writing

Punctuating the Four Sentence Types

First, you have to understand what a clause is. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a
verb. A clause has to contain both a subject and a verb.

There are two types of clauses.

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and can stand
alone as a sentence. That is why it is an independent clause—it’s independent; it can stand
alone.

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but it is dependent
on another clause, an independent clause, to be a complete sentence.

*************************************************************************************

Now that you understand what a clause is and the two types of clauses, you can learn to correctly
punctuate the four types of sentences.

1. Simple: A simple sentence is one independent clause that may or may not contain
adjectives, adverbs, and phrases. But, a simple sentence only has one independent clause.

Example: John Adams nominated George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the

Continental Army.

2. Compound: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses. Join the
independent clauses with both a comma and a coordinating conjunction (remember
fanboys—for, and, not, but, or, yet, so) or a semicolon.

Examples: After the French and Indian war, George Washington married the wealthy
Martha Custis, and he spent the years before the American Revolution enjoying
the life of a Southern gentleman.

After the French and Indian war, George Washington married the wealthy
Martha Custis; he spent the years before the American Revolution enjoying the
life of a Southern gentleman.
3. Complex: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. The independent clause is called the main clause. Use a comma after the
dependent clause that comes before the main clause (i.e. the dependent clause begins the
sentence). However, you don’t need to use a comma after the main clause when the
dependent clause follows it.

Example: To show that he was ready for war, George Washington attended the Second
Continental Congress in a military uniform.

George Washington attended the Second Continental Congress in a military

uniform to show that he was ready for war.

4. Compound-Complex: A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses

and one or more dependent clauses. To correctly punctuate a compound-complex sentence,
you apply the rules in combination for punctuating a compound sentence and a complex
sentence.

Example: George Washington was unanimously elected the first president, and although
he never officially joined a political party, he earned the affection of most
Americans during his two terms as president.
The Learning Hub Sentence Patterns
Writing Handout Series Grammar, Mechanics, & Style

Beginning writers often wonder how they can make their writing more complex. Varying the
sentence structure can help better express ideas, create relationships, and create a more
dynamic rhythm between your ideas. If these various sentence types are understood and
manipulated, as a writer, you can make more informed decisions about the presentation and
style of your words. The four sentence types are the simple/complete sentence, the
compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-complex sentence.

Simple/Complete Sentence
The simple sentence is one independent clause punctuated with a . ? or !

Chocolate cake with butter cream icing is delightful.

I love eating mint chocolate chip ice cream!
Would you walk 500 miles for a good cupcake?

Compound Sentence
The compound sentence is two or more independent clauses conjoined in one of four ways.

1. independent clause, (coordinating conjunction) independent clause.

Conjunctions are words that link ideas together. The words for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
and so (FANBOYS) are used to show the relationships between the different clauses.

Sam ate the chocolate cake, but he would have preferred vanilla.
Danielle took a bite of the chocolate chip cookie, and she chewed it slowly.

2. independent clause; (conjunctive adverb/transitional phrase), independent clause.

Please see our handouts on semicolons, transitional words, and commas for more
information.

Lisa wrote Ally’s name on the cake; however, she spelled the name wrong.
The bread was made today; also, the cookies were dipped earlier this morning.

3. Independent clause (;) independent clause.

Use the semicolon to combine two related independent clauses. Please see our
semicolons handout for more information.

Jessie unlocked the front door early; a line of customers were already waiting.
Julie dipped the cookies; Andrea took the cookie pans out to the store.

4. independent clause (:) independent clause.

Use the colon when the second clause amplifies or explains the first clause. See our
colon handout for more information.

Jacob dropped the cake on the floor: the five layer tiered cake was too heavy.
The oven roared to life: it was time to begin baking.

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 Complex Sentence
The complex sentence is one or more dependent clauses plus one independent clause. Please
see our handout on clauses and phrases for more information about clauses.

Dependent clause Dependent clause Independent clause

Although it is not recommended, before placing the cookies in the oven, I ate some raw cookie
dough

Independent clause Dependent clause

The storm has driven away the customers despite our massive sale on cookies because it is
raining so hard.
Dependent clause

Compound-Complex Sentence
The compound-complex sentence is one or more dependent clauses plus two or more
independent clauses. The rules for conjoining the dependent and independent clauses are the
same as for compound and complex sentences, though it is important to note that in
compound-complex sentences, dependent clauses are usually connected by commas.

Dependent clause Independent clause

After our shift was over, Jeremy and I cleaned the glass cases while Lisa and Anne
counted out the drawers; since everyone worked together, we got to leave early.
Dependent clause Dependent clause Independent clause

Independent clause Dependent clause Dependent clause Independent clause

Mom loves éclairs when the custard is warm; although Dad also likes éclairs as well, he cannot
eat them when the custard is warm, and it leads to many arguments.

Dependent clause Independent clause

Using these Sentence Patterns

Although these sentence patterns are extremely useful in providing variety within your
paragraphs, it is important to avoid overusing any particular sentence structure. Too many
short sentences may make your language sound choppy whereas too many long sentences will
make your writing sound long-winded. So, writing becomes about balance and rhythm. Using
these tools helps you create powerful writing. When your structure reflects the ideas you are
communicating, you are using your strategies in the best way possible.
***This handout was inspired from John Haslem’s Sentence Pattern and Punctuation handout, who relied heavily upon the Harbrace College
Handbook, 12th edition, for word lists and definitions of grammatical terms.

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Last Edited: 6/12/2017 [email protected] | (217) 206-6503
By: AA, MB, SC BRK 460 | www.uis.edu/thelearninghub
Sentence Basics
In this chapter, please refer to the following grammar key:

• Subjects are underlined.

• Verbs are in bold.
• LV means linking verb
• HV means helping verb
• V means action verb
• N means noun
• Adj mean adjective
• Adv means adverb
• DO means direct object
• IO means indirect object

Components of a Sentence

Clearly written, complete sentences require key information: a subject, a verb and a complete
idea. A sentence needs to make sense on its own. Sometimes, complete sentences are also called
independent clauses. A clause is a group of words that may make up a sentence. An
independent clause is a group of words that may stand alone as a complete, grammatically
correct thought. The following sentences show independent clauses in curly brackets:
{We went to the store.} {We bought the ingredients on out list}, and then {we went home.}

All complete sentences have at least one independent clause. You can identify an independent
clause by reading it on its own and looking for the subject and the verb.

Subjects

When you read a sentence, you may first look for the subject, or what the sentence
is about. The subject usually appears at the beginning of a sentence as a noun or a
pronoun. A noun is a word that identifies a person, place, thing, or idea. A pronoun
is a word that replaces a noun. Common pronouns are I, he, she, it, you, they,
and we.
Malik is the project manager for this project. He will give us our assignments.

In these sentences, the subject is a person: Malik. The pronoun He replaces and
refers back to Malik.
The computer lab is where we will work. It will be open twenty-four hours a day.

In the first sentence, the subject is a place: computer lab. In the second sentence,
the pronoun It substitutes for computer lab as the subject.
The project will run for three weeks. It will have a quick turnaround.
In the first sentence, the subject is a thing: project. In the second sentence, the
pronoun It stands in for the project.

Compound Subjects

A sentence may have more than one person, place, or thing as the subject. These
subjects are called compound subjects. Compound subjects are useful when you
want to discuss several subjects at once.
Desmond and Maria have been working on that design for almost a year. Books, magazines, and online
articles are all good resources.

In the first sentence, the subjects are Desmond and Maria. In the second
sentence, books, magazines, and online articles are the subjects.

Prepositional Phrases

You will often read a sentence that has more than one noun or pronoun in it. You
may encounter a group of words that includes a preposition with a noun or a
pronoun. Prepositions connect a noun, pronoun, or verb to another word that
describes or modifies that noun, pronoun, or verb. Common prepositions
include in, on, under, near, by, with, and about. A group of words that begin with a
preposition is called a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a
preposition and modifies or describes a word. It cannot act as the subject of a
sentence. The following phrases inside curly brackets are examples of
prepositional phrases.
We went {on a business trip}. That restaurant {with the famous pizza} was on the way. We
stopped {for lunch}.
The prepositional phrases in this example include on a business trip, with the
famous pizza, and for lunch.
Exercise
Read the following sentences. Underline the subjects, and circle the prepositional phrases.

1. The gym is open until nine o’clock tonight.

2. We went to the store to get some ice.
3. The student with the most extra credit will win a homework pass.
4. Maya and Tia found an abandoned cat by the side of the road.
5. The driver of that pickup truck skidded on the ice.
6. Anita won the race with time to spare.
7. The people who work for that company were surprised about the merger.
8. Working in haste means that you are more likely to make mistakes.
9. The soundtrack has over sixty songs in languages from around the world.
10. His latest invention does not work, but it has inspired the rest of us.
Verbs

Once you locate the subject of a sentence, you can move on to the next part of a
complete sentence: the verb. A verb is often an action word that shows what the
subject is doing. A verb can also link the subject to a describing word. There are
three types of verbs that you can use in a sentence: action verbs, linking verbs, or
helping verbs.

Action Verbs

A verb that connects the subject to an action is called an action verb. An action
verb answers the question what is the subject doing? In the following sentences,
the action verbs are in bold.
The dog barked at the jogger.

He gave a short speech before we ate.

Barked and gave are action verbs.

Linking Verbs

A verb can often connect the subject of the sentence to a describing word. This
type of verb is called a linking verb because it links the subject to a describing
word. In the following sentences, the linking verbs are in bold.
The coat was old and dirty.

The clock seemed broken.

Was and seemed are linking verbs.

If you have trouble telling the difference between action verbs and linking verbs,
remember that an action verb shows that the subject is doing something, whereas a
linking verb simply connects the subject to another word that describes or modifies
the subject. A few verbs can be used as either action verbs or linking verbs.
Action verb: The boy looked for his glove.

Linking verb: The boy looked tired.

Although both sentences use the same verb looked, the two sentences have
completely different meanings. In the first sentence, the verb describes the boy’s
action. In the second sentence, the verb describes the boy’s appearance.
Helping Verbs

A third type of verb you may use as you write is a helping verb. Helping verbs are
verbs that are used with the main verb to describe a mood or tense. Helping verbs
are usually a form of be, do, or have. The word can is also used as a helping verb.
The restaurant is known for its variety of dishes.

Is is the helping verb. Known is the main verb.

She does speak up when prompted in class.

Does is the helping verb. Speak up is the main verb.

We have seen that movie three times.

Have is the helping verb. Seen is the main verb.

They can tell when someone walks on their lawn.

Can is the helping verb. Tell is the main verb.

Whenever you write or edit sentences, keep the subject and verb in mind. As you
write, ask yourself these questions to keep yourself on track:

• Subject: Who or what is the sentence about?

• Verb: Which word shows an action or links the subject to a description?

Exercise
Copy each sentence onto your own sheet of paper and circle the verb(s). Name the type of
verb(s) used in the sentence in the space provided (LV, HV, or V).

1. The cat sounds ready to come back inside. ________

2. We have not eaten dinner yet. ________
3. It took four people to move the broken-down car. ________
4. The book was filled with notes from class. ________
5. We walked from room to room, inspecting for damages. ________
6. Harold was expecting a package in the mail. ________
7. The clothes still felt damp even though they had been through the dryer twice.
________
8. The teacher who runs the studio is often praised for his restoration work on old
masterpieces. ________
Sentence Structure, Including Fragments and Run-ons
Now that you know what makes a complete sentence—a subject and a verb—you
can use other parts of speech to build on this basic structure. Good writers use a
variety of sentence structures to make their work more interesting. This section
covers different sentence structures that you can use to make longer, more complex
sentences.

Sentence Patterns

Six basic subject-verb patterns can enhance your writing. A sample sentence is
provided for each pattern. As you read each sentence, take note of where each part
of the sentence falls. Notice that some sentence patterns use action verbs and
others use linking verbs.

Subject – Verb

Computers hum.

Subject – Linking Verb – Noun

Computers are tools.

Subject – Linking Verb – Adjective

Computers are expensive.

Subject – Verb – Adverb

Computers calculate quickly.

Subject – Verb – Direct Object

When you write a sentence with a direct object (DO), make sure that the DO
receives the action of the verb.
Sally rides a motorcycle.
Sally is the subject. Rides is the verb. A motorcycle is the direct object.

Subject – Verb – Indirect Object – Direct Object

In this sentence structure, an indirect object explains to whom or to what the action
is being done. The indirect object is a noun or pronoun, and it comes before the
direct object in a sentence.
My coworker gave me the reports.
My coworker is the subject. Gave is the verb. Me is the indirect object. Reports is
the direct object.

Exercise

Use what you have learned so far to bring variety in your writing. Write six
sentences that practice each basic sentence pattern. When you have finished, label
each part of the sentence (S, V, LV, N, Adj, Adv, DO, IO).

Common Errors in Writing a Sentence

Fragments

The sentences you have encountered so far have been independent clauses. As you
look more closely at your past writing assignments, you may notice that some of your
sentences are not complete. A sentence that is missing a subject or a verb is called
a fragment. A fragment may include a description or may express part of an idea, but it
does not express a complete thought.

Fragment: Children helping in the kitchen.

Complete sentence: Children helping in the kitchen often make a mess.

You can easily fix a fragment by adding the missing subject or verb. In the example, the
sentence was missing a verb. Adding often make a mess creates an S-V-N sentence
structure.

Figure 1.1 Editing Fragments That Are Missing a Subject or a Verb

See whether you can identify what is missing in the following fragments.

Fragment: Told her about the broken vase.

Complete sentence: I told her about the broken vase.

Fragment: The store down on Main Street.

Complete sentence: The store down on Main Street sells music.

Common Sentence Errors

Fragments often occur because of some common error, such as starting a sentence
with a preposition, a dependent word, an infinitive, or a gerund. If you use the six basic
sentence patterns when you write, you should be able to avoid these errors and thus
avoid writing fragments.

When you see a preposition, check to see that it is part of a sentence containing a
subject and a verb. If it is not connected to a complete sentence, it is a fragment, and
you will need to fix this type of fragment by combining it with another sentence. You can
add the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If you add it to the beginning of
the other sentence, insert a comma after the prepositional phrase.

Example A

Example B

Clauses that start with a dependent word—such as since, because, without, or unless—
are similar to prepositional phrases. Like prepositional phrases, these clauses can be
fragments if they are not connected to an independent clause containing a subject and
a verb. To fix the problem, you can add such a fragment to the beginning or end of a
sentence. If the fragment is added at the beginning of a sentence, add a comma.

When you encounter a word ending in -ing in a sentence, identify whether or not this
word is used as a verb in the sentence. You may also look for a helping verb. If the
word is not used as a verb or if no helping verb is used with the -ing verb form, the verb
is being used as a noun. An -ing verb form used as a noun is called a gerund.
Once you know whether the -ing word is acting as a noun or a verb, look at the rest of
the sentence. Does the entire sentence make sense on its own? If not, what you are
looking at is a fragment. You will need to either add the parts of speech that are missing
or combine the fragment with a nearby sentence.

Incorrect: Taking deep breaths. Saul prepared for his presentation.

Correct: Taking deep breaths, Saul prepared for his presentation.

Correct: Saul prepared for his presentation. He was taking deep breaths.

Incorrect: Congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Correct: She was congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their
success.

Correct: Congratulating the entire team, Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Another error in sentence construction is a fragment that begins with an infinitive. An

infinitive is a verb paired with the word to; for example, to run, to write, or to reach.
Although infinitives are verbs, they can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. You
can correct a fragment that begins with an infinitive by either combining it with another
sentence or adding the parts of speech that are missing.

Incorrect: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. To reach the one
thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes to reach the one
thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. We wanted to reach
the one thousand mark.

Run-on Sentences

Just as short, incomplete sentences can be problematic, lengthy sentences can be

problematic too. Sentences with two or more independent clauses that have been
incorrectly combined are known as run-on sentences. A run-on sentence may be either
a fused sentence or a comma splice.

Fused sentence: A family of foxes lived under our shed young foxes played all over the
yard.

Comma splice: We looked outside, the kids were hopping on the trampoline.

When two complete sentences are combined into one without any punctuation, the
result is a fused sentence. When two complete sentences are joined by a comma, the
result is a comma splice. Both errors can easily be fixed.
Punctuation

One way to correct run-on sentences is to correct the punctuation. For example, adding
a period will correct the run-on by creating two separate sentences.

Using a semicolon between the two complete sentences will also correct the error. A
semicolon allows you to keep the two closely related ideas together in one sentence.
When you punctuate with a semicolon, make sure that both parts of the sentence are
independent clauses.

Run-on: The accident closed both lanes of traffic we waited an hour for the wreckage to
be cleared.

Complete sentence: The accident closed both lanes of traffic; we waited an hour for
the wreckage to be cleared.

When you use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses, you may wish to add
a transition word to show the connection between the two thoughts. After the semicolon,
add the transition word and follow it with a comma. For more information on transition
words, see Chapter 7 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”.

Run-on: The project was put on hold we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept
working.

Complete sentence: The project was put on hold; however, we didn’t have time to
slow down, so we kept working.

Coordinating Conjunctions

You can also fix run-on sentences by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction acts as a link between two independent clauses.

TIP
These are the seven coordinating conjunctions that you can
use: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Use these words appropriately when you want to
link the two independent clauses. The acronym FANBOYS will help you remember this
group of coordinating conjunctions.
Run-on: The new printer was installed, no one knew how to use it.
Complete sentence: The new printer was installed, but no one knew how to use it.

Dependent Words

Adding dependent words is another way to link independent clauses. Like the
coordinating conjunctions, dependent words show a relationship between two
independent clauses.
Run-on: We took the elevator, the others still got there before us.

Complete sentence: Although we took the elevator, the others got there before us.

Run-on: Cobwebs covered the furniture, the room hadn’t been used in years.

Complete sentence: Cobwebs covered the furniture because the room hadn’t been
used in years.

Exercise : Sentence Fragments Exercise 1

The sentences below appeared in papers written by students. Act as their editor,
marking a C if the sentences in the group are all complete and an F if any of the
sentences in the group is a fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are
incomplete sentences?
____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high that was a bad experience.
____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun sending its brilliant rays to
the earth and the leaves of various shades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in
the wind.
____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off his notes. Like other
teachers in that department, he did not encourage students' questions.
____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose from. It was difficult to
distinguish between them.
____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar for a steak dinner and a
few glasses of beer. After this meal, they were ready for anything.
____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional. Especially when you are on
your first date, you feel that you should be in control.
____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated, prestigious, and elite group
of readers. Although that is a value judgment and in circumstances not a true premise.
____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for football. To prove to himself
and his parents that he is a man.
____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not realizing at the time that we
would never enter that door in her home again.
____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back into my childhood days at
fun-filled times of snowball fights. To think about this makes me happy.
____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen red roses for his wife.
Hoping she would accept his apology.
____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe's oldest and best friends
had a little too much to drink.
____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve miles an hour. My old
rowboat with its three-horsepower motor seemed like a high-speed job to me.
____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for the pot handle. Tilting the
pot way too much caused the boiling water to spill.
____15. The small, one-story houses are all the same size and style. With no difference
except the color.
____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first joined the soccer team.
Together we learned a lot.

Run-on Sentences - Exercise 2

Instructions

1. Each sentence below is a run-on. Choose the answer that corrects the run-on so that
the run-on becomes a complete sentence.

Questions
1.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours for the fall
semester I regret I didn't listen to her.

a.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this

semester, and now I regret not having listened to her.

b.) When my academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours

this semester, and I now regret not having listened to her.
 c.) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this
semester, now I regret that I did not listen to her.

2.) My cat was upset all day he didn't get canned food for breakfast.

a.) My can was upset all day. Because he did not get canned food
for breakfast.

b.) My cat was upset all day because he did not get canned food
for breakfast.

c.) Because my cat was upset today and did not get canned food
for breakfast.

3.) The student fell asleep in class everyone thought this was rude behavior.

a.) The student fell asleep in class, and everyone thought this was
rude behavior.

b.) The student was falling asleep in class, and although everyone
thought this was rude behavior.

c.) Even though the student fell asleep in class, and everyone
thought this was rude behavior.

4.) Ron was chopping the vegetables Ginny was boiling the rice.

a.) Ron was chopping the vegetables, and Ginny was boiling the
rice.

b.) When Ron was chopping the vegetables and Ginny was boiling
the rice.

c.) Ron was chopping vegetables and while Ginny was boiling the
rice.
5.) When we wanted to drive to the park we followed the direction from our
neighbors we ended up in Canada instead.

a.) When we wanted to drive to the park, we followed the

directions we received from our neighbors and ended up in Canada
instead.

b.) We wanted to drive to the park as we followed the directions

we received from our neighbors we ended up in Canada.

c.) Because we wanted to drive to the park and got wrong

directions and ended up in Canada.

6.) Peggy is a writing instructor she knows how to write a brilliant essay.

a.) Because Peggy is a writing instructor and knows how to write a

brilliant essay.

b.) Peggy who is a writing instructor and knows how to write an

essay.

c.) Peggy is a writing instructor. She knows how to write a brilliant

essay.

7.) I prefer walking riding the bike hurts my knees.

a.) I prefer walking. So riding the bike hurts my knees.

b.) I prefer walking for riding the bike hurts my knees.

c.) Since riding the bike hurts my knees and I prefer walking.

8.) The anatomy test was very hard Joann got an A.

a.) Just as Joann got an A in the very hard anatomy test.

b.) Because the anatomy test was hard, and Joann got an A.

c.) Although the anatomy test was very hard, Joann got an A.
9.) The ability to write a good essay is essential you need to take writing
intensive English classes.

a.) Due to the fact that the ability to write good essays is essential
and you need to take writing intensive English classes.

b.) You need to take writing intensive English classes due to the
fact that the ability to write a good essay is essential.

c.) Since you need to take writing intensive classes, and the
ability to write a good essay is essential.

10.) My friend is in jail, but he is not a dangerous criminal he is an undercover

agent.

a.) Because my friend is an undercover agent who is in jail right

now and not a dangerous criminal.

b.) My friend who is in jail right now is not a dangerous criminal,

but an undercover agent.

c.) My friend is in jail because he is an undercover agent he is not

a dangerous criminal.
Cohesion can be grammatical or lexical.

Grammatical cohesion is the relation of grammatical elements that include references, substitutions,
ellipsis and conjunctions. While lexical cohesion is the linkage between parts of the essay to obtain a
cohesive unity of structure. The lexical elements include reiteration (through synonyms, antonyms,
collocation, and repetition) and collocations. These elements are very important in writing essays in
order to make sentences related to each other.

Grammatical Cohesion
Reference:
1. Endophoric (Anaphoric and Cataphoric)
2. Exophoric
1.
A) Anaphoric Reference:
Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its
meaning.

e.g. Ahmed went to work today. He had a rough day.

B) Cataphoric Reference:
Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers forward to another later in the text.

1
e.g. He went to work today. Ahmed had a rough day.

2. Exophoric Reference:
Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something outside the discourse.

e.g.

I told her that she could find it on a map, but you know how she is.

She and her refer to a person not ever mention within the sentence. It refers to a place
not ever mentioned within the sentence. How this sentence is conveyed implies
that she and it were previously established prior to this sentence.

Substitution:

1. Nominal
Nominal substitution is substituting a noun or a nominal group with another
noun. Elements of this type are one, ones, and same.

e.g. This car is old. I will buy a new one.

These pens are great. I will buy some new ones.

He wants the beef burger with cheese, and I think I'll have the same.

2. Verbal
Verbal substitution involves substituting a verb or a verbal group with another
verb. Verbal substitution is realized through an auxiliary verb (do, be, have)

e.g. I challenge you to win the game before I do!

A: Have the children gone to sleep?

B: They must have done.

Ann: Does she sing?

Barnie: Yes, she does

3. Clausal
Clausal substitution is substituting clauses by so or not.

A: Do you think the teacher is going to be absent tomorrow?

2
 B: No. I don’t think so. OR I think not

Ellipsis:

1. Nominal:
Nominal ellipsis is the omission of the head noun within the nominal group. Therefore, it is
the omission of one specific element of the noun phrase.

- Why don't you use a knife? I haven't got any .

- They don’t like it, yet said nothing.

- Nelly liked the green tiles; I preferred the blue .

2. Verbal
Verbal ellipsis is ellipsis within the verbal group.

- Is it going to rain? It may or may not .

A: will anyone be waiting?

B: Jim will .

Substitution and Ellipsis Exercises

Identify examples of substitution and ellipsis in this text:

Exercise a

The human memory system is remarkably efficient, but it is of course extremely fallible.
That being so, it makes sense to take full advantage of memory aids to minimize the
disruption caused by such lapses. If external aids are used, it is sensible to use them
consistently and systematically - always put appointments in your diary, always add
wanted items to a shopping list, and so on. If you use internal aids such as mnemonics,
you must be prepared to invest a reasonable amount of time in mastering them and
practising them. Mnemonics are like tools and cannot be used until forged. Overall,
however, as William James pointed out (the italics are mine): 'Of two men with the same
outward experiences and the same amount of mere native tenacity, the one who thinks
over his experiences most and weaves them into systematic relations with each other will
be the one with the best memory.'

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Exercise b

This conflict between tariff reformers and free traders was to lead to the "agreement to
differ" convention in January 1932, and the resignation of the Liberals from the
government in September 1932; but, until they resigned, the National Government was a
genuine coalition in the sense in which that term is used on the continent: a government
comprising independent yet conflicting elements allied together, a government within
which party conflict was not superseded but rather contained - in short, a power-sharing
government, albeit a seriously unbalanced one.

Exercise c

The number of different words relating to 'camel' is said to be about six thousand. There
are terms to refer to riding camels, milk camels and slaughter camels; other terms to
indicate the pedigree and geographical origin of the camel; and still others to differentiate
camels in different stages of pregnancy and to specify in-numerable other characteristics
important to a people so dependent upon camels in their daily life (Thomas, 1937)

Exercise d

There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this, the first relating to Britain's
economic and Imperial difficulties, the second to the internal dissension in all three
parties.

Substitution: Fill in the gaps using the following

(not – mine – ones – there – do – some – so – one)

1. My jumper is working out, so I need a new _______.

2. Mary likes coffee and I _______too.
3. A: Has she arrived? B: I think _______.
4. His car is red and _______is too.
5. I like Greece. We went on holiday _______.
6. He may lose, but I hope_______.
7. There is plenty of food, so do have _______.
8. These cups are dirty. Let's use the other _______.

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 Ellipsis: Decide the words which are omitted

1. He'll come soon, but I don't know exactly when.

2. A: What should I have done? B: Told him the truth
3. I could have gone to her party, but I didn't want to.
4. A: Has she been cycling B: No, running
5. A: Would you like a candy? B: I have got a lot
6. Mark bought a coat and Lynn a hat and gloves.
7. I don't know if John has gone, but I think he has.

Conjunctions:
Additive Adversative Causal Temporal
In addition but thus then
And however hence when
Moreover yet therefore before/after
Furthermore nevertheless consequently while

Lexical Cohesion
A.Reiteration
1. Use of Synonyms (Key noun Substitutes)
• Lexical cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is in some sense
synonymous or nearly synonymous with a preceding one.

- The argument between the two men lasted for hours. Their dispute
accomplished little.

- For many years, gold has been used in hundreds of industrial

applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts’ suits.

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2. Antonymy:
• A relational antonym is one of a pair of words with opposite meanings, where opposite
makes sense only in the context of the relationship between the two meanings.

He fell asleep. What woke him was a loud crash.

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3-Repetition of Key Words
Using the same word over again, but not restricted to the same morphological form
(using run (V), run (N), ran, running, runner, etc., all within the same text). When
key words are repeated, ideas are emphasized.

B. Collocation:
• Collocation is lexical cohesion which depends upon the tendency of some words to
co-occur in texts.

For example, when one sees the noun pipe in a sentence, it is more probable that
the verb to smoke will also appear in the sentence. In another example, the noun
bicycle could more likely occur with the verb to ride then any random verb.

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Examine this

I am a teacher. The teacher was late for class. Class rhymes with grass.
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. But it
wasn't.

1-Is the text meaningful (coherent)?

2-Is the text cohesive (i.e. linked together)?

Highlighting cohesion in a text

For this activity you are going to read the short narrative text below, which
is a piece of creative writing about a student, and then complete an exercise
in highlighting the cohesive words.

The student sighed as she handed in the assignment, at last it was finished. This was the most

difficult piece of writing which she had been set, but she had completed it. The ‘magnum opus’

was 10,000 words long. This project, though not quite a dissertation, was still the longest piece

of academic writing she had ever written. She had thought she would never complete it and it

had taken all her strength to do so.

Her achievement made her elated but had left her exhausted. When she had read the title of the

task, she knew it was not going to be just another essay, not an easy one at all. Finally, the

completed work lay on the counter of the reception [and was] beautifully bound. She would sleep

easy at night, [and she would be] no longer troubled by thoughts of its accusing blank pages –

the nightmare was over