COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOLOGY I

COURSE CODE: BIO 101

CELL

A cell can be defined as the basic, structural, functional and biological unit of all organisms. It is
the basic component of life thus considered as “building block of life”. There are countless
organisms around us comprising of different kinds of cell. Some organisms, such as bacteria are
unicellular consisting of a single cell while some consist of many cells called multicellular such as
animal, plant, fungi etc.

All living organisms, large and small, plant and animal, fish and fowl, man and microbe, are made
up of cells. All cells are basically similar to each other, having many structural features in
common. Organisms may be composed of only one cell, when we describe them as being
unicellular, or of many cells when we say they are multicellular. With the exception of eggs, which
are the largest cells (in volume) known, cells are small and mostly invisible to the unaided eye.
Consequently, our understanding of cells paralleled technical advances in the resolving power of
microscopes. Englishman Robert Hooke first saw the remains of dead cells in 1665 in a piece of
cork as he was using his newly invented microscope and he coined the word “cell” to describe
the tiny structures, thinking that they resembled the unadorned cells occupied by the monks. In
1838 Mathias Schleiden, a German botanist, announced that all plant tissues were composed of
cells. A year later one of his countrymen, Theodor Schwann, described animal cells as being
similar to plant cells. Schleiden and Schwann are thus credited with the unifying cell theory. Some
20 years after the announcements of Schleiden and Schwann, Rudolf Virchow, a great German
physician, made another important generalization, cells come only from pre-existing cells. Cells
are separated from their external environment by an interface or plasma membrane. Everything
inside the plasma membrane is sometimes referred to as protoplasm, consisting of the jelly like
cytoplasm and various structures collectively known as organelles, including the membrane,
bound nucleus. Each organelles represents a highly specialized compartment or submodule in
which particular functions of the cell are localized.
 CELL THEORY CONSISTS OF THREE PRINCIPLES:

 All living things are composed of one or more cells

 Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.
 Cells come only from the replication of existing cells.

TYPES OF CELL

Basically, there are two types of cell in nature namely:

1. Prokaryotic cells: these are cells that have no definite nucleus bounded by nuclear
membrane. The nucleic acid is not associated with protein and the daughter nuclei are
generally formed automatically with the help of binary fission.
2. Eukaryotic cells: have a definite nucleus containing DNA, RNA and protein with distinct
nuclear membrane, discrete chromosomes and different kinds of cell organelles.

Table 1: Differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Most prokaryotes are unicellular Most eukaryotes are multicellular

Cell size is small (0.5 – 10 µm) Cell size is large (10 – 100 µm)

Lacks true nucleus Presence of true nucleus

Absence of membrane bound organelles Presence of membrane bound organelles

Contains a single circular chromosome Contains more than one linear chromosome

Cell division occurs only by mitosis Cell division occurs by mitosis and meiosis

Found in bacteria and archae Found in fungi, plant and animal

Nucleolus is absent Nucleolus is present

 Flagellum (if present) is simple, built from Flagellum (if present) is complex, built from
two proteins microtubules

70S ribosome 80S ribosome

On the basis of cell number, organisms can be grouped into

1. Unicellular organisms: these are group of organisms that possess one cell which are
capable of performing all cellular activities. Examples include bacteria, yeast, archae,
amoeba etc.
2. Multicellular organisms: these are group of organisms that possess numerous cells in
their body. Cells within the body are differentiated in order to perform specialized
functions. Examples include plant, animal, mold etc.

Table 2: Differences between unicellular and multicellular organism

Unicellular Organism Multicellular Organism

Contains a single cell in their body Contains numerous cells in their body

Simple diffusion is used as the transport Simple diffusion, active and passive transport
mechanism mechanisms are used

All cellular activities are carried out by a Cells in the body are differentiated in order
single cell to perform specialized functions

Reproduces asexually by binary fission Reproduces asexually by mitosis

Reproduces sexually by conjugation Reproduces sexually by formation of gametes

Has short life span Has long life span

Include both prokaryotes and eukaryotes Include only eukaryotes

 Cell differentiation is absent Cell differentiation is present

Plant and Animal Cells

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus along with specialized structures called
organelles that carry out certain specific functions. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell
is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane. Plant cells are rectangular, and usually
larger than animal cells. On the other hand, an animal cell is an eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell
wall and has a true, membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles. The shape of
animal cells also varies, some are flat, oval or rod-shaped, curved, spherical, concave and
rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope.
Furthermore, these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also comprise
other membrane-bound organelles and cellular structures which carry out specific functions
necessary for a cell to function properly.
Figure 1: A Plant Cell
Figure 2: An Animal Cell

Table 3: Differences between plant and animal cell

Feature Plant cells Animal cells

Cell wall Have cell wall composed of Lack cell wall but have a cell
cellulose and a cell membrane
membrane

Plastid Contain plastids such as Absent

chloroplasts needed for
photosynthesis
 Vacuole Have a large central vacuole Have many small vacuoles
that can occupy up to 90% of
the cell’s volume

Shape Typically rectangular or cubic Typically round or irregular

Energy Store energy as starch Store energy in form of

complex carbohydrate

Centrioles Absent Present

Cilia Absent Present

Lysosomes Rare Present

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

Structurally, cells can be grouped into prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are
cells without true nucleus i.e they lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus while Eukaryotic cells are
cells with true nucleus.

PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

Prokaryotes have a relatively simple structure. The term comes from the Greek “pro (before) and
karyon (nut or kernel)”. Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane bound nucleus. Two categories of
prokaryotes have been found which include bacteria and archaea. Both types of microorganisms
are relatively small and abundant in nature (air, water, food, soil etc). a typical prokaryotic cell
has a plasma membrane which is a double layer of phospholipids and embedded protein, forms
an important barrier between the cell and the external environment. It is actually a semi-
permeable membrane that allows the movement of materials and nutrients in and out of the
cell. The cytoplasm is the region of the cell contained within the plasma membrane. Certain
structures within the cytoplasm are visible under microscope such as the nucleoid region which
is where genetic materials are situated and ribosome involved in protein synthesis.
Outside the plasma membrane is a rigid structure called cell wall which helps to protect and
support the plasma membrane while giving the cell shape. The cell wall composition varies
among the prokaryotes but generally contains peptides and carbohydrate. Certain strains of
bacteria produce a thick gelatinous glycocaylx called Capsule. Finally, many prokaryotic
organisms have fimbriae and flagella which are needed for attachment and movement of the
organism.

Figure 3: A typical structure of bacterium (prokaryotic organism)

EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

Eukaryotic cells are cells possessing a true membrane bound nucleus. Organisms, with this cell
type are known as eukaryotic organisms or eukaryotes. Animals, plants and other organisms
excluding bacteria, blue green algae and archae have been grouped into this category. Eukaryotic
cells are more complex structurally than prokaryotic cells. These organisms have membrane
bound nucleus with many cell organelles to perform several cellular functions within the system.
 FUNCTION OF CELLULAR ORGANELLES

Organelles are intracellular structures that perform specific functions in cells analogous to the
functions of organs in the body. Eukaryotic cells are structurally complex and this complexity is
due chiefly to the use of internal membranes for several purposes. The partitioning of the
eukaryotic cell interior by membranes makes possible the placement of different biochemical
and physiological functions in separate compartments so that they can more easily take place
simultaneously under independent control and proper coordination.

NUCLEUS: this is one of the distinguishing features between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
organism. Prokaryotes lack true nucleus. Nucleus is a membrane bound structure that carries the
cell hereditary information and controls cell growth and reproduction. It is commonly the most
prominent organelle in the eukaryotic cell. The nuclear envelope, otherwise known as nuclear
membrane, consists of two cellular membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, arranged
parallel to one another. The outer nucelar membrane is continuous with the membrane of the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER+), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space
between the membrane is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen.
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell/s genetic material in the form of multiple linear
DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. The function of the nucleus is to
maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene
expression, the nucleus is, therefore, the control centre of the cell. The nucleolus is a discrete
densely stained structure found in the nucleus. The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize
rRNA and assemble ribosomes.

RIBOSOME: The ribosome is a large and complex molecular machine, found within all living cells
both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell that serve as the primary site of biological protein
synthesis. Ribosomes consist of two major subunits; the small ribosomal subunit reads the mRNA,
while the large subunit 0oins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed
of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA+ molecules and a variety of proteins). Ribosome though
present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes but prokaryotes are composed of 70S having 30S
and 50S ribosomal subunits while eukaryotes has 80S with 40S and 60S subunits. The ribosome
in eukaryotic cell can either be found free in the cytoplamic matrix or bound to the endoplasmic
reticulum as incase of Rough endoplasmic reticulum.

ENDOPLASMIC RECTICULUM: is an irregular network of branching and fusing membranous

tubules around 40-70nm in diameter and many flattened sacs called Cisternae. The nature of the
ER varies with the functional and physiological status of the cell. Basically there are two types of
ER which include the Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The
rough ER is involved in the secretion of protein as it has ribosomes studded on its outer surface
while the smooth ER is found on structure synthesizing lipids which lacks ribosome, including oils,
phospholipids and steroids, metabolizing of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration
and detoxification of drugs and poisons. ER is therefore involved in the transport of protein, lipid
and other materials through the cell.

CELL/ PLASMA MEMBRANE: this encompasses the cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. It is the chief point of contact with the cell’s environment, plasma membrane is semi
permeable selective membrane that helps to protect the cell from osmotic pressure and also
helps in controlling the movement of molecules and ions in and out of the cell, thus preventing
the loss of essential component because many substance cannot pass through the membrane
without assistance . Molecules or materials to be transported out of the cell do so by employing
various transport system. In prokaryotes the plasma membrane also serves as the location for
varieties of crucial metabolic processes such as respiration, photosynthesis, synthesis of lipids
and cell wall constituents.

CHLOROPLAST: Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some other eukaryotic
organisms such as photosynthetic protists. They often possess pigments such as chlorophyII and
carotenoids which are the sites for the synthesis and storage of food. They utilize chlorophyII in
the process of light to convert CO2 and water to carbohydrates and O2 through a process known
as Photosynthesis

MITOCHONDRIA: found in most eukaryotes usually referred to as the Power house of the cell.
Mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed filamentous organelle. Mitochondria are sometimes
described as cellular power plants because they generate most of the cell/s Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) used as a source of chemical energy. In addition to the cellular energy,
mitochondria are involved in other tasks such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as
well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Tricarboxylic acid cycle and the generation of
ATP through electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation take place within the
mitochondrion

CILIA/ FLAGELLA: they are most prominent organelles associated with motility. They are whip-
like structure, usually cilia are shorter in length than flagella.

VACUOLE: this include food vacuole and contractile vacuole. Food vacuole are involved in the
temporary storage, transport and digestion of food materials while the contractile vacuole helps
in water balance thus giving the organism buoyancy.

CELL WALL: cell wall is an essential component of most prokaryotic organisms as it helps to
protect and give cell shape. Base on the cell wall composition bacteria are grouped into Gram
positive and Gram negative. Many eukaryotic organisms lack this external covering such as
animal cell, amoeba etc, nevertheless certain eukaryotes such as plant cell, photosynthetic
protists have cell wall. The cell wall composition in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms
varies. In prokaryotes the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan, lipid but eukaryote is composed
of cellulose, chitin, glucan, pectin etc depending on the organism. It also help to protect the cell
from osmotic lysis and from toxic substances.

GOLGI APPARATUS: The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened sac-like cisternae stacked on
each other. These membranes, like the smooth ER lack bound ribosomes. There are usually
around 4 to 8 cisternae in a stack, although there may be many more. The Golgi apparatus is
present in most eukaryotic cells, but many fungi and ciliate protozoa lack a well-formed structure.
Sometimes the Golgi consists of a single stack of cisternae; however, many cells may contain up
to 20 and sometimes more separate stacks. These stacks of cisternae often called dictyosomes,
can be clustered in one region or scattered about the cell. They are involved in the packaging and
preparation of materials for secretion. The exact nature of its role varying with the organism. For
instance, the surface scales of some flagellated photosynthetic and radiolarian protists appear to
be constructed within the Golgi apparatus and then transported to the surface in vesicles. The
Golgi often participates in the development of cell membranes and in the packaging of cell
products. The growth of some fungal hyphae occurs when Golgi vesicles contribute their contents
to the wall at the hyphal tip.
LYSOSOMES: they are roughly spherical and enclosed in a single membrane. They are involved in
intracellular digestion and contain enzymes needed to digest all types of macromolecules. These
enzymes are hydrolases that catalysis the hydrolysis of molecules, function best in acidic
environment. Lysosomes also help in maintaining acidic environment by pumping protons into
their interior.

ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

In unicellular organism, one cell carries out all the functions of life contrary to multicellular
organism which are specialized to carry out specific functions. The following organization of life
are found in multicellular organisms.

CELLS TISSUES ORGANS SYSTEMS

In the organization of life, all living organisms are composed of cell which is the basic unit of life
thus cell serves as the smallest unit in the organization of life, examples of cell include sperm cell,
plant cell, animal cell, amoeba etc.

Cells combine to form tissues which are group of similar cells performing similar or related
functions e.g vascualar tissue. The combination of tissues performing similar or related functions
are called organ examples inlcude eyes, nose, heart, root, stem etc while the aggregate of organs
performing related functions are termed system, which is the highest in the organization of life
example include respiratory system, endocrine system, digestive system etc.

COLONIAL ORGANIZATION

A colonial organization is a collection of genetically identical cells that live together in a closely
connected group. Many of the cells of the colony actually carry out specific functions that benefit
the whole colony. Colonial organisms (e.g. sponges, coral) appear to straddle the border
between a collection of unicellular organisms and a true multicellular organism. They lack tissues
and organs, but do exhibit the principle of cell specialization.

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

The system of classifying organisms is referred to as Taxonomy (Taxis means arrangement and
nomos mean method). The modern taxonomic system was developed by the Swedish botanist
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) who is being referred to as the father of classification. He used
simple physical characteristics i.e morphological traits of organisms to identify and differentiate
between different species and is based on genetics.

Linnaeus developed a hierarchy of groups for taxonomy. To distinguish different levels of

similarity, each classifying group called taxon (pl. taxa) is subdivided into other groups. Hence,
nomenclature which is the science of naming organism was introduced while binomial system of
nomenclature referring to the science of attributing or giving two names (Genus and Specie) to
an organism. It gives each species a unique two-word Latin name Genus and SPECIE name e.g
Homo sapiens, Plathera leo, Escherichia coli etc. when writing this name, it should be noted that
the first letter of the genus should be in capital letter while the specie in small letter with both
underline or italicized. Linnaeus was able to classify organisms into two kingdom; plant and
animal but these kingdom did not include other forms of life thus resulting in the classification of
organisms into 5 kingdom namely: Plantae, Animalia, Monera, Fungi and Protista.

Classification can be defined as grouping organisms according to their structural similarities. This
means that organisms that share similar features are placed in one group. These groups are
arranged from the largest group of organisms to the smallest group of organisms. All living
organisms are classified into groups based on very basic shared characteristics. Organisms within
each group are then further divided into smaller groups. These smaller groups are based on more
detailed similarities within each larger group. As you go through the classification hierarchy, you
will see that scientists have used broader features to put organisms into kingdoms, which are the
largest groups of organisms it consists of organisms that share just a few basic similarities. When
you move down towards the species, which are the smallest groups of organisms, features are
becoming specific. In other words, two organisms that belong to the same species share more
features than those in the same kingdom but in different species.

A specie can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features, and these organisms are
capable of breeding and producing fertile offspring. It is the lowest and strictest level of
classification of living things. The main criterion for an organism to be placed in a particular
species is the ability to breed with other organisms of that same species. The species of an
organism determines the second part of its two-part name.

Classification hierarchy has many uses. First, it helps scientists to sort organisms in order. Second,
it helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit. Third, it is easier to
study organisms when they are sorted in groups.

Basis of Classification
Classification can be carried out based on many factors such as:
 Presence of nucleus
 Body design – make up of cells (single-celled or multicellular organisms)
 Production of food
 Level of the organization in bodies of organisms carrying out photosynthesis
 In animals – an organization of one’s body parts, development of body, specialized organs
for different functions.
 Body symmetry
 Notochord etc
Need for Classification
(i) Classification makes identification and the study of a wide variety of organisms easy.
(ii) It reveals inter-relationships among different groups of organisms.
(iii) It gives information about the organisms and fossils of other localities.

HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISM

Carolus Linnaeus arranged organisms into different taxonomic groups at different levels. The
groups from top to bottom are:
Kingdom: This is the second highest taxonomic rank, just below domain. Kingdoms are divided
into smaller groups called phyla.
Phylum or Division: Phylum in animals and Division in plants includes related classes. There are
35 phyla in the kingdom Animalia, including Chordata (with dorsal nerve cord), Porifera
(sponges), and Arthropoda (arthropods).
Class: Several related orders are included in a class. There are 108 classes in the kingdom
Animalia, including Mammalia (mammals), Aves (birds), and Reptilia (reptiles), among many
others.
Order: The order includes several related families. There are 19-26 orders of Mammalia. Some
orders of Mammalia are Primates, Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), Carnivora (large
carnivores/omnivores), and Chiroptera (bats).
Family: Family is a group of related genera. Some families in the order Carnivora, are Canidae
(dogs, wolves, foxes), Felidae (cats), Mephitidae (skunks), and Ursidae (bears). There are 12 total
families in the order Carnivora
Genus: Genus is a group of related species which have co-related characters. It is the first part of
an organism’s scientific name using binomial nomenclature; the second part is the species name.
Genus and species are the only taxonomic ranks that are italicized.
Species: Species is a group of organisms with similar features capable of breeding and producing
fertile offspring.

KINGDOM

PHYLUM

CLASS

ORDER

FAMILY

GENUS

SPECIE
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS
Kingdom Monera
 These are unicellular prokaryotes.
 They lack a true nucleus.
 They may or may not contain a cell wall.
 They may be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
 Examples: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria
Kingdom Protista
 These contain unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
 They exhibit an autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 They possess pseudopodia, cilia, flagella for locomotion.
 Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium
Kingdom Fungi
 These are unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms.
 They exhibit a saprophytic mode of nutrition.
 The cell wall is made up of chitin.
 They live in a symbiotic relationship with blue-green algae.
 Examples: Yeast, Aspergillus
Kingdom Plantae
 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 They prepare their own food by means of photosynthesis.
 Kingdom Plantae is sub-divided into- Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,
Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.
 Examples: Pines, ferns, Mango tree
Kingdom Animalia
 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without a cell wall.
 They are heterotrophs.
 The organisms in kingdom Animalia can be simple or complex.
  They are genetically diverse.
 They exhibit an organ-system level of organization.
 It is sub-divided into different phyla such as Porifera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata,
Chordata etc.
 Examples: Earthworms, Hydra etc.

Assignment: study the various characteristics of living things