BRYOPHYTES

INTRODUCTION

Bryophytes are non-vascular land Plants. They are an ancient and diverse group of non-
vascular plants. They are not considered to have given rise to vascular plants but they
probably were the earliest land plants. Like the rest of the land plants, they evolved from
green algal ancestors.

They are a group of plants that produce embryo (referred to as embryophytes), whose life
history includes a dominant gametophyte (haploid) stage and dependent sporophyte (diploid)
stage. They comprise three main taxonomic groups: mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts
(Marchantiophyta or Hepatophyta) and hornworts (Anthocerotophyta), each of which have
evolved quite separately. Most bryophytes have either erect or creeping stems and tiny leaves.
However, hornworts and some liverworts have only a flat thallus and no leaves. Worldwide,
there are possibly 10,000 species of mosses, 7000 liverworts and 200 hornworts. Although
they are small in size, they are very conspicuous, growing as extensive mats in woodland, as
cushions on walls, rocks and tree trunks, and as pioneer colonists of disturbed habitats.

1
CLASSIFICATION OF BRYOPHYTES:
Traditionally, the true mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are included in the division
bryophyta. However, some scientists consider each of these groups sufficiently distinct to
deserve their own division.

2
Although the bryophyte is used as a collective term for all of these –Bryophyta(mosses),
Hepatophyta (liverworts), and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts).

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTES

1. All of them are land plants (i.e. terrestrial) with some aquatic forms.
2. They are very small.
3. The sporophyte and gametophyte have very different morphologies (heteromorphic
generations) and the sporophyte is usually partly dependent on the gametophyte.
4. Photosynthetic plants.
5. They are non-vascular plants.
6. They bear rhizoids (as true roots are absent), differentiated into stem-like (caulalia)
and leaf-like structures (phyllids). True stems and leaves are lacking.
7. Cuticle and stomata are absent.
8. The bryophytes show alternation of generations. The haploid gametophyte (producing
gametes for sexual reproduction) alternates with the diploid sporophyte (producing
spores for asexual reproduction).
9. Gametophytes are either homothallic or heterothallic.
10. The gametophyte generation is dominant, conspicuous, and independent.
11. The female sex organ is the archegonium while the male sex organ is antheridium.
12. The ovum remains in the archegonium and spermatozoids swim to it by chemotaxis.
13. Although bryophytes are land plants, they are still dependent upon water for
fertilization, as the sperm swim in a water film. Hence zoidogamous fertilization.
14. The sporophyte is attached and dependent upon the gametophyte for nutrition i.e. it is
parasitic on the gametophyte.
15. The diploid sporophyte usually consists of a basal foot, an elevating seta and a
terminal sporangium called the capsule.
16. Spores are produced as a direct result of meiosis.
17. Spores are dispersed by a mechanism that ensures dispersal in dry weather only.
18. These plants (in either generation) lack specialized cells for the transport of materials
(vascular tissue). The absence of vascular tissue limits bryophytes to moist habitats
and small size.

3
GENERAL LIFE CYCLE

 Archegonia are stalked, multicellular, flask-shaped female sex organs.

 Archegonia are consisting of an elongated upper portion called the neck a and lower
swollen portion -venter.
 The neck consists of an axial row of cells called neck canal cells surrounded by a
sterile jacket.
 The venter is also made up of a 1-2 layer-thick wall of sterile cells which encloses a
larger egg cell or the ovum and the smaller ventral canal cell just above the egg.
 At maturity, the tip of the archegonium opens and the neck canal cells as well, as the
ventral canal cells disintegrate, opening the neck for the entrance of the antherozoids.
 Antheridia consists of a rounded structure consisting of a single-layered jacket
surrounding a central mass of cells -androcytes.
 Each change into slender biflagellated antherozoids.
 The antherozoids are released when the antheridium ruptures, thus allowing them to
swim freely in a water film.
 The antherozoids enter through the open necks and fuse with the egg to form a diploid
zygote.
 After series of mitotic division of the zygote, a multicellular embryo is formed, which
is nourished by the gametophyte.
 The embryo grows and forms a mature sporophyte, within which sporogenous tissue
will form spore tetrads, which in turn are released as the spores, forming either the
gametophyte or the protonema and which in turn forms the typical gametophyte.

DIVISION MUSCI (MOSSES)

Characteristics of Mosses:-

i. Mosses are found in a range of habitats, mostly-terrestrial, although moist and shady
habitats are more common.

ii. Mosses are often epiphytes.

iii. The dominant phase of the moss life cycle is the gametophyte (haploid).

iv. The plant is called a thallus, they may be erect or prostrate (axis along the ground).

4
v. Mosses have radial symmetry, in that a cut down the long axis of an individual gives two
similar halves.

vi. The gametophyte has a stem-like axis with spirally arranged leaves, which are known as
phyllids.

vii. Mosses attach to their substrate with multicellular rhizoids.

viii. It lacks xylem and phloem. The plant body may have conducting tissue.

ix. The xylem-like water-and-mineral-conducting tissue is called hydroid. The phloem-like

sugar-and-amino-acid-conducting tissue is called leptoid.

x. Moss leaves are variable in shape. Leaves usually consist of a single-cell layer and are
traversed by a midrib that is always more than one cell in thickness. The phyllids of mosses
such as Mnium may be a single cell thick, but with a midrib with hydroids and leptoids.

xi. All mosses have a sporic (diplohaplontic – diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte)
life cycle that is oogamous.

Gametophyte Characters:-

Spore Germination and Protonemata:-

• Moss life cycle begins when haploid spores are released from a sporophyte capsule and
begin to germinate.

• In the majority of mosses, germination is exosporic, i.e. the spore wall is ruptured by the
expanding spore protoplast after its release from the capsule and prior to any cell division.

• However, in some mosses, e.g. Andreaea, Drummondia, and Leucodon, germination is

precocious and endosporic, meaning that cell divisions occur prior to spore release and spore
wall rupture, respectively.

• There are variations in patterns of germination of mosses. In most mosses, highly branched,
filamentous and uniseriate protonema is formed.

• Cell specialization occurs within the protonema and as a result, two types of filaments are
formed: - a horizontal system of reddish brown, anchoring filaments (rhizoids), called the

5
caulonema and an upright, green filaments called the chloronema. Each protonema can
spread over several centimeters, forming a fuzzy green film over its substrate.

• Formation of bud apical cells: -As the protonema grows, target cells usually on the
caulonema generate bud initials that will ultimately divide by sequential oblique divisions to
form bud apical cells. This initiates the growth of the leafy gametophore or shoot stage of the
moss.

Reproduction in Bryophytes

Bryophytes reproduce only by vegetative and sexual means. Asexual reproduction is absent
in these.

A. Vegetative Reproduction in Bryophytes:

Bryophytes possess a characteristic feature and that is their tendency towards extensive
vegetative reproduction. The vegetative reproduction takes place in favourable season for
vegetative growth Majority of the Bryophytes propagate vegetatively and it is brought about
in many ways

1. By Death and Decay of the Older Portion of Thallus or by Fragmentation:

In Bryophytes the growing point is situated at the tip of the thallus The basal, posterior or
older portion of the thallus starts rotting or disintegrating due to ageing or drought When this
process of disintegration or decay reaches up to the place of dichotomy, the lobes of the
thallus get separated These detached lobes or fragments develop into independent plants by
apical growth This is the most common method of vegetative reproduction in Riccia,
Marchantia, Anthoceros and some mosses like Sphagnum.

2. By Persistent Apices:

Due to prolonged dry or summer or towards the end of growing season the whole thallus in
some Bryophytes (e.g Riccia, Anthoceros, Cyathodium) dries and get destroyed except the
growing point Later, it grows deep into the soil and becomes thick Under favourable
conditions it develops into a new thallus.

3. By Tubers:

6
Tubers are formed in those species which are exposed to desiccations (drying effect of the
air) Towards the end of the growing season, the subterranean branches get swollen at their
tips to from the underground tubers On the periphery of a tuber are two to three layers of
water proof corky, hyaline cells develop. These layers surround the inner cells which contain
starch, oil globules and albuminous layers During unfavorable conditions the thallus dies out
but the dormant tubers remain unaffected On the return of favorable conditions each tuber
germinates to form a new plant e.g Riccia, Anthoceros, Fossombronia etc. Thus, tubers also
serve as an organ of perennation.

4. By Gemmae

Gemmae are green, multicellular reproductive bodies of various shapes These are produced in
gemma cups, on the surface of the leaves, on stem apex or even inside the cells They get
detached from the parent plant and after falling on a suitable substratum gemmae give rise to
a new individual directly (e g Marchantia) or indirectly (e g Mosses)

5. By Adventitious Branches

The adventitious branches develop from the ventral surface the thallus e.g Riccia fluitans,
Anthoceros. On being detached from the parent plant these branches develop into new thalli
In Marchantia, Dumortiera these branches develop from archegoniophore while in Pellia
these branches arise from the dorsal surface or margins of the thallus.

6. By Regeneration

The liverworts possess an amazing power of regeneration Part of the plant or any living cell
of the thallus (e g rhizoid, scales) are capable of regenerating the entire plant e g Riccia,
Marchantia etc

7. By Innovation

In Sphagnum one of the branches in the apical cluster instead of forming drooping branches
or divergent branches, develop more vigorously than the others and continues the growth
upwards This long upright branch has all the characteristics of the main axis. It is called
innovation Due to the progressive death and decay of the parent plant these innovations
become separated from the parent plant and establish themselves as parent plants

8. By Primary Protonema

7
Primary protonema is the filament-like stage produced by the developing spores of the
mosses It produces the leafy gametophores It breaks into a short filament of cells by the death
of cells at intervals Each detached fragment grows into a new protonema which bears a
crown of leafy gametophores e g Funaria

9. By Secondary Protonema

The protonema formed by other methods than from the germination of spores is called
secondary protonema It may develop from any living cells of the leafy gametophore i.e from
leaf, stem, rhizome, the injured portion of the leafy gametophore, antheridium, paraphysis or
archegonium. From this arise the leafy gametophores or lateral buds in the same manner as in
primary protonema e.g Funaria, Sphagnum.

10. By Bulbils:

These are small resting buds develop on rhizoids Bulbils are devoid of chlorophyll but full of
starch. On germination bulbils produce a protonema which bears leafy gametophores

11. By Apospory

The production of diploid gametophyte from the unspecialized sporophyte without meiosis is
known as apospory e g Anthoceros. In Funaria green protonemal filaments may arise from
the unspecialized cells of the various parts of sporogonium These protonemal filaments bear
lateral buds which develop into leafy gametophores

12. By Rhizoidal Tips:

The apical part of the young rhizoids divide and re divide to form a gemma-like mass of cells
e g Riccia glauca. These cells contain chloroplast and are capable to develop into new thallus.

B. Sexual reproduction: -

For sexual reproduction, the moss gametophyte produces gametangia. The male and female
gametangia may be on the same thallus (homothallic or monoecious) or on separate
gametophytes (heterothallic or dioecious).

Both the antheridium and archegonium have a sterile jacket of cells, which better protects the
gametes against desiccation in the terrestrial environment.

8
Antheridium: - The antheridium consists of a stalk, a sterile jacket, and spermatogenic tissue.
The antheridium sterile jacket has a cap cell which disintegrates when turgor pressure rises.
By mitotic division of haploid spermatogenic tissue inside the sterile jacket haploid
flagellated sperms are formed. Water is required for transfer of the motile sperm to egg. Most
antheridia are in terminal disk-shaped clusters to facilitate water capture for sperm transfer.
Sperms are chemotactic and swim through free water up a concentration gradient of the
chemotactic agent to find the open archegonium. The first drop of water landing in the cup
causes the cap cell of the antheridium to burst to provide an opening for sperm into the drop
of water. Filaments of cells found between the antheridia, called paraphyses, swell up with
water and squeeze the antheridia to help expel sperm into the water of the splash cup. The
next raindrop to land in the splash cup will splash out a solution containing sperm. These will
swim through a film of rainwater to fuse with the egg.

Archegonium: - The archegonium consists of a stalk, a venter surrounds the egg and a long
neck. The neck is filled with canal cells. The sterile jacket has a cap cell that disintegrates
when turgor pressure rises. All cells of the archegonium, including the egg cell, are produced
by the mitosis of haploid gametophyte cells. The disintegrating neck and ventral canal cells
provide chemicals involved in sperm chemotaxis to fuse with the egg. After the fusion of egg
and sperm zygote is formed which is diploid.

After fertilization, the sporophyte grows out of the archegonium, and nutrients for the
developing sporophyte are provided by the gametophyte.

Meiosis in the capsule produces haploid spores. When spores are mature, the lid of the
capsule, called the operculum, opens. Due to changes in humidity a row or rows of
hygroscopic teeth, the operculum, open and release spores.

The gametophyte plant is produced by the germination of a haploid spore. As a spore

germinates, it produces a branched filament of photosynthetic cells called a protonema. This
branching filament is similar to a green alga. The protonema produces a caulonema filament
which can produce either a leafy moss gametophyte or a hard, dry bulbil for asexual
reproduction. The moss gametophyte produces male and female gametangia. The sperm and
egg fuse in syngamy.

9
The sporophyte of Moss: - Syngamy of the egg and sperm produces a zygote within the
archegonium. This zygote undergoes mitosis to produce an embryo, again retained within the
archegonium. Finally, the embryo matures into a sporophyte. The diploid sporophyte is
typically not photosynthetic and so is parasitic (dependent) on the gametophyte for its
nutrition. The sporophyte consists of:

A sporangium (capsule): - Sporogenous tissue forms around the columella, and spore
mother cells undergo meiosis to form tetrads of haploid spores. At the top of the capsule is
the cap-like operculum beneath which is a double row of triangular peristome teeth. The teeth
are attached to a thick-walled annulus around the upper end of the sporangium. When the
sporangium is mature, the operculum breaks off, and the peristome is left holding the spores
in place. The teeth are very sensitive to humidity (i.e. hygroscopic) and when wet or very
humid weather occurs, they bend into the capsule, when dry, they straighten out and lift some
spores out with them. The spores are then distributed by air currents, and later they germinate
into protonemae.

A seta (stalk): -

A foot: -Foot remains embedded in the gametophyte tissue. The continued attachment of the
sporophyte to the gametophyte allows the sporophyte to absorb most of its needed nutrients
from the gametophyte. A seta or stalk: -which elevates the sporangium, or capsule.

Typically, a portion of the gametophyte, called the calyptra, protects and covers the
developing capsule.

The haploid hairy calyptra of Polytrichumis quite elaborate and a contrasting pink color
covering the entire sporophyte capsule.

10
BRYOPSIDA (MUSCI)
Classification:
Division -Bryophyta
Class -Bryopsida
Order -Sphagnales
Family -Sphagnaceae
This is the largest class of bryophytes and includes about 600 genera and 14,500 species.
Bryopsida is divided into seven subclasses but there are three major subclasses: Sphagnidae
(peat mosses), Andreaeidae (rock mosses), and Bryidae (true mosses). Bryidae includes about
14,000 species. You will study the genus Funaria as a representative of this order. Order
Sphagnales is represented by a single genus Sphagnum which includes about 300 species.

Sphagnum

Sphagnum forms peat bogs in northern parts of the world. In some countries, peat is burnt as
fuel. Sphagnum is also used in plant nurseries as packing material. Mats of this moss hold
moisture and help the seeds of other plants to germinate and grow. Sphagnum is confined to
acidic, water-logged habitat. It is the principal component of peat bogs where it forms a more

11
or less continuous spongy layer. The adult gametophyte develops as an upright leafy shoot,
called a gametophore from a simple thallose, one-cell thick protonema. The gametophore is
differentiated into stems and leaves. The terminal growth of the stem is due to an apical cell.
The axis is attached to the soil by means of multicellular, branched rhizoids with oblique
cross walls.

Rhizoids are present only in young gametophores and disappear when it matures. Afterward,
the gametophore absorbs water directly. The mature gametophores consist of an upright stem
bearing leaves. Every fourth leaf of the stem bears a group of three to eight lateral branches in
its axis. These branches are of two types: (i) divergent and (ii) lying next to the stem.
Sometimes, one of the branches in a tuft continues upward growth to the same height as the
main axis and resembles it in structure. These strongly developed branches are called
innovations and they ultimately get detached and become independent plants. The branches
near the apex of a stem are short and densely crowded in a compact head called the coma.

The leaves lack midrib. They are small and arranged in three vertical rows on the stem. In the
surface view of a leaf, one can observe two types of cells: (i) narrow, living, chlorophyll-
containing cells and (ii) large dead, empty, rhomboidal, hyaline (glass-like, transparent) cells
with pores and spiral as well as annular wall thickenings. In the transverse section, the leaf
shows a beaded appearance, with large, dead hyaline cells regularly alternating with the
small, green, chlorophyllous cells. The spiral thickenings provide mechanical support and
keep the hyaline cells from collapsing when they are empty.

12
Structure and morphology of Sphagnum: A) a mature gametophyte with attached sporophyte
at the apex.

The pores help in the rapid intake of water and also in the exchange of cations for H+ ions
which are the metabolic products of Sphagnum. Hence, they create an acidic environment in
their immediate surroundings. The hyaline cells take up and hold large quantities of water,
sometimes as much as twenty times the weight of the plant. The narrow chloroplast-
containing cells carry on photosynthesis. In a mature leaf, these two types of cells are
arranged in a reticulate manner. This peculiar leaf structure accounts for the ability of the
Sphagnum plant to absorb and retain large quantities of water and consequently for its
outstanding bog-building properties. Because of their water-absorbing quality, they are used
in gardening.

Funaria
Classification:
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Bryopsida
Sub-class – Bryidae
Order -Funariales
Family -Funariacea

Funaria is a very common moss. It is very widely distributed throughout the world. One
species, Funaria hygrometrica is cosmopolitan and it is the best-known of all the mosses.
Like other bryophytes that you have studied, the most conspicuous form of the moss plant is
the adult gametophyte. This consists of a main erect axis bearing leaves that are arranged
spirally. This adult gametophyte is called gametophore. It is small, about 1-3 cm high. The
leaves do not have a stalk but show a distinct midrib. The gametophore is attached to the
substratum by means of rhizoids which are multicellular, branched, and have oblique septae.
The gametophyte bears sporophyte which has foot, seta and capsule. The gametophores
develop from a filamentous, green short-lived protonema. The protonema produces buds at a

13
certain stage of development, which initiate the development of upright leafy green axis the
gametophore.

14
HEPATICOPSIDA –THE LIVERWORTS
Liverworts have one of two body plans: a thallus or a leafy structure. Thallus-type liverworts
have a dichotomously branched and dorso-ventrally flattened body that spreads out along
moist riverbanks, on the surface of marshes, or on rotting forest logs. Marchantia
polymorphais most commonly used in introductory biology courses because of the unique
shape of its antheridiophores and archegoniophores. The most-studied thallus liverwort is
Marchantia. Its ribbon-like, dichotomously-branched gametophyte germinates from haploid
spores. When male gametophytes mature, they produce small, umbrella-like structures called
antheridiophores (means ‘antheridia-bearing’), which have numerous antheridia embedded
along their dorsal surface. Female gametophytes produce archegoniophores (means
‘archegonia-bearing’) that resemble miniature palm trees. Archegonia are formed on the
ventral surface of the archegoniphore head (where the coconuts would be). Rain stimulates
the antheridia to release sperm that make their way to a female gametophyte, up the
archegoniophore stalk, and to the egg contained within the archegonium, where fertilization
takes place and the zygote formed. Diploid sporophytes develop within swollen archegonia
and sporangia are formed. Mature sporangia contain both spores (via meiosis) and elaters. As
the elaters dry, they twist and disperse spores. Marchantia can also form new gametophytes
asexually by means of gemmae, small multicellular bodies produced within gemma cups.
Leafy liverworts do not look anything like the thallus types; instead, they resemble
diminutive mosses. However, they differ from mosses in several important ways, liverworts:

15
 1) lack a protonema, 2) have single-celled rhizoids, and 3) have a 2-ranked leaf arrangement.
In mosses, spores germinate to form protonema, they have multiple-celled rhizoids, and their
leaves are usually 3-or 5-ranked.

Classification:
Division – Hepaticophyta
Class – Hepaticopsida
Order –
Family –Ricciaceae
Riccia is a thalloid liverwort showing distinct dichotomous branching having the form of a
rosette. The upper (dorsal) surface of the thallus has a longitudinal groove along the whole
length of the mid-rib. The lower (ventral) surface has a row of scales at the apex and a
number of unicellular rhizoids. The rhizoids are of two types, the smooth and tuberculate
rhizoids. The thallus is thicker in the middle and thinner at the two margins. The growth of
the thallus takes place through a single wedge-shaped, apical cell situated in the apical notch.
The segments of the thallus are obcordate or linear, their margin sometimes ciliated. Species
of Riccia are terrestrial and grow as a green carpet on wet ground, old damp walls, old tree
trunks and moist rocks. The only aquatic species is Riccia fluitans.

Asexual reproduction

Riccia produces vegetatively by the progressive decay of older portions of the thallus, at the
base, and its separation into branches that grow into new thalli.

Sexual reproduction

It produces sexually through gametes borne in the antheridia (male gamete) and archegonia
(female gamete).

Character Bryophyta Marchantiophyta Anthocerotophyta

Protonema Filamentous, Globose, forming Globose, forming
forming many buds one bud one bud
Gametophyte form Leafy shoot Leafy shoot or Simple thallus
thallus; thallus
simple or with air
chambers

16
Leaf arrangement Leaves in spirals Leaves in three Not Applicable
rows
Leaf form Leaves undivided, Leaves divided into Not Applicable
midvein present. 2+ lobes, no
midvein
Special organelles None Oil bodies Single plastids with
pyrenoids.
Water conducting Present in both Present only in a few Absent.
cells gametophytes and simple thalloid
sporophytes forms
Rhizoids Brown, Hyaline, one Hyaline, one
multicellular celled celled
Gametangial position Apical clusters Apical clusters (leafy Sunken in thallus,
forms) or on upper scattered
surface of thallus
Stomates Present on sporophyte Absent in both Present in both
capsule. generations sporophyte and
gametophyte.
Seta Photosynthetic, Hyaline, elongating just Absent.
emergent from prior to spore release
gametophyte early in
development
Capsule Complex with Undifferentiated, Undifferentiated, horn-
operculum, theca and spherical or elongate; of shaped; growing
neck; of fixed size fixed size continuously from a
basal meristem
Sterile cells in capsule Columella. Spirally thickened Columella and
elaters pseudoelaters.
Capsule dehiscence At operculum and Into 4 valves Into 2 valves.
peristome teeth

1. Ecological Importance:
Bryophytes are of great ecological importance due to following reasons:

a) Pioneer of the land plants. Bryophytes are pioneer of the land plants because
they are the first plants to grow and colonize the barren rocks and lands.

17
 b) Soil erosion. Bryophytes prevent soil erosion. They usually grow densely and
hence act as soil binders. Mosses grow in dense strands forming mat or carpet
like structure.

They prevent soil erosion by:

i. Bearing the impact of falling rain drops

ii. Holding much of the falling water and reducing the amount of run-off water.
c) Formation of soil. Mosses are slow but efficient soil formers. The progressive
death and decay of mosses help in the formation of soil.
d) Bog succession. Peat mosses change the banks of lakes or shallow bodies of
water into solid soil which supports vegetation e.g., Sphagnum.
e) Rock builders. Some mosses in association with some green algae (e.g.,
Chara) grow in water of streams and lakes which contain large amount of
calcium bicarbonate. These mosses bring about decomposition of bi-carbonic
ions by abstracting free carbon dioxide. The insoluble calcium carbonate
precipitates and on exposure hardens, forming calcareous (lime) rock like
deposits.

2. Formation of Peat:

Peat is a brown or dark colour substance formed by the gradual compression and
carbonization of the partially decomposed pieces of dead vegetative matter in the bogs.
Sphagnum is anaquatic moss. While growing in water it secretes certain acids in the water
body.

This acid makes conditions unfavorable for the growth of decomposing organisms like
bacteria and fungi. Absence of oxygen and decomposing microorganisms slows down the
decaying process of dead material and a large amount of dead material is added year by year.
It is called peat (that is why Sphagnum is called peat moss).

Various Uses of Peat are:

a) Used as fuel in Ireland, Scotland and Northern Europe.

b) In production of various products like ethyl alcohol, ammonium sulphate,
peat, tar, ammonia, paraffin, dye, tannin materials etc.
c) In horticulture to improve the soil texture.
d) In surgical dressings.

18
3. As Packing Material:

Dried mosses and Bryophytes have great ability to hold water. Due to this ability the
Bryophytes are used as packing material for shipment of cut flowers, vegetables, perishable
fruits, bulbs, tubers etc.

4. As Bedding Stock:

Because of great ability of holding and absorbing water, in nurseries beds are covered with
thalli of Bryophytes.

5. In Medicines:

Some Bryophytes are used medicinally in various diseases for e.g.,

a) Pulmonary tuberculosis and affliction of liver—Marchantia spp.

b) Acute hemorrhage and diseases of eye—Decoction of Sphagnum.
c) Stone of kidney and gall bladder—Polytrichum commune.
d) Antiseptic properties and healing of wounds—Sphagnum leaves and extracts
of some Bryophytes for e.g., Conocephalum conicum, Dumortiera, Sphagnum
protoricense, S. strictumshow antiseptic properties.

6. In Experimental Botany:

The liverworts and mosses play an important role as research tools in various fields of Botany
such as genetics. For the first time in a liverwort, Sphaerocarpos, the mechanism of sex
determination in plants was discovered.

7. As Food:

Some Bryophytes e.g., mosses are used as food by chicks, birds and Alaskan reindeer

19