Vaishnavi D20B/

Chaudhary 09
AI DS 2

Assignment
No.2

Q.1 Explain Restricted Boltzmann Machine(RBM).

A Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM) is a type of stochastic neural network

that is used for unsupervised learning. It is particularly well-suited for tasks like
dimensionality reduction, feature learning, and collaborative filtering. Here’s a
detailed explanation of its structure, functioning, and applications:

Structure of RBM

An RBM consists of two layers of neurons:

1. Visible Layer:
○ Represents the observed data. Each neuron in this layer corresponds
to an element of the input vector (e.g., pixel values in an image,
user preferences in a collaborative filtering scenario).
2. Hidden Layer:
○ Captures the underlying features of the data. Each neuron in this
layer is a latent variable that encodes the dependencies between the
visible units.

Key Characteristics

● Bipartite Graph: RBMs have a bipartite structure, meaning that there are
no connections between the neurons in the same layer. Only connections
between the visible and hidden layers exist.
● Energy-Based Model: RBMs are defined in terms of energy. Each
configuration of visible and hidden states has an associated energy, and the
network tends to minimize this energy.
● Binary and Real-Valued Units: While RBMs can use binary units for both
layers, they can also incorporate Gaussian visible units for real-valued data.

How RBMs Work

1. Data Representation:
○ The visible layer is activated by input data. Each neuron in the
hidden layer computes the probability of being activated based on
the states of the visible layer.
2. Forward Pass:
○ Given a visible vector v, the hidden layer's state h is determined by the
activation probabilities:
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where σ is the logistic sigmoid function, wij is the weight connecting

visible unit i to hidden unit j, and bj is the bias of hidden unit j.

3. Reconstruction:
○ The hidden layer can then generate a reconstruction of the visible
layer. The visible units are activated again based on the hidden

states:
○ where ai is the bias for visible unit i.
4. Training:
○ RBMs are trained using a method called Contrastive Divergence
(CD). This method involves:
■ Performing Gibbs sampling to approximate the distribution of
the visible units given the hidden units.
■ Updating the weights and biases to minimize the difference
between the original and reconstructed visible states.

Applications of RBM

1. Dimensionality Reduction:
○ RBMs can be used to reduce the dimensionality of data while
preserving essential features, making it easier to visualize or
analyze data.
2. Feature Learning:
○ By learning a set of features that represent the input data, RBMs can
improve the performance of supervised learning tasks.
3. Collaborative Filtering:
○ In recommendation systems, RBMs can learn user preferences by
modeling interactions between users and items, helping to predict
ratings for unseen items.
4. Image Recognition:
○ RBMs can extract features from images, making them useful in
computer vision tasks, especially as building blocks in deep learning
architectures.

Q.2 Explain comparative analysis of different ML techniques.

Supervised Learning Algorithms

Supervised learning techniques include Linear Regression, Logistic Regression,

Decision Trees, Support Vector Machines (SVM), Random Forest, and Gradient
Boosting Machines (GBM).
Linear Regression is straightforward and interpretable but limited to linear
relationships.
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Logistic Regression effectively handles binary classification but also assumes linearity.
Decision Trees are intuitive and can manage both categorical and numerical data but
are prone to overfitting. SVMs are robust in high-dimensional spaces but can be
computationally intensive.
Random Forest mitigates overfitting through ensemble methods but sacrifices
some interpretability, while Gradient Boosting often yields superior accuracy but
requires careful tuning and can be slow to train.

Unsupervised Learning Algorithms

In unsupervised learning, techniques like K-Means Clustering, Hierarchical

Clustering, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) are commonly used. K-
Means is efficient for large datasets and simple to implement but sensitive to initial
conditions and outliers. Hierarchical Clustering offers insights into data structure
without needing to specify the number of clusters but can be computationally
expensive. PCA is valuable for dimensionality reduction and noise reduction but
may lead to interpretability challenges due to the transformed components.

Reinforcement Learning Algorithms

Reinforcement learning includes algorithms like Q-Learning and Deep Q-Networks

(DQN).
Q-Learning is model-free and effective in dynamic environments but may converge
slowly. DQNs leverage deep learning to handle complex state spaces effectively but
require significant computational resources and careful hyperparameter tuning.

Q.3 Explain Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge.

The Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (LSVRC) is a prominent competition in

the field of computer vision, specifically focused on image classification and object
detection tasks.
Established in 2010, LSVRC is part of the ImageNet project, which aims to provide a
large-scale dataset of annotated images for training and evaluating visual recognition
algorithms.

Key Features of LSVRC:

1. Dataset: The challenge utilizes the ImageNet dataset, which contains

over 14 million images classified into thousands of categories. For LSVRC,
a subset of this dataset, containing around 1.2 million labeled images
across 1,000 categories, is used. The images are diverse, covering a wide
range of objects and scenes.
2. Tasks: The main tasks in LSVRC are:
○ Object Classification: Participants develop algorithms to classify
images into predefined categories.
○ Object Detection: In addition to classification, participants also work
on detecting and localizing objects within images, often requiring the
identification of bounding boxes around objects.
3. Evaluation Metric: The primary metric for evaluating performance in
LSVRC is the top-5 error rate, which measures the percentage of test
images for which the correct label is not among the top five predicted labels
from the model. Lower error rates indicate better model performance.
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4. Impact on Deep Learning: LSVRC played a pivotal role in the
advancement of deep learning techniques for visual recognition. The
breakthrough came in 2012 when the AlexNet architecture, developed by
Alex Krizhevsky and his collaborators, significantly outperformed previous
methods. This success demonstrated the power of deep convolutional
neural networks (CNNs) and catalyzed a surge of research and
development in deep learning for computer vision.
5. Subsequent Developments: Following the success of AlexNet,
subsequent years of LSVRC saw the introduction of more sophisticated
architectures, such as VGGNet, GoogLeNet, and ResNet, each improving
accuracy and pushing the boundaries of what was achievable in image
recognition tasks.
6. Broader Influence: LSVRC has influenced not only academic research but
also industrial applications, leading to the adoption of deep learning
techniques in various domains, including healthcare, autonomous vehicles,
and robotics.

Q.4 Explain ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC).

The ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) is a highly

influential competition in the field of computer vision, aimed at advancing the
performance of algorithms for image classification and object detection. It is part of
the larger ImageNet project, which provides a vast and richly annotated dataset
designed for the training and evaluation of visual recognition systems.

Key Aspects of ILSVRC

1. Dataset: ILSVRC uses a subset of the ImageNet dataset, which contains

over 14 million labeled images spanning more than 20,000 categories. For
the challenge, approximately
1.2 million images are selected, categorized into 1,000 distinct classes.
These classes cover a wide array of objects, including animals, vehicles, and
everyday items.
2. Challenges and Tasks: ILSVRC primarily focuses on two main tasks:
○ Image Classification: Participants develop algorithms to accurately
classify images into one of the 1,000 predefined categories. The goal
is to minimize the classification error.
○ Object Detection: This task involves not only classifying the
images but also detecting and localizing objects within them.
Participants must draw bounding boxes around objects and correctly
classify them.
3. Evaluation Metric: The main metric for assessing performance in ILSVRC
is the top-5 error rate. This metric calculates the percentage of test
images for which the correct label does not appear among the top five
predictions made by the algorithm. A lower top-5 error rate indicates
better model performance.
4. Significant Milestones:
○ The challenge gained widespread attention in 2012 when AlexNet, a
deep convolutional neural network (CNN) developed by Alex
Krizhevsky, Geoffrey Hinton, and Ilya Sutskever, dramatically
improved classification accuracy, achieving a top-5 error rate of
15.3%. This performance highlighted the potential of deep learning in
computer vision.
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○ Subsequent years saw the introduction of various advanced
architectures, such as VGGNet, GoogLeNet, and ResNet, each
pushing the boundaries of image recognition capabilities and
contributing to the growing field of deep learning.
5. Impact on Research and Industry: ILSVRC has had a profound impact on
both academic research and industry applications. The competition has
driven innovations in deep learning techniques, inspiring researchers to
develop new algorithms and architectures. The techniques and models
resulting from ILSVRC have been widely adopted across various domains,
including healthcare (e.g., medical imaging), autonomous vehicles, and facial
recognition systems.

Q.5 Explain learning rate in neural network model.

The learning rate is a critical hyperparameter in training neural network models,

influencing how the model updates its weights based on the loss gradient during the
optimization process. The learning rate determines the size of the steps taken
towards minimizing the loss function during each iteration of training. It controls how
much to change the model's weights in response to the calculated error for a given
input.

Importance of Learning Rate

1. Convergence Speed: A well-chosen learning rate can significantly impact

the speed of convergence. A smaller learning rate means smaller updates,
which can lead to a slower convergence but may result in more precise final
weights. Conversely, a larger learning rate may speed up training but risks
overshooting the optimal weights.
2. Training Stability: The learning rate can affect the stability of the training
process:
○ Too High: If the learning rate is too high, the model may oscillate or
diverge, failing to converge on a solution. This can result in erratic
behavior and increased loss during training.
○ Too Low: A learning rate that is too low can lead to very slow
training times, making it difficult for the model to reach
convergence within a reasonable timeframe.

Learning Rate Schedules

To improve training efficiency, various learning rate schedules can be employed,

which adjust the learning rate over time:

1. Constant Learning Rate: The learning rate remains fixed throughout the
training process.
2. Exponential Decay: The learning rate decreases exponentially after each
epoch, allowing for larger updates in the beginning and smaller updates as
training progresses.
3. Step Decay: The learning rate is reduced by a factor (e.g., halved) at
specific intervals (epochs), helping the model refine its weights as it
approaches convergence.
4. Adaptive Learning Rates: Techniques like Adam, RMSprop, and
Adagrad automatically adjust the learning rate based on the gradients of
the loss function, adapting to the landscape of the loss surface and
promoting stable training.
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Q.6 Draw architecture of auto encoders.

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An autoencoder is a type of neural network used for unsupervised learning,

primarily for dimensionality reduction and feature learning. It consists of two main
components: an encoder and a decoder. Description of Components

1. Input Layer (X): This layer receives the original input data. The input can
be an image, a time series, or any type of data.
2. Encoder: The encoder processes the input data and reduces its
dimensionality by mapping it to a lower-dimensional space (the latent space
or bottleneck layer). This part typically consists of several layers of neurons
with activation functions (often ReLU or sigmoid) that compress the data.
3. Bottleneck Layer (Latent Space): This layer contains the compressed
representation of the input data. The number of neurons in this layer is less
than that in the input layer, capturing the most important features of the
data.
4. Decoder: The decoder reconstructs the input data from the compressed
representation in the bottleneck layer. It usually mirrors the encoder's
structure, expanding the data back to its original dimensions.
5. Output Layer (Reconstructed X): This layer produces the final
output, which is an attempt to recreate the original input data. The
reconstruction error (the difference between the input and the output)
is typically used to train the autoencoder.

● Loss Function: Autoencoders are trained using a loss function, such as

mean squared error, which measures how well the output matches the
original input.
● Variations: There are several variations of autoencoders, such as:
○ Denoising Autoencoders: Trained to reconstruct original inputs
from corrupted versions.
○ Sparse Autoencoders: Use sparsity constraints on the hidden
layers to learn more efficient representations.
○ Variational Autoencoders (VAEs): Introduce probabilistic
elements into the encoding and decoding process, generating
new data points.