Non
submerged fixed film biological reactor using rock or plastic over which wastewater is
distributed continuously. The treatment occurs as the liquid flows over the attached
biofilm. The typical cycle requires about 12 hours (6 hours of operation and 6 hours of
resting).

8.8.10 Partially submerged attached growth aerobic process

In the rotating biological contactor (RBC) the parking material is rotated in wastewater
treatment tank in contrast to pumping and applying the wastewater over a vertical
static packing. This type of attached growth wastewater treatment is not commonly
used.

8.8.11 Sequential non-submerged attached growth activated sludge process

The first sequential trickling filter system were applied for the treatment of industrial
wastewaters or high strength combined domestic wastewaters. The non-submerged
attached growth process was used for partial BOD removal without solids clarification
followed by activated sludge treatment for final treatment.

8.8.12 Submerged attached growth aerobic processes.

The advantage of submerged attached growth system is the small footprint required
with an area requirement that is a fraction of that needed for activated sludge
treatment. It is also capable of handling dilute wastewaters and the avoidance of
activated sludge settling concerns. Submerged attached growth process have also
been used for tertiary nitrification and denitrification following suspended or attached
growth nitrification.

8.8.13 Activated sludge processes with biofilm carriers

The advantages of the activated sludge process with a fixed film carriers are as
follows:

• Increased treatment capacity

• Greater process stability
• Reduced sludge production
• Enhanced sludge settle-ability
• Reduced solids loadings on secondary clarifiers
• No increase in operation and maintenance costs

8.8.14 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)

The RBC process consists of a series of closely spaced discs (3 to 3.5 m in diameter)
mounted on a horizontal shaft. The discs are rotated while about one-half of their
surface area is immersed in wastewater. The discs are typically constructed of
lightweight plastic. The speed of rotation of the discs is adjustable. When the process
is placed in operation, the microbes in the wastewater begin to adhere to the rotating
surfaces and grow there until the entire surface area of the discs is covered with a 1-
to 3-mm layer of biological slime. As the discs rotate, they carry a film of wastewater
into the air; this wastewater trickles down the surface of the discs, absorbing oxygen.

As the discs complete their rotation, the film of water mixes with the reservoir of
wastewater, adding to the oxygen in the reservoir and mixing the treated and partially
treated wastewater. As the attached microbes pass through the reservoir, they absorb
other organic compounds for oxidation. The excess growth of microbes is sheared
from the discs as they move through the reservoir. These dislodged organisms are
kept in suspension by the moving discs.

Thus, the discs serve several purposes:

• They provide media for the build-up of attached microbial growth.

• They bring the growth into contact with the wastewater.
• They aerate the wastewater and the suspended microbial growth in the reservoir.
• The attached growths are similar in concept to a trickling filter, except the microbes
are passed through the wastewater rather than the wastewater passing over the
microbes.
• Some of the advantages of both the trickling filter and activated sludge processes
are realized.
• As the treated wastewater flows from the reservoir below the discs, it carries the
suspended growths out to a downstream settling basin for removal.
• The process can achieve secondary effluent quality or better.
• By placing several sets of discs in series, it is possible to achieve even higher
degrees of treatment, including biological conversion of ammonia to nitrates.
 8.9 Chemical wastewater treatment methods
Chemical unit method is also referred to as tertiary treatment process. Chemical unit
methods are the removal of constituents through the addition of chemicals in
wastewater. The principal chemical unit processes used for wastewater treatment
include: (1) chemical coagulation, (2) chemical precipitation, (3) chemical oxidation,
(4) photolysis, and (5) chemical neutralization, scale control, and stabilization.
Disinfection is the most common chemical unit method of removing constituents in
wastewater. Chlorine is the most common disinfection chemical.

8.9.1 Chemical coagulation

Chemical coagulation is a process of destabilizing colloidal particles so that particles
growth can occur as a result of particle collisions. A coagulant is a chemical that is
added to destabilize the colloidal particles in wastewater so that floc formation can
occur. Chemical coagulation typically occurs parallel with flocculation. Flocculation is
used to describe the process whereby the size of the particles increases as a result of
particle collisions. A flocculant is chemical typically organic added to enhance the
flocculation process. Typical coagulant types include metal salts such as alum or ferric
chloride.

8.9.2 Chemical precipitation

Chemical precipitation involves the addition of chemicals to alter the physical state of
dissolved and suspended solids and facilitate their removal by sedimentation.
Chemical precipitation is used:

• As a means of improving the performance of primary settling facilities,

• As a basic step in the independent physical-chemical treatment of wastewater,
• For the removal of phosphorus,
• For the removal of heavy metals, and
• For improving the quality of water to be reused by softening.

8.9.3 Chemical oxidation

Chemical oxidation involves the use of oxidizing agents such as ozone, hydrogen
peroxide, permanganate, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and oxygen to bring about change
in the chemical composition of a compound or group of compounds. The principal
application of chemical oxidation in wastewater treatment are for:
• Odour control,
• Hydrogen sulphide control,
• Colour removal,
• Iron and manganese removal,
• Disinfection,
• Control of biofilm growth and biofouling in treatment processes and distribution
system components, and
• Oxidation of selected trace organic constituents

8.9.4 Photolysis
Photolysis is a process by which constituents are broken down by exposure and
adsorption of photons from a light source. The primary use of photolysis is for the
removal of trace organic compounds in water use applications. In natural streams and
open channel, sunlight is the light source for photolysis reactions. In engineered
systems, ultraviolet lamps are used to produce the photonic energy. The effectiveness
of the photolysis process depends on the characteristics of the reclaimed water,
structure of the compounds, design of the photolysis reactor, and dose and
wavelength of the applied light.

8.9.5 Chemical neutralization, scale control, and stabilization.

Chemical neutralization, Neutralization is referred to as the removal of excess acidity

or alkalinity using a chemical. Most used neutralization is the adjustment of the pH
level in wastewater treatment. All treated wastewater with excessively low or high pH
will require neutralization before they can be dispersed into the environment. Scaling
is required for nano-filtration and reverse osmosis treatment to control the formation
of scale, which can severely impact performance. Chemical stabilization is often
required for highly treated wastewaters to control their aggressiveness with respect to
corrosion.

8.10 Disinfection process

Disinfection is the most commonly accomplished by the use of: (1) chemical agents
and (2) non-ionizing radiation.
8.10.1 Chemical agents
Chlorine and its compounds and ozone are the principal chemical compounds
employed for the disinfection of wastewater. Other chemicals that have been used as
disinfectants in different applications include (1) bromine, (2) iodine, (3) phenol and
phenolic compounds, (4) alcohols, (5) heavy metals and related compounds, (6) dyes,
(7) soaps and synthetic detergents, (8) quaternary ammonium compounds, (9)
hydrogen peroxide acid, (10) peracetic acid (11) various alkalis, and (12) various
acids.

8.10.2 Non-ionizing radiation

In general energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, heat, and acoustic waves that
can be transmitted over large distances without conductors or special conduits is
termed radiation. Electromagnetic waves include visible light, infrastructure light,
microwaves, and radio waves. Ultraviolet light (UV) is the most common from of
electromagnetic radiation used for the disinfection of treated wastewater. Heating
water to the boiling point, for example will destroy the major disease producing non-
spore forming bacteria. Commonly used in the food processing industry,
pasteurization in the wastewater field has received greater interest recently because
of the availability of new equipment, the opportunity to utilize waste heat, energy
concerns with other disinfectants. Radiation with sufficient energy to ionize atoms is
termed ionizing radiation. Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays
radiation, and neutrons are generally considered to be forms of ionization radiation.

8.10.3 Disinfection by Chlorine

Chlorine of all the chemical disinfectants is the one used most commonly through the
world. The principal chlorine compounds used at water reclamation plants are chlorine,
sodium hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide.

Calcium hypochlorite, another chlorine compound, is used in very small treatment

plants due to its ease of operation.

Chlorine can be present as a gas or a pressurised liquid. Chlorine gas is greenish

yellow in colour and about 2.48 times as heavy as air. Liquid chlorine is amber
coloured and about 1.44 times as heavy as water. Unconfined liquid chlorine vaporizes
rapidly to a gas at standard temperature and pressure with one litre of liquid yielding
about 450 litres of gas. Chlorine is moderately soluble in water, with a maximum
solubility of about 1 percent at 10⁰c. Important concerns about chlorine include the
following:

• Chlorine is a highly toxic substance that is transported by rail and truck, both of
which are prone to accidents.
• Chlorine is a highly toxic substance that potentially poses health risks to treatment
plant operators, and the general public, if released by accident.
• Chlorine is a highly toxic substance, stringent requirements for containments and
neutralization must be implemented as specified in the uniform fire code.
• Chlorine reacts with the organic constituents in wastewater to produce odorous
compounds.
• Chlorine reacts with the organic constituents in wastewater to produce by-products,
many of which are known to be carcinogenic and/or mutagenic.
• Residual chlorine in treated effluent is toxic to aquatic life.
• The discharge of chloro-organic compounds has long term effects on the
environment that are not known

8.10.4 Disinfection with ozone

Ozone is an unstable gas produced when oxygen molecules dissociate into atomic
oxygen. Ozone can be produced by electrolysis, photochemical reaction, and
radiochemical reaction by electrical discharge. Ozone is often produced by ultraviolet
light and lightning during a thunderstorm. Ozone is a blue gas at normal room
temperatures and has a distinct odour. Ozone is used primarily for the disinfection of
water, recent advances in ozone generation and solution technology have made the
use of ozone economically more competitive for the disinfection of the disinfection of
treated wastewater. Ozone can be used in water reuse applications for removal of
soluble refractory organics, I lieu of the carbon adsorption process. Ozone is an
extremely reactive oxidant and it is generally believed that bacterial kill through
ozonation occurs directly because of cell wall disintegration is reported. Final effluent
from the wastewater treatment plant is discharged into natural water bodies. The
natural water bodies as monitored by the department of water and sanitation together
with the department of environmental affairs. Natural water bodies are rivers, streams,
lakes etc.
• The limits of wastewater to be discharged into the natural bodies are as follows:
Colour, taste, or odour - The wastewater or effluent shall not contain any substance
in a concentration capable of producing any colour, odour or taste.
• pH - Shall be between 5,5 and 9,5.
• Dissolved oxygen - Shall be at least 75 percent saturation.
• Faecal coliform - The wastewater or effluent shall not contain any typical (faecal)
coli per 100 millilitres.
• Temperature - Shall be a maximum of 35° C
• Chemical Oxygen demand - Not to exceed 75 milligrams per litre after applying
the chloride correction.
• Oxygen absorbed - The oxygen absorbed from acid N/80 potassium
permanganate in 4 hours at 27° C shall not exceed 10 milligrams per litre.
• Conductivity - Not to be increased by more than 75 milli-Siemens per metre
(determined at 25° C) above that of the intake water.
• Suspended solids - Not to exceed 90 milligrams per litre.
• Sodium - Not to be increased by more than 90 milligrams per litre above that of
the intake water.

There are three effluent discharge areas that are common:

• Discharge into rivers and water courses, excluding estuaries, dams and lagoons.
• Discharge into estuaries, dams, lakes, lagoons or other masses of water (sea
excluded).
• Discharge into the sea.

Discharge into rivers and water courses, excluding estuaries, dams and
lagoons.

• Permissible on merits with due regard to local circumstances such as the dilution
factor in the river or stream, rainfall etc.
• The permissibility of discharge must be determined with due regard to the use of
the river water downstream.
• The discharge point must be determined with due regard to the position of water
abstraction point(s) for domestic purposes lower down the river.
• The effluent must contain no harmful substances in concentrations dangerous to
health

Discharge into estuaries, dams, lakes, lagoons or other masses of water (sea
excluded)

• Permissible on merits if reasonable assurance exists that the quality and volume
are such as not to cause nuisances or health hazards
• Once mixed with the effluent the water must not become less suitable for domestic
use and/or recreation.
• The effluent must contain no harmful substances in concentrations dangerous to
health.

Discharge into the sea

• Only permissible beyond the surf zone.

• The discharge point must be determined with due regard to the quality and volume
of effluent, the sea currents, the distribution and dilution of effluent, and the
proximity of present and future bathing areas.
• No coastal area may be polluted with effluents containing substances which are
potentially harmful to health.
• The discharge of effluent must not cause any nuisance or have any effect on
marine life which may adversely affect man directly or indirectly
 Self-Evaluation
1. Discuss the Physical characteristics
2. Discuss the Chemical characteristics
3. Discuss the Biological characteristics
4. Discuss the Physical treatment methods
5. Discuss the Biological treatment methods
6. Discuss the Chemical treatment methods
7. Discuss the disinfection treatment methods