Almighty God forbid, and all His angels, that France should lose her

fame because of me! I’d much prefer to die than to come to shame;
for fighting well, the emperor will come to love us.”

-Roland to Olivier, The Song of Roland1

The Battle of Rencesvals on August 15, 778 between Charlemagne’s

Frankish army and the Basques was a bloody, one-sided fight. The Basques

ambushed the Franks in a Pyrenees mountain pass, slaughtered every

soldier, and then stole all of the caravan’s supplies; because of the terrain

and darkness, the Franks could not track the Basques and avenge the

deaths of their countrymen.2 Interestingly enough, however, Charlemagne’s

biographer, Einhard, wrote only a paragraph on the bloody defeat in his

book, The Life of Charlemagne.3 The battle did not gain any significance

until over three hundred years later, when an anonymous author rewrote

history and memorialized the battle in The Song of Roland. While the actual

history contained in The Song of Roland is fictional, the poem does capture

the important relationship between soldier, king and God during the Central

Middle Ages. Like the ancient Greek belief in arête, the Franks too believed

in a strong male ethos. The Song of Roland captures and weaves the

desirable masculine traits of the Central Middles Ages into the story of

Roland, as illustrated in his impassioned cry to God in the above excerpt.

Loyalty, duty, and obedience to God’s will are the most important traits a

man can possess, and the valor of those traits are seen throughout The
1
The Song of Roland, trans. Robert Harrison. (New York: Penguin Putnam Inc., 2002), 88.
2
Ibid., 2.
3
Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne, (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 2003), 33-34.

1
Song of Roland.

Loyalty is the first predominant trait of a central medieval male ethos

presented in The Song of Roland. Loyalty in the poem is based on the

feudal relationship of obligation and commitment between lords and

vassals. A vassal gave his total loyalty to a lord in exchange for protection

and vengeance should the vassal be killed in the service of his lord. The

author of The Song of Roland first appeals to the readers sense of loyalty in

the excellent character the Saracens display. Though they are evil pagans,

the Saracens also exhibit great loyalty, and therefore can be considered

worthy opponents for the Franks. The Saracens exhibit a degree of loyalty

to their lord Marsilla similar to the loyalty the poem’s Christian audience

has for their own lords. Although the Saracens willingly sacrifice their own

sons to keep Spain which reveals their complete ruthlessness, it also shows

their unwavering devotion to land and king.4

The author again exemplifies loyalty as an admired trait of the male

ethos in Roland’s decision to delay blowing his horn. If Roland had

immediately blown the oliphant and summoned help from Charlemagne

when the Saracens first attacked the Franks, he would have saved many

lives.5 Roland does not heed Olivier’s request and instead demands the

Franks fight against the Saracens unassisted because of their courage and

loyalty to their king.6 Death is better than failing Charlemagne. When

Roland finally blows the oliphant, the lateness of his action does not
4
The Song of Roland, 56.
5
Ibid., 87.
6
Ibid., 86.

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diminish his honor, but only further illustrates the complex relationship of

loyalty and vassalage between a vassal and a lord. Roland must blow the

oliphant before he dies so Charlemagne can avenge the Franks deaths; the

sound of the horn is the only way Charlemagne can be made aware enemies

have attacked his men.7 Part of the feudal system of values is a good lord

avenges loyal vassals. The Song of Roland celebrates courage and faith to

one’s lord above the kind of virtue and wisdom Olivier possessed. The

concept of bravery and loyalty being more important than wisdom and

virtue is illustrated when God sends his angel Cherubin to bring Roland to

heaven.8 Roland is directly rewarded by God for his loyalty and courage,

whereas Olivier’s wisdom and sound judgment are not acknowledged.

Obedience of God’s will is another predominant trait of a central

medieval male ethos promoted in The Song of Roland. In the Early Middle

Ages, society promoted the concept of Miles Christi, or “soldier of Christ,”

as the justification for waging war against foreigners and enemies. During

the Central Middle Ages, obeying God’s will is a trait of a truly respected

man: God commands and man acts on his command. In The Song of Roland,

Roland rejoices when he hears the Moslem Saracens are approaching, and

welcomes the chance for battle; he has absolute confidence the Franks will

win.9 By fighting against the pagans and defeating the infidels, the Franks

are carrying out not only Charlemagne’s will, but also God’s divine plan.

They cannot lose if God has commanded them to fight on his behalf.
7
Ibid., 110.
8
Ibid., 130.
9
Ibid., 87.

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According to Roland, “the pagan cause is wrong, the Christian right.” 10

Obedience of God’s will is more important than success in earthly battles;

the rewards of heaven are greater.

Although humans sometimes need divine aid to carry out God’s plans,

as illustrated by the miracles God performs for the Franks in The Song of

Roland, much of the earthly work of eradicating paganism is left to men like

Charlemagne and Roland. God purposely plans men to carry out his wishes

for him, which is why unquestioning obedience of God’s will is such a

respected trait. God provides help when needed, but man only achieves

true greatness when he fights for good. For example, when the courage of

the Franks falters during the battle, the bishop Turpin encourages the

soldiers to fight by telling them paradise awaits them after death. Turpin

gives the Christian Franks a mass absolution of their sins and promises any

man who dies will be given the glorious rewards due to martyrs. 11 Roland’s

rise to heaven after death is an example of the reward God gives to obedient followers. If

Roland had not suffered or executed God’s plan against the advice of Olivier, he would not have

received the glorious resurrection he does.

Duty is the final predominant trait of a central medieval male ethos

celebrated in The Song of Roland. Duty is closely connected to loyalty and

obeying the will of God. Duty includes duty to fellow soldiers, duty to one’s

king, and duty to God. The reverence of duty to country is emphasized by

the troops reaction on their return to France; the troops weep openly when

10
Ibid., 85.
11
Ibid., 102.

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they see their homes.12 The Franks are not blood thirty warmongers,

hungry for combat. They are men who are anxious to see their homes and

families. They fight out of love for country, and duty to Charlemagne and

God. Even though war may be in direct contradiction to their personal

desires, they continue to fight because of their sense of responsibility.

The same sense of duty present in the ethos of the Frankish soldiers is

even more pronounced in Roland. Roland continues to fight against the

forces of Islam not for love of war, but for love of God. He knows the

Saracens will defeat the Franks, but he would rather die trying to uphold

God’s will and Charlemagne’s loyalty than surrender and lose face. 13 Duty

to Charlemagne and God’s supreme plan spurs Roland to fight to the death

at Rencesvals. The concept of duty also causes Charlemagne to avenge

Roland’s death. 14
Deep respect and affection mark the bonds between

Roland and Charlemagne, as vassal and lord. Society dictates Charlemagne

must avenge the death of a loyal and dutiful vassal, as Roland’s duty to

Charlemagne caused his death. Finally, the importance of duty as an

element of the male ethos is illustrated when Saint Gabriel comes down

from God and tells Charlemagne he will have to wage another campaign

against paganism.15 After losing so many lives and his faithful vassal

Roland, Charlemagne has no desire to fight another war. Charlemagne’s

first loyalty belongs to God, and his personal feelings cannot affect his

12
Ibid., 79.
13
Ibid., 88.
14
Ibid., 131-132.
15
Ibid., 183.

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Christian duty.

The Song of Roland is more than an exciting, fictionalized account of

the Battle of Rencesvals in 778. The poem captures the important

relationship between vassal and lord, soldier and king, and emperor and

God during the Central Middle Ages. The success of these relationships

depended on a strong central medieval male ethos. As arête defined what it

meant to be a successful and respected man in ancient Greece, the ethos

Roland displayed in The Song of Roland was a measure of character for all

men in the Frankish Empire to strive for. Loyalty, duty, and obedience to

God’s will are the most important traits a man can possess, and the valor of

those traits are seen throughout The Song of Roland.

6
 BIBLIOGRAPGHY

Einhard. The Life of Charlemagne. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of

The Song of Roland. Translated by Robert Harrison. New York: Penguin