CS 408

Computer Networks

Week 10-1 TCP/IP

IP
IP v4-v6 – Addressing - Routing

1
Reminder

• Final Exam, May 29th Tuesday

• Course Evaluations:
https://sucourse.sabanciuniv.edu/mynotif-
tool/goToEvaluationDashboard.jsp

2
 Protocol Suites

TCP/IP Protocol Suite : Now IP

• An open standard
protocol suite: freely
available to the public
and can be used by any
vendor
• Endorsed by the
networking industry and
approved by a standards
organization to ensure
interoperability
• IETF, ISOC, ITU
Example Internet Protocol Operation
Switches vs Routers

5
Switch
 Switch is a link-layer device: takes an active role
• Uses MAC addresses
• store, forward frames
• examine incoming frame’s MAC address, selectively forward
frame to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be
forwarded on segment,
 transparent: hosts unaware of presence of switches
 plug-and-play, self-learning
• switches do not need to be configured

Link Layer: 6-6

7
8
9
 Switch: multiple simultaneous transmissions
 hosts have dedicated, direct
connection to switch A
C’ B
 no collisions; full duplex
each link is its own collision 6
1 2

domain 5 4
3

B’ C
A’
 switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ can transmit
simultaneously, without collisions switch with six
interfaces
• but A-to-A’ and C to A’ can not happen
(1,2,3,4,5,6)
simultaneously
Link Layer: 6-10
Switch forwarding table
Q: how does switch know A’ reachable via
interface 4, B’ reachable via interface 5? A
C’ B
A: each switch has a switch table,
each entry: 1 2
6
 (MAC address of host, interface to 3
5 4
reach host, time stamp)
 looks like a routing table! B’ C
A’
Q: how are entries created,
maintained in switch table?
 something like a routing protocol?
Link Layer: 6-11
Small institutional network

mail server
to external
network web server
router

IP subnet

Link Layer: 6-12

 Router
• Works on
Network Layer -
IP

13
Switches vs. routers application
transport
both are store-and-forward: datagram network
frame link
 routers: network-layer devices physical link frame
(examine network-layer headers) physical

 switches: link-layer devices (examine switch

link-layer headers) network datagram

both have forwarding tables: link

physical
frame

 routers: compute tables using

routing algorithms, IP addresses application
transport
 switches: learn forwarding table network
using flooding, learning, MAC link
addresses physical

6-14
Link Layer: 6-14
Internet Protocol (IP)

• IP provides connectionless (datagram) service

• Each packet treated separately
• Network layer protocol common to all routers
—which is the Internet Protocol (IP)
Connectionless Internetworking (General)
• Advantages
—Flexible and robust
• e.g. in case of congestion or node failure, packets find their way easier than
connection-oriented services
—No unnecessary overhead for connection setup
—Can work with different network types
• does not demand too much services from the actual network
• Disadvantage: Unreliable
—Not guaranteed delivery
—Not guaranteed order of delivery
• Packets can take different routes
—Reliability is responsibility of next layer up (e.g. TCP)
Connectionless
• IP does not establish a connection with the destination before sending the
packet.
• There is no control information needed (sync, acknowledgments, etc.).
• The destination will receive the packet when it arrives, but no pre-notifications
are sent by IP.
• If there is a need for connection-oriented traffic, then another protocol will
handle this (typically TCP at the transport layer).
 Best Effort
IP is Best Effort
• IP will not guarantee delivery of the
packet.
• IP has reduced overhead since there
is no mechanism to resend data that
is not received.
• IP does not expect
acknowledgments.
• IP does not know if the other device
is operational or if it received the
packet.
 Media Independent
IP is unreliable:
— It cannot manage or fix undelivered or corrupt
packets.
— IP cannot retransmit after an error.
— IP cannot realign out of sequence packets.
— IP must rely on other protocols for these
functions.
IP is media Independent:
— IP does not concern itself with the type of frame
required at the data link layer or the media type
at the physical layer.
— IP can be sent over any media type: copper,
fiber, or wireless.
IP Header

IHL

IP Header TCP Header Data

20
Total Length (max 65535 bytes)
IP Design Issues

• Routing **
• Datagram lifetime *
• Fragmentation and re-assembly
• Error control
• Flow control
• Addressing *****
Routing
• End systems and routers maintain routing tables
— Indicate next router to which datagram should be sent
• Static
— Tables do not change but may contain alternative routes
• Dynamic
— If needed, the tables are dynamically updated
— Flexible response to congestion and errors
— status reports issued by neighbours about down routers
• Source routing
— Source specifies route as sequential list of routers to be followed
— useful, for example, if the data is top secret and should follow a set of trusted routers.
• Route recording
— routers add their address to datagrams
— good for tracing and debugging purposes
 Host Routing Tables
• On Windows, route print or netstat -r
to display the PC routing table
• Three sections displayed by these two
commands:
—Interface List – all potential
interfaces and MAC addressing
—IPv4 Routing Table
—IPv6 Routing Table
 Router Packet Forwarding Decision
What happens when the router receives the frame from the host device?
IP Router Routing Table

There three types of routes in a router’s routing table:

• Directly Connected – These routes are automatically added
by the router, provided the interface is active and has
addressing.
• Remote – These are the routes the router does not have a
direct connection and may be learned:
• Manually – with a static route
• Dynamically – by using a routing protocol to have the routers share
their information with each other
• Default Route – this forwards all traffic to a specific
direction when there is not a match in the routing table
 Static Routing

Static Route Characteristics:

• Must be configured manually
• Must be adjusted manually by the
administrator when there is a change
in the topology
• Good for small non-redundant
networks
• Often used in conjunction with a
dynamic routing protocol for
configuring a default route
 Dynamic Routing

Dynamic Routes Automatically:

• Discover remote networks
• Maintain up-to-date information
• Choose the best path to the
destination
• Find new best paths when there
is a topology change
Dynamic routing can also share
static default routes with the other
routers.
 Datagram Lifetime
• Datagrams could loop indefinitely
—Not good
• Unnecessary resource consumption
—Need an upper bound on datagram life
• Datagram marked with lifetime
—Time To Live (TTL) field in IP
—Once lifetime expires, datagram discarded (not forwarded)
—Hop count
• Decrement time to live on passing through each router – 64 to 128
—Time count
• Need to know how long since last router
• global clock is needed
Fragmentation and
Re-assembly
• Different maximum packet sizes for different networks
—routers may need to split the datagrams into smaller fragments
• When to re-assemble
—At destination?
• Packets get smaller as data travel
– inefficiency due to headers
—Intermediate reassembly?
• Need large buffers at routers
• All fragments must go through same router
– Inhibits dynamic routing
• In IP, reassembly is at destination only
 IP Fragmentation
• Uses fields in header
— Data Unit Identifier – In order to uniquely identify datagram – all fragments that
belong to a datagram share the same identifier
1. Source and destination addresses
2. Upper protocol layer (e.g. TCP) Part of IP header
3. Identification supplied by that layer
— Data length
• Length of user data in octets (if fragment, length of fragment data)
• Actually header contains total length incl. header but data length can be calculated
— Offset
• Position of fragment of user data in original datagram (position of the first byte of the
fragment)
• In multiples of 64 bits (8 octets); i.e. one unit of offset is 8 octets.
— More flag
• Indicates that this is not the last fragment (if this flag is 1); otherwise, last fragment
Fragmentation Example
Dealing with Failure
• Reassembly may fail if some fragments get lost
• Need to detect failure to free up the buffers
• One solution: Reassembly time out
—Assign a reassembly lifetime to the first fragment
—If timer expires before all fragments arrive, discard partial data
Error Control
• In IP, delivery is not guaranteed
• Router may attempt to inform source if packet discarded,
if possible
— specify the reason of drop, e.g. for time to live expiration,
congestion, bad checksum (error detected)
• Datagram identification needed
• When source receives failure notification, it
—may modify transmission strategy
—may inform high layer protocol
• Note that such a failure notification is not guaranteed
Flow Control (in IP layer)
• Allows preceeding routers and/or stations to limit rate of
incoming data
• In connectionless systems (such as IP), flow control mechanisms
are limited
• Sending flow control packets requesting reduced flow
—no fine tuning such the one in sliding window protocols; coarse-grained
mechanism
—e.g. using source quench packet of ICMP
 Addressing in TCP/IP

port

1- Physical Network (e.g.MAC)

2- IP address
3- Port address

Lab will be about IP addresses

IP addressing: 223.1.1.2

introduction
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4

• IP address: 32-bit identifier 223.1.1.3

associated with each interface
• interface: connection between 223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

host/router and physical link

—router’s typically have multiple 223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
interfaces 223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

—host typically has one or two 223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

interfaces (e.g., wired Ethernet,

223.1.2.1
wireless 802.11) 223.1.2.3 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

192.168.56.8
 223.1.1.2

IP address structure 223.1.1.1

223.1.1.4

• Network address part 223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

• Host Interface part

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.3 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

37
 IPv4 Address Formats (RFC 791 in 1981)
223.5.9.3 = 11011111 00000101 00001001 00000011
• 32 bit global Internet address: 2^32 (4,294,967,296) possible IP addresses
• Network part and host part –

• 0 to 127

• 128 to 191

• 192 to 223
Example: dotted-decimal IP address notation

223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

39
IP Addresses - Class A
• Start with binary 0
• 7-bit network - 24-bit host
• Range 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
—10.x.x.x is for private networks
• 01111111 (127) (network part ) reserved for loopback
—Generally 127.0.0.1 is used
• Few networks - many hosts
—126 networks
—16,777,214 of hosts can be addressed
• All Class-A addresses have been allocated
 IP Addresses - Class B
• Starts with binary 10
• Range 128.x.x.x to 191.x.x.x
—Second octet is also part of the network id.
—172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 for private networks

• 14-bit network, 16-bit host number

—214 = 16,384 class B addresses
—216 - 2 = 65,534 hosts per network
• Minus 2 is due to network (0) and broadcast (255) addresses
• All Class-B addresses have been allocated
IP Addresses - Class C
• Start binary 110
• Range 192.x.x.x to 223.x.x.x
—192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 for private networks
• Second and third octets are also part of network address
• 221 = 2,097,152 addresses (networks)
• 256 – 2 = 254 hosts per network
• Nearly all allocated

223.5.9.3 = 11011111 00000101 00001001 00000011

 Some Special IP address forms
Prefix Suffix Type & Meaning
(network) (host)
all zeros all zeros this computer 0.0.0.0
network address all zeros identifies network x.0.0.0 x.x.0.0 x.x.x.0

network address all ones broadcast on the

x.x.255.255
specified network
all ones all ones broadcast on local
network 255.255.255.255
127 any loopback (for testing
purposes) 127.0.0.1
Private Network Addresses (for Internal use)
• 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 for private networks (Class A)

• 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 for private networks (Class B)

• 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 for private networks (Class C)

Step-1 Check your IPv4 address from device settings Are they different?
Step-2 Check with Google: «My IP address» or whatismyip.com 45
 Subnets
 What’s a subnet ? 223.1.1.1

• device interfaces that can 223.1.2.1

physically reach each other 223.1.1.2

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
without passing through an
intervening router 223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

 IP addresses have structure:

• subnet part: devices in same subnet
have common high order bits 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

• host part: remaining low order bits

network consisting of 3 subnets
 Subnets and Subnet Masks
• Allow arbitrary complexity of internetworked LANs within organization
— By not having one network class for each LAN within the organization
— Each such LAN is called a subnet.
• Such a network with several subnets looks like a single network from the point
of view of the rest of internet
• Each subnet is assigned a subnet number
• Host portion of address partitioned into subnet number and host number
• Local internal routers route within subnetted network
• Subnet mask indicates which bits are network/subnet number and which are
host number
— Subnet mask must be in the form of several 1's followed by several 0's (total 32 bits) -
111..111000…0
— number of 0's is used to determine the number of hosts in that subnet (see next example)
 The Subnet Mask

• To identify the network and host portions of an IPv4 address, the subnet mask is
compared to the IPv4 address bit for bit, from left to right.

• The actual process used to

identify the network and
host portions is called
ANDing.
 Determining the Network: Logical AND
• A logical AND Boolean operation is used in determining the network address.
• Logical AND is the comparison of two bits where only a 1 AND 1 produces a
1 and any other combination results in a 0.

• To identify the network

address, the host IPv4
address is logically ANDed,
bit by bit, with the subnet
mask to identify the network
address.
 The Prefix Length – Classless - CIDR
Prefix
Subnet Mask 32-bit Address
• A prefix length is a less Length

cumbersome method used to 255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 /8

identify a subnet mask address.
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 /16

255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 /24

• The prefix length is the number
of bits set to 1 in the subnet 255.255.255.128 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 /25

mask.
255.255.255.192 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 /26

• It is written in “slash notation” 255.255.255.224 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 /27

therefore, count the number of

255.255.255.240 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 /28
bits in the subnet mask and
prepend it with a slash. 255.255.255.248 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000 /29

255.255.255.252 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 /30

Subnet on an Octet Boundary

• Networks are most easily subnetted at the octet boundary of /8, /16, and /24.

• Notice that using longer prefix lengths decreases the number of hosts per subnet.

Prefix Length Subnet Mask Subnet Mask in Binary (n = network, h = host) # of hosts

nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
/8 255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
16,777,214

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
/16 255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
65,534

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh
/24 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
254
Subnet on an Octet Boundary (Cont.)

• In the first table 10.0.0.0/8 is subnetted using /16 and in the second table, a /24 mask.
Subnet Address Host Range Subnet Address
Host Range
(256 Possible (65,534 possible hosts per Broadcast (65,536 Possible Broadcast
(254 possible hosts per subnet)
Subnets) subnet) Subnets)

10.0.0.0/16 10.0.0.1 - 10.0.255.254 10.0.255.255 10.0.0.0/24 10.0.0.1 - 10.0.0.254 10.0.0.255

10.0.1.0/24 10.0.1.1 - 10.0.1.254 10.0.1.255
10.1.0.0/16 10.1.0.1 - 10.1.255.254 10.1.255.255
10.0.2.0/24 10.0.2.1 - 10.0.2.254 10.0.2.255
10.2.0.0/16 10.2.0.1 - 10.2.255.254 10.2.255.255
… … …
10.3.0.0/16 10.3.0.1 - 10.3.255.254 10.3.255.255
10.0.255.0/24 10.0.255.1 - 10.0.255.254 10.0.255.255
10.4.0.0/16 10.4.0.1 - 10.4.255.254 10.4.255.255 10.1.0.0/24 10.1.0.1 - 10.1.0.254 10.1.0.255

10.5.0.0/16 10.5.0.1 - 10.5.255.254 10.5.255.255 10.1.1.0/24 10.1.1.1 - 10.1.1.254 10.1.1.255

10.1.2.0/24 10.1.2.1 - 10.1.2.254 10.1.2.255
10.6.0.0/16 10.6.0.1 - 10.6.255.254 10.6.255.255
… … …
10.7.0.0/16 10.7.0.1 - 10.7.255.254 10.7.255.255
10.100.0.0/24 10.100.0.1 - 10.100.0.254 10.100.0.255
... ... ...
... ... ...

10.255.0.0/16 10.255.0.1 - 10.255.255.254 10.255.255.255 10.255.255.0/24 10.255.255.1 - 10.2255.255.254 10.255.255.255

A Real Life Example – How I did it
• Use of TCP/IP on METU Campus-wide Backbone Network, 1990
• https://www.internet.org.tr/gallery/docs/1990-
2b1c2515122edd31.pdf

53
 144.122.0.0 – Class?
• How many IP numbers?

55
 144.122.0.0 – Class?
• 144.122.0.0/?
• How many IP numbers?

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
56
Ceng wanted to have 4 networks, solution?
• 144.122.71.0
nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

57
 Classless Addresses - (variable-length
subnet masks VLSM)
• CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
• Extension of subnet idea to the whole Internet
• Assigning IP numbers by partitioning network and host parts at any
bit position
• A precaution against exhaustion of IP addresses
• Special notation (CIDR notation)
—network address/number of 1-bits in the mask
Routing Using Subnets (Example)

Subnet Mask:
255.255.255.224
Addresses start with 192, so class C
addresses. Last octet is for Subnet
number and Host number
224 -> 11100000 in binary last 5 bits
are for Host number, previous 3 bits
are for Subnet number
Don't forget! All zero host number
identifies the subnet and all ones is
used for broadcast on that subnet
60
 Subnet within an Octet Boundary

• Refer to the table to see six ways to subnet a /24 network (e.g. 192.165.8.x)
Prefix Subnet Mask in Binary # of
Subnet Mask # of hosts
Length (n = network, h = host) subnets

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nhhhhhhh
/25 255.255.255.128 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 2 126

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnhhhhhh
/26 255.255.255.192 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 4 62

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnhhhhh
/27 255.255.255.224 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 8 30

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnhhhh
/28 255.255.255.240 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 16 14

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnhhh
/29 255.255.255.248 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000 32 6

nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnhh
/30 255.255.255.252 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 64 2
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP address?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

ISP can then allocate out its address space in 8 blocks:

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer: 4-62

 Example: CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing)
nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh
• e.g. 128.140.168.0/21
11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000
—subnet mask is 255.255.248.0
—Lowest host address?
—Highest host address?

• Using classless addresses to generate several subnetworks will also be explained in lab and you
will have a quiz on this.

63
Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Türk Telekom 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
Vodafone with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
Hierarchical addressing: more
specific routes
 Organization 1 moves from Türk Telekom to Vodafone
 ISPs-R-Us now advertises a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Türk Telekom 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
Vodafone with addresses
Organization 1 beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
200.23.18.0/23 “or 200.23.18.0/23”
Hierarchical addressing: more
specific routes
 Organization 1 moves from Türk Telekom to Vodafone
 Vodafone now advertises a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Türk Telekom 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
Vodafone with addresses
Organization 1 beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
200.23.18.0/23 “or 200.23.18.0/23”

Network Layer: 4-66

 IP addresses: how does a host get it?

Q: How does a host get IP address within its network (host part of
address)?
 hard-coded by sysadmin in config file (e.g., /etc/rc.config in UNIX)
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get address from as
server
• “plug-and-play”
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

goal: host dynamically obtains IP address from network server when it

“joins” network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected/on)
 support for mobile users who join/leave network

DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts DHCP discover msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: DHCP request msg
 DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg
DHCP client-server scenario
Typically, DHCP server will be co-
DHCP server located in router, serving all subnets
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
to which router is attached

223.1.2.5
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27 arriving DHCP client needs
223.1.2.2 address in this network

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer: 4-71

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover Arriving client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCPyiaddr:
server0.0.0.0
out there?
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server!
yiaddr:Here’s an IP
223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
address you can use
lifetime: 3600 secs
The two steps above can
DHCP request be skipped “if a client
src: 0.0.0.0, 68 remembers and wishes to
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I would reuse a previously
yiaddr: 223.1.2.4
like to transaction
use this ID:IP 655
address! allocated network address”
[RFC 2131]
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
yiaddr: 223.1.2.4
got that IPID:address!
transaction 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer: 4-72
DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address on
subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host portion of address)

 Unused address (e.g. Detaching PC) is returned to the pool

for reuse when the lease expires

Network Layer: 4-73

NAT: network address translation
NAT: all devices in local network share just one IPv4 address as
far as outside world is concerned
rest of local network (e.g., home
Internet network) 10.0.0/24

10.0.0.1
138.76.29.7 10.0.0.4

10.0.0.2

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving local network have datagrams with source or destination in
same source NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, this network have 10.0.0/24 address for
but different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)
NAT: network address translation
 all devices in local network have 32-bit addresses in a “private” IP
address space (10/8, 172.16/12, 192.168/16 prefixes) that can only
be used in local network
 advantages:
 just one IP address needed from provider ISP for all devices
 can change addresses of host in local network without notifying
outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in local
network
 security: devices inside local net not directly addressable, visible
by outside world
NAT: network address translation
implementation: NAT router must (transparently):
 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every
outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
• remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new port
#) as destination address
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #)
to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in
destination fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table
 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router changes 1: host 10.0.0.1 sends
WAN side addr LAN side addr datagram to
datagram source address
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
from 10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, …… ……
updates table
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.3
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3
3: reply arrives, destination
address: 138.76.29.7, 5001

extensively used in home and institutional nets, 4G/5G cellular nets

If you need static IP (Why?)

Do you need more addresses? https://auctions.ipv4.global/

What is the value of a B-Class address? e.g. 144.122.0.0

IP v6 - Version Number
• IP v 1-3 defined and replaced
• IP v4 - current version
• IP v5 - stream protocol
—Connection oriented internet layer protocol
• IP v6 - replacement for IP v4
—Not compatible with IP v4
—During the initial development it was called IPng (Next Generation)