Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Practical considerations for physical development during growth and maturation in youth.
Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning. 31(03):22-33. 2023 © ASCA

From the Field – Directed Topic

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING GROWTH AND MATURATION IN

YOUTH.

Christopher T. Brennan1

1Brisbane Lions Australian Football Club, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

BLUF

Physical development programs for youth should be based on their stage of growth and maturation, as there are physical
and hormonal changes prior to, during and after puberty which influence the responses to training and can impact future
development.

ABSTRACT

Training programs for developing athletes should be based on their stage of maturity. Extensive research on the physical
development of adolescents has shown there are four key stages of maturation:

• Pre-pubertal - Ages 6-12 ± 2 years, pre-adolescent growth spurt (<85% of predicted adult height). Stage is
characterised by steady growth (5cm per year) and is a key window for development of fundamental movement skills
and flexibility. Training programs should include movement-based strength, flexibility, basic plyometric exercises and
running mechanics in low structure, fun environments.
• Early Pubertal - Ages 11-13 ± 2 years, commences with onset of the adolescent growth spurt (85-91% of predicted
adult height). Stage is characterised by rapid growth of 6-9 ± 1 cm per year. Multi-lateral development in various
sports is encouraged. Basic body-weight strength, coordination and plyometric training methods, as well as speed,
agility and flexibility training are recommended.
• Late Pubertal - Ages 13-15 ± 2 years, (91-95% of predicted adult height). Growth slows rapidly (6-7cm down to 3cm
over 2 years). Small window for aerobic development and large window for strength development. The addition of
basic resistance training (3 sets x 6-12 reps) with loads not exceeding 60-70% est 1RM are recommended.
• Post-pubertal - Ages 14-16 ± 2 years, (≥95% of predicted adult height). Growth steadily declines over 2-3 years
whilst body mass increases. Sport specialisation may begin with an emphasis on strength, speed, power, and
hypertrophy training, as well as aerobic capacity and power.

Adolescents should have clear and specific training phases based on their growth, with particular focus on skill
development pre-puberty and individualisation of training in the early puberty stage where rapid growth and common
over-use injuries are prevalent.

Key Words – long term athletic development, adolescence, maturation, puberty, growth spurt, predicted adult height.

INTRODUCTION

Design of training programs for developing athletes requires careful consideration of their stage of maturity to safely
implement programs based on their developmental needs. Most national sporting organisations (e.g., Australian Institute
of Sport) have developed specific guidelines for safe and progressive training of children and youth athletes to assist
this process (1). There are also well evidenced frameworks that provide clear recommendations for training children
and adolescents, such as the Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) framework (2,3), the Youth Physical
Development (YPD) model (4,5), as well as a comprehensive guide for developing physical qualities in young athletes
by Giles et al. (6)

These frameworks strongly support the notion that children and developing youths are not mini adults and exercise
prescription for them should not follow watered down versions of elite programs for mature adults (3,6). Maturational-
specific exercise prescription requires careful consideration from practitioners and can be complex to deliver, particularly
in school and social sport settings due to the structure of sports based on chronological age groups (U14, U15, etc.).
Despite these complexities, the long-term benefits of training children and adolescents in line with their maturational
capabilities are essential for proper development. This directed topic will provide practical recommendations for coaches
based on the guidelines of these frameworks and current research.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

22
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

MEASUREMENT & MONITORING OF GROWTH

During adolescence, youth experience a significant growth spurt which can be monitored through the measurement of
growth. There are several clinical methods to predict growth and maturation in youths, such as radiographical
assessment to determine skeletal age (7,8), assessment of dental age (9), and the observation of secondary sex
characteristics (10). The use of anthropometry measures (such as standing height, sitting height, limb and/or foot length)
to track stages of growth (11-13) are well evidenced, cost effective, and are the least invasive of these growth monitoring
methods. The Maturity Offset method, predicts the age at which an individual is due to reach Peak Height Velocity (PHV)
and uses chronological age, height, trunk length, leg length and body mass (14) to estimate this. This anthropometric
data is then applied to an equation (14) to provide a gender specific estimate of the years prior to, or past PHV an
individual is. Despite popularity within the literature, the reliability of the Maturity Offset method has been criticised.
There appear to be errors in the estimation of the age at PHV, with older or early maturing adolescents often over-
estimated, whilst late maturing adolescents are often under-estimated (12,15,16). Other studies have highlighted the
refence data for these estimates are several decades old and lack diversity in terms of the cultural background of
participants (17).

Recent research and practical forums have suggested the adoption of bio-banding (16,18). This concept uses the
Khamis-Roche method (19) to predict adult height based on an individual’s current height, body mass and chronological
age, along with mid-parent height (both biological parent’s height) to predict their future adult height (PAH). Once PAH
has been determined, the individual’s current height as a percentage of their predicted height (%PAH) is used to band
the individual into either pre- (less than 85% of PAH), early (85-91% of PAH), late (91-95% of PAH), or post-pubertal
bands (greater than 95% of PAH), based on gender specific data coefficients. This method has been deemed highly
effective and accurate in determining the stage of growth an individual is in, as a recent study comparing three different
methods to predict growth, showed use of the %PAH bands predicted 91% of cases of children in their peak adolescent
growth spurt in twenty-three youth football athletes (20). Another recent discussion paper (16) strongly supported the
use of bio-banding within sport to safely progress athletes through various stages of development whilst maintaining the
competitive and social elements associated with junior sport.

Due to the complexity of the equation used to calculate PAH along with the need for gender specific coefficients within
the equation, readers are encouraged to utilise easy-to-use resources from readily available blogs and websites (21),
in addition to both original research (19) and the most recent research papers (22) if looking to implement bio-banding
in their programs.

Table 1 – Stage of maturity and corresponding range of percentage of predicted adult height (PAH).

Stage of Maturity Percentage of Predicted Adult Height

Pre-Pubertal <85%
Early Pubertal 85-91%
Late Pubertal 91-95%
Post-Pubertal ≥95%

Regardless of which anthropometrical assessment methods are used to determine growth, the use of standardised and
consistent measurement procedures are critical for accuracy. Balyi et al. (3) suggest the location, approximate time of
the month, training day of the week, and time of day should be standardised for each measure, with two or more
measurements taken on each occasion to ensure accurate, repeatable results.

Based on current evidence and best practice, the use of anthropometrical data to monitor growth is a reliable and cost-
effective measure to safely track changes in youth athletes. The adoption of the bio-banding method which utilises
%PAH bands is an accurate predictor of growth in youth and can safely direct training prescription and practices
throughout adolescence (16,18).

STAGES OF GROWTH

Growth throughout childhood and adolescence has been extensively studied and there appear to be four distinct periods
of maturation:

• Pre-Puberty (6-12 years of age ± 2 years), prior to PHV

• Early Puberty (11-13 years of age ± 2 years), stage of rapid growth up until PHV
• Late Puberty (13-15 years of age ± 2 years), just after adolescents’ reach PHV
• Post-Puberty (14-16 years of age ± 2 years), post-PHV with a steady deceleration in growth.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

23
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

The pre-pubertal stage is characterised by steady growth of approximately 5cm per year between the ages of 6-10 years
in females and 6-12 years in males (3,4). Children in this stage are less than 85% of their PAH (16,18) and annual
measurements of growth around birthdays or the start of the school year are typically recommended during this stage
(11). It should be noted in addition to physical growth, children’s attention span, imagination and reasoning ability are
developing in this stage and should be factored into how sessions and learning activities are delivered.

Table 2 – Stage of maturity and estimated age (years) and growth (cm) for females and males.

Female Male
Growth per year
Age (yrs) Growth (cm) Age (yrs) Growth (cm)
Pre-Puberty 6-10 5cm 6-12 5cm
Early Puberty 11 ± 2 6-8cm 13 ± 2 7-9cm
Late Puberty 13 ± 2 6-3cm 15 ± 2 7-3cm
Post-Puberty 14 ± 2 1-2cm 16 ± 2 1-3cm

The pubertal stage coincides with the peak adolescent growth spurt with the onset of peak height velocity (PHV), around
the chronological ages of 11 ± 2 years in females and 13 ± 2 years in males (3,4,17). During the early pubertal stage
leading up to PHV, rapid growth of up to 7cm in the first year and 9cm in the second year are experienced in males,
with 6cm in the first year and 8cm in the second year of growth experienced in females (3). Growth in this phase occurs
distal to proximal, as growth of the feet and lower limbs occurs first (17). In the late-puberty stage there is a gradual
deceleration of growth, with around 7cm of growth in males and 6cm in females for the first year of late puberty, followed
by a rapid decline in growth to approximately 3cm the following year in both genders (3). During both these pubertal
stages of growth, adolescents reach between 85-95% of their PAH (16,18). As a result of this rapid skeletal growth,
biannual (twice per year) to bimonthly (six per year) measurements of height are recommended to provide informative
data for the prescription and delivery of appropriate training interventions. Growth of ≥ 1cm per 2-month period is a good
indicator a child has entered the early puberty stage.

Other changes which occur throughout puberty include hormonal, emotional and coordination changes, as well as
increased discomfort due to growing pains. These changes may impact an individual’s attitudes and motivation to
participate in sport and may even cause some anxiety or confusion about the changes they are experiencing. Altered
coordination is relatively common and is referred to as adolescent awkwardness (4). This change has been attributed
to a heightened centre of mass during the growth spurt, which in turn challenges control of the trunk during movement
(17). Motor coordination is also impacted by the delayed adaptation of neural pathways resulting from the substantial
changes in body dimension (17), and reductions in flexibility experienced with growth of the limbs (23,24).

As growth begins to slow, adolescents enter the post-pubertal stage which is characterised by a steady decline in growth
for approximately 2-3 years after PHV. Growth typically ceases around the age of 17 years in females and 19 years in
males (3) once they reach full adult height. Both the late puberty and post-puberty phases coincide with Peak Weight
Velocity (PWV), which is characterised by a rapid rise in muscle mass, particularly in males, due to the rising
concentration of anabolic hormones due to puberty (3,4,17).

Overall, across the four stages of childhood and adolescent growth, early puberty appears to be the most important
stage where training programs need to be individualised and monitored closely to prevent common over-use injuries
which typically occur.

TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS

Literature on training for children and adolescents suggest there are windows of trainability for specific fitness qualities
through the pre-, pubertal, and post-pubertal stages (3,6,17). However, it is strongly recommended all elements of
fitness are trained throughout childhood and adolescence (4) to ensure appropriate development of the fundamental
movement skills and motor coordination for an active life (from early childhood to late adulthood). Current physical
activity guidelines from the Australian Government (25) recommend children and adolescents engage in moderate
physical activity for a combined 60 minutes per day, each day of the week. Vigorous physical activity should be included
on 3 days per week, which include activities such as running, riding, swimming, climbing, team sports and/or age-
appropriate resistance training.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

24
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Pre-Pubertal (6-12 years ± 2 years)

Based on several long-term athletic development models, the pre-pubertal stage is a key window for the development
of fundamental locomotor and movement skills, as well as general flexibility (3,4,6). This is largely due to adaptations to
training being predominately neural based in this stage of childhood (26). Based on this, good evidence supports the
addition of basic speed, agility, strength, stability, and plyometric training methods to improve each of these qualities
(5,27,28). Coaches are encouraged to include intentional training of these qualities at every opportunity, with an
emphasis on learning correct technique, in low structure and fun learning environments (6). Daily physical activity is
recommended for children in the pre-pubertal stage, with a wide range of activities and sports encouraged. Early
specialisation is not recommended, and therefore training for the same sport should not occur more than 2 times per
week during this stage. Movement and locomotor skills should include activities such as running, jumping, hopping,
skipping, balancing, rolling, crawling, throwing, and climbing. Participation in introductory programs for sports such as
gymnastics and athletics provide good foundations for the development of these skills, in addition to also learning
alternative locomotor activities such as swimming and cycling.

The development of general body-weight strength and stability is key in the pre-pubertal stage. Development occurs
through learning as many fundamental movements skills as possible, such as squatting, lunging, hinging, pushing,
pulling, rotating, and bracing. These skills should again be learnt in fun, play-like environments to promote the learning
and attainment of these skills. Based on the recommendations of ASCA position stand for strength training (29) as well
as the work of Giles et al. (6), children between the ages of 6-12 years should build strength by developing control in
body-weight movements through repetition, with higher repetitions ranges of 10-15+ interspersed with adequate rest
periods (29). Circuit type training is not recommended as it does not promote adequate rest nor allow for coaching and
learning of movements sufficiently (6).

Children around the age of 6-9 years of age are believed to be in a window of speed trainability (3,6), where frequent,
low volume, short bursts of speed (less than 5 seconds) should be promoted in physical activities, along with some
basic running mechanics drilling (e.g., Walking A, Marching A, Skipping A) to promote the attainment of key motor skills
and postures associated with acceleration and general speed.

Practitioners are encouraged to make use of warm-up and warm-down times to integrate these movement skills into the
session, as well as avoid placing extended structure on children due to their developing attention spans. The use of
games & movement-based puzzles where participants are required to interact and solve problems together are highly
recommended (5). Although repetition is required to accurately learn movement skills, because the adaptations in this
phase are predominately neural based (4,26), overload should be achieved through providing variations to movement
tasks once a movement skill or pattern has been learnt. An example of this would be to progress a body-weight squat
to an alternating sumo squat, or to use hurdle or similar object to squat below.

Flexibility is one of the most important (3,4) and often undervalued fitness qualities to be developed during childhood
prior to the adolescent growth spurt. The importance of its development has only increased in recent decades, due to
the battle with screentime and sedentary habits that have crept into the lifestyle of modern youth. Optimal flexibility
ranges should be developed at an early training age before puberty, around the age of 9 -12 years (3). This should be
developed through both dynamic and static stretching methods on 2-3 days per week, or 5-6 times per week if individuals
exhibit poor flexibility from an early age (3). Due to limited physical activity opportunities, basic flexibility involving both
static and dynamic stretches should be included in both warm-up and warm-down routines to drive improvement as well
as promote the learning of various flexibility exercises for the adoption of good habits as they progress through puberty.
Guides on appropriate flexibility ranges for youth include recent research on over 1000 children, adolescents, and adults
(30), as well as running specific flexibility ranges (6, page 90) and basic practical examples such as:

• The ability to bend their knee past their toes when standing,
• The ability to touch their toes whilst maintaining straight legs in standing or sitting,
• The ability to stand on one leg, bend the knee of their non-support leg & raise their thigh to 90° without losing
alignment of their lower back & support leg,
• The ability to reach and bend arms in opposing positions, one overhead and one behind their body and clasp their
hands together.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

25
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Table 3 – Example session for pre-pubertal children (6-12 years ± 2 years).

Day 1 – Warm Up Routine (15 minutes)

Exercise Sets Reps Comment/Description
Can use ropes if available & can vary
1A Skipping (without rope) 2 2 x 10m
the pattern (i.e., DL to SL, etc)
1B Walking A 2 2 x 10m Progress to arms OH
Progress to Squat Under a
2A Sumo Squat 2 2 x 10m
Fence/Barrier, or Under/Over Hurdles
Progress to T Push Ups or Spiderman
2B Push Up on Knees 2 8-10
Crawl
Glute Bridge but on hands instead of
3A Crab Bridge 2 8-10
shoulders
Crawl by reaching with hand stepping
3B Bear Crawl 2 2 x 10m
with leg, in an alternating fashion
Progress movement over larger
4A Mini Bounds or Mini Skater Hops 1 2 x 10m
distance or for more height
Mini Bounds w/ Tennis Ball Catch & Add a tennis ball catch & pass while
4B 1 2 min
Throw athletes move by doing mini bounds
In pairs, one partner tries to get to a
5 Partner Reaction Drill 1 3 min safe zone 10-15m away, whilst partner
tries to catch them
Skill or Physical Education Component (30 min)
Warm Down & Mobility (10 min)
Progress to Standing Quad Stretch for
A Side Lying Quad Stretch 2 2 x 30s el
added balance
Both straight leg & bent knee positions,
B Hamstring Stretch (on back) 2 3 x 10s e
with band/towel or hand
On all fours, reach one arm underneath
C Kneeling Thoracic Reach Through 2 2 x 30s e
body to the opposite side

Prior to reaching puberty, children do not need much structured endurance activity such as timed runs or distance-
based efforts, as their central and peripheral cardiovascular systems, metabolic capacities and cognitive abilities are
not yet developed enough to acquire large improvements from such methods (4). Endurance should instead be built
through short games and different physical activities that promote movement skills (running, jumping, hopping, throwing,
catching etc.). They also build endurance through improving the economy of their movements within these games
through repetition of movement (3).

Overall, during the pre-puberty stage it is recommended children learn as many movement skills as possible, as well as
developing some basic running mechanics to prepare them for all future physical activity endeavours across their lives.
Developing basic range of movement through flexibility is also strongly recommended as this will help establish optimal
ranges for the pubertal and post-pubertal stages.

Early Pubertal stage (11-13 years ± 2 years)

During the onset of the adolescent growth spurt (approximately 11-13 years of age in females and 13-15 years of age
in males) physical activity guidelines again recommend 60 minutes of daily exercise, with total weekly training hours
below 8 hours of training or competition per week (6). Training frequency for an individual sport is not recommended to
exceed 2-3 times per week and multi-lateral development through involvement in different sports and physical activities
is encouraged to expose individuals to a broad range of movements and sport specific skills. A balanced approach to
training all fitness components is again encouraged in this phase with an even emphasis on training agility, speed,
power, and strength (4). This phase is often associated with a loss of coordination and speed due to the growth that is
occurring in the limbs and trunk (3,6).

Fundamental movement skills should progress in a slightly more structured manner, so individuals learn how to train
and apply themselves. The structure of strength training sessions should also progress provided the adolescents have
developed both the movement competency and the maturity to listen and follow instructions appropriately. The focus
should be to continue to develop basic body-weight movements and be able to produce and absorb force with adequate
control. The addition of isometric exercises rather than heavy loaded movements and heavy impact exercises, are
recommended to help build strength and reduce impact on bone and joints during this period of rapid growth.
Coordination tasks are also recommended to help overcome reductions in coordination due the impact changes in limb
length and centre of mass have on coordination. Adding subtle complexity to movements is an effective way of

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

26
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

progressive overload during this phase, such as timed challenges (e.g., how many push ups can you perform in 30
seconds) or combining movements (e.g., a push up to thoracic rotation). Gentle, pain-free stretching both pre- and post-
training and/or competition are also recommended to develop and maintain flexibility during the key adolescent growth
period.

Towards the end of this stage, physiological improvements to the speed energy systems (alactic and lactic systems)
begin to occur (11-13 years in females and 13-16 years in males), where adolescents have a second window for speed
trainability (3,6). Training within this period should emphasise the development and progressive overload of correct
running technique. Short speed efforts are still encouraged along with the introduction of longer speed-based efforts (5-
20 seconds, low volume with adequate recoveries) to develop speed endurance. These recommendations are all based
on the provision that the appropriate movement skills and competency have previously been developed to progress to
this stage. Recent data from meta-analyses suggest throughout puberty there is an enhanced window for developing
speed and strength, with interventions shown to result in moderate adaptations to strength and speed qualities when
delivered during puberty (17,27,31,32). Based on this evidence, an increase to the structure and technical focus of
speed-based drills are recommended during puberty, followed by the addition of basic force development (band or
partner resisted drills) and rate of force development drills (explosive throwing drills incorporating triple extension, or
pogo drills for firm but fast ground contact) as athletes technical understanding and proficiency develops.

As adolescents can adhere to more structure within their training in this stage, the addition of basic timed conditioning
efforts (30-180 sec) or distance efforts (400-800m) can be introduced as part of their training if aerobic endurance is
required for their sport. However, it should not be the primary focus of their training (4). Some adolescents often
experience growing pains and are at an increased risk of overuse injury. Strategies to reduce this risk of injury during
puberty or manage individuals with chronic injury include: use of games and sport specific training to improve endurance,
limit additional running to reduce the impact of overuse, and reduce to the number of training/competition days to help
manage overall training load. The addition of basic cross-training methods (cycling, swimming, rowing etc.) is a useful
way to build endurance in such cases, as it acts to reduce repetitive stress on the lower body, whilst promoting the
attainment of broad movement skills and cardiovascular development. In team sports settings, individuals are
recommended to train together in chronological age groups for technical and tactical components. However, for physical
development, it is recommended that training components be individualised based on their stage of maturation to allow
for maturation specific adaptations to occur (3,4,6).

Table 4 – Example session for adolescents in early puberty (11-13 years ± 2 years).

Skill Day – Warm Up Routine (20 minutes)

Exercise Sets Reps Comment/Description
1A Banded March A 2 2 x 10m Progress to Skip A
1B Walking Arabesque 2 2 x 10m Progress to pause at the bottom
2A DL to SL Glute Bridges 2 6e Progress to SL Glute Bridges
From Wheelbarrow position partner
2B Partner Wheelbarrow to Handstand 2 3-4
moves feet up into handstand
3 SL Skater Squats w/ Partner 2 6-8 el Partner holds back foot or hands
Progress from just holds to rapid switch,
4 Acceleration Posture Hold & Switch 2 6 el
focus on big posture/shape
Hops: good landings
5 Skater Hops & Pogos 2 10m e
Pogos: stiff ankle, punch the ground
3 reps are technique, progressing in
6 T or Square Agility Drills 1 6
pace. Final 3 are a race
Skill or Physical Education Component (30-45 min)
Conditioning Component: 1 min, 2 min, 3 min Runs at 65-75% Intensity (2 : 1 Work to Rest), or
4 x 3 min Cycle at 70-75% with 2 min Recovery
Warm Down & Mobility (10-15 min)
Standing Quad Holds or Bend knee & pull foot in tight behind
A 2 20s el
Couch Stretch bum
Iguana w/ Thoracic Rotation or Iguana on the spot, or on your back and
B 2 5e
Hamstring & Long Adductor Holds do both hamstring & long add.
Glute Figure of 7 or
C 2 20-30s el On front or on back
Bretzel Stretch

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

27
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Late Puberty stage (13-15 years ± 2 years)

After reaching PHV, a steady deceleration followed by sharp decline in growth occurs (6-7cm in the first year post- PHV,
3cm in the year following) marks the initiation of late puberty. Training within this phase can subtly increase to 10-12
hours per week (6), with specialisation in 1-2 sports appropriate once growth decelerates and provided the athlete can
cope with the physical, cognitive, and social demands in their life. Splitting training days into days of skill, speed and/or
aerobic development and non-skill days for strength and plyometric training is appropriate from late puberty onwards to
allow for greater skill and physical development. Whilst all elements of fitness are trainable in this phase, it is believed
a window of aerobic development exists after PHV. This aerobic development window is followed by a window for
strength development which coincides with peak weight velocity (PWV) 12-18 months after PHV is achieved (4).

Adolescents enter a window for increased aerobic development between the ages of 12-15 in females and 14-16 in
males, with increases in VO2max observed at these ages due to increased hormone secretion and subsequent growth
of the trunk and cardiovascular tissue (3). Coaches can support this aerobic window by implementing a structured
training program that is sport-specific in design. It is recommended sports that require a strong aerobic base include
continuous exercise such as long slow distance efforts or fartlek intervals to develop aerobic capacity in this window (3).
Examples of this include building from 2-3 min intervals of continuous running to 5 min and 10 min intervals or introducing
fartlek intervals of shorter more intense bursts followed by continuous paced running and recovery intervals, such as
100m hard run : 200m jog : 100m walk x 4.

Introduction to loaded strength training is appropriate in this stage provided the individual has developed the appropriate
flexibility and adequate control to perform each movement to be loaded in the gym. Initial focus should be to learn and
consistently replicate ideal technique with each movement, before developing the strength and stability required for
general movements, followed by sport-specific movements. The addition of light external resistance (e.g., medicine
balls, bands, light free weights) should only occur under strict supervision of a trained strength and conditioning
professional (6,29). Loads should not exceed 60% of estimated of 1RM or 10-15 RM inside the first year of training with
external load (29). Athletes should not be instructed to lift to failure, rather be encouraged to perform movements only
with excellent technique. The addition of Olympic lifting to develop technique for future application in the later years is
recommended if adequate coaching and an appropriate coach to athlete ratio allows for individualised feedback after
each set.

As individuals progress physically through late puberty, strength-based loading should gradually increase but should
not exceed 8-15 RM or 70% of estimated 1RM, with simple loading schemes of 2-3 sets of 6-12 repetitions
recommended (29). These repetition ranges lend themselves to general strength and hypertrophy training, which are
recommended in this phase due to the initiation of PWV, which results from the rising concentrations of anabolic
hormones from puberty (17). Whilst hormone concentrations differ between genders, there tend to be natural rises in
muscle mass with PWV. The addition of basic but structured strength training supports this lean mass development,
provided children and adolescents have had the appropriate training history and possess the required competency to
progress in this stage. If strength testing is to be implemented, the repetitions to fatigue (not failure) method are
recommended (29) between the range of 8-15 RM, provided the athlete has the adequate neuromuscular control to
perform the movement.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

28
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Table 5 – Example exercise progressions for an adolescent in late puberty (13-15 years ± 2 years).

Movement Type Progression 1 Progression 2 Progression 3

Squat Goblet Squat Front Squat Back Squat
Walk Lunge or
Lunge Rev Lunge Front Lunge
Double Lunge
Skater Squats or Unassisted
Unilateral SL Squat Variations Step Down/Up
SL Squats
Band or Kettlebell
Hinge Romanian Deadlift Trap Bar Deadlift
Hinge
Hip Extension Loaded Glute Bridge Loaded Hip Thrust SL Hip Thrust
& Abduction & Band Mule Kicks & Crab Walks & Fire Hydrants
Incline/Decline or
Horizontal Push DB Bench Press BB Bench Press
Single Arm Variations
Vertical Push DB Shoulder Press BB Overhead Press Push Press
Horizontal Pull Seated Row DB One Arm Row Bench Pull
Inverted/TRX Row or Neutral or Underhand Chin
Vertical Pull Overhand Chin Up
Lat Pull Down Up
Pallof Press, Deadbug, Pallof Hold, Birddog, Pallof Variations, TRX
Brace
Swiss Ball Bridge Rollouts Fallout, Hollows
Woodchop, Rev Woodchop, Windshield
Rotate Landmine Rotations
Russian Twist Wipers
Olympic / Power OH Squat & Hang Jump & Snatch
OH Squat & Hang Shrug
Variations High Pull Balance
Tuck Jumps & Box Jumps & Box Hops, Multi-Direction Jumps &
Jump
Broad Jumps Multi-Directional Hops Reactive Jumps
MB Underhand Throw, MB Overhead, Rotational, or
Throw/Toss KB Swing
Slams Unilateral Throws
Partner Wheelbarrows or Waiters Carry or
Carry MB Overhead Carry
Handstands Farmers Walk
Rotating Bear to
Crawl Bear Crawl (Fwd/Back) Bear Crawl (Lateral)
Crab Crawl
SL Pogos & Multidirectional & Reactive
Hop Skater Hops
Alternating Pogos Hops
Skipping Variations
Skip Banded March & Skip A OH Skip A & Pogos
(w/ rope)
Acceleration Holds &
Speed Ankling/Dribble/A Variations Partner Offset Accelerations
Switches
Closed Change of Direction Open Change of Direction Sports Specific
Agility
Drills Drills Agility Drills
Robustness/ SL Hammy Bridge, Calf Hammy Slides, SL Calf Nordic, Loaded Calf Raise,
Prevention Raise, Adductor Bridge Raise, Copenhagens Abd/Add Squeezes

Post-Puberty stage (14-17 years ± 2 years)

As growth rapidly decelerates (drops to 3cm or less per year), adolescents enter the post-puberty stage, characterised
by a steady decline in growth and rapid increase in body mass as described in the late puberty stage. Training,
competition, and physical activity guidelines for this stage are similar to late puberty, with 10-12 hours per week
recommended (6) whilst athletes are juggling school and extra-curricular commitments. Athletes who have chosen to
specialise in a sport, may engage in slightly more training (1-2 hours per week), however monthly deload weeks are
encouraged and their training load should be based around their ability to maintain their education commitments,
particularly during study or exam periods.

A larger emphasis on strength, speed, power, and hypertrophy training is recommended in this phase (4) as it coincides
with a window of strength trainability and hypertrophy. This is provided adolescents have developed the necessary
flexibility, movement & strength competencies to progress (6). This window of strength trainability is due to the role rising
hormonal concentrations and training stimuli have on the development of muscles and tendons, which result in
significant improvements to force production and rate of force production (17). Meta-analyses data and training-based
interventions support this, with moderate to large changes in strength, speed and plyometric capabilities during this
stage (27,31-34).

Loaded strength training can involve split routines (separate days for upper and lower body) and training prescription
should include complex multi-joint exercises followed by more sport-specific or single joint exercises (29). Loading in

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

29
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

this phase should again progress on from the late puberty stage, however, loading should not exceed 80% of estimated
1RM (29). The importance of maintaining technique as load, speed of movement and power are challenged is paramount
(6). The introduction of more hypertrophy-based strength can occur in this stage using appropriate loads and methods
(i.e., lower load-higher volume sets, back-off sets, drop sets, maximal repetition sets at low loads until fatigue, etc.).

In terms of speed specific training, the addition of more challenging movement patterns, increased pressure and fatigue
to the training environment and the addition of external load to enhance their ability to transfer these skills in competition
are encouraged in this phase. Assisted stretching and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching techniques
can be introduced as athletes develop and progress into the late to post-puberty stages. The addition of these methods
helps maintain flexibility ranges for correct movement practices but also further develop the adolescent’s knowledge of
various stretching methods for later in life.

As growth decelerates, aerobic power training can commence with the use of shorter more intense intervals, with greater
specificity to sports. Examples include the use of high intensity interval training based on maximal aerobic speed (MAS)
to prescribe short 10-15 second efforts, followed by similar duration recovery periods. As athletes mature and their
physical competencies develop, the introduction of anaerobic energy system conditioning for sports which require a
higher anaerobic energy contribution such as Australian rules football or rugby league may begin. These type of
conditioning methods may include repeat sprint efforts, shuttles or more speed endurance efforts, where the intensity
required is greater than traditional aerobic training (≥ 80% VO2max or 120% MAS) but the rest and recovery periods
are longer (work to rest ratio of 1 : 3-6) to allow for peripheral adaptations to occur. The addition of some small-sided
games of varying dimensions to promote skill development interspersed with continuous, fartlek or high-intensity interval
running is a useful way to introduce aerobic and anaerobic conditioning during this phase.

It should be noted that although growth is declining, it has not ceased completely and therefore the practitioner must
apply caution when adjusting training loads and intensity both on the gym floor and training field. As the athlete develops
across this stage, exposing them to the workloads and standards required at the next level of competition, whether that
be sub-elite or elite are encouraged. This is provided they have developed the necessary competencies to handle this
step in the training program and can be achieved by conducting needs analysis for the sport and implementing profiling
for the sport the athlete is training for.

Table 6 – Example session for post-puberty athletes (14-17 years ± 2 years) incorporated as part of skills training.

Skill Day – Warm Up Routine (20-25 minutes)

Exercise Sets Reps Comment/Description
1 4 x 40m Strides (continuous) 1 1 Increasing pace with each 40m
Pause at the bottom & high hip
2 Sumo Squat to Hip Open/Close 1 20m
open/close the gate
Lunge & Reach OH & 10m of Lunge & Reach,
3 1 10-10m
Lunge & Twist 10m of Lunge & Twist
10m of Hammy Sweeps,
4 Hammy Sweeps & Arabesques 1 10-10m
10m of Arabesque
Start in Fwd Fold, Inchworm out, step
5 Inchworm to Iguana + Rotate 1 10m
leg up to one side for Iguana + rotate
DL Jump & Land (multi-direction) + Do 2 sets of jumps, then 2 sets of each
6 2 10m e
DL, Alt & SL Pogos pogo variation
1’s = single switch (boom), 2’s = double
7 Acceleration Posture Switches 1 3 x 1,2,3’s
switch (boom, boom), etc.
Banded Skip A & Skip A: Punch arm back, knee up & foot
8 2 20m, 4
MB Overhead Throws into ground. Throws: triple ext.
Maximal effort, minimum 60-90s
Band or Sled Resisted Contrast
9 1-2 2e recovery between efforts. 3-5 min rest
Efforts (10, 20m, 30m)
between sets if time permits
Skill or Physical Education Component (60-75 min)
Conditioning Component: 5 min Run x 1, 3 min Run x 2, 1 min Run x 3 80-90% Intensity (2 : 1, W : R), or 3 x 8-10
x 10s : 15s at 120% : 40% MAS, or 2 x 6-8 x 200m on 1 : 4, W : R
Warm Down & Mobility (10-20 min)
Hammy Sweeps, Walking Quad, Glute Light dynamic stretch to start warm
A 1 10 e
Tucks, Downward Dog down
Foam Rolling or Band Assisted Can be immediately after or in the 60
B 1-2 5-10 min
Mobility min post-training
C Pick 2-3 target areas 2 20-60s e Depending on deficiencies

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

30
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Table 7 – Example session for post-puberty athletes (14-17 years ± 2 years) completing 2-3 sessions per week.

Strength Program – Day 1

Warm Up: Skipping (2 x 60s), Rotating Bear to Crab Bridge (2 x 5 e),
Band Glute Series (Bridges, Clams, Kickbacks, Crab Walks, 2 x 10e),
Partner Wheelbarrow Walks (2 x 10m), Nordics (2-3 x 4-6)
Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
1A Hang Shrug 3x5 3x5 3x4 4x4
1B Reactive Hurdle Jumps (small) 2x2e 3x2e 3x2e 2x2e
2A BB Front Squat 3x8 4x8 8,8,6,6 8,6,6
2B Multi-Grip Chin Up 3 x 3-4e 4 x 3-4e 4 x 4e 3 x 4e
3A BB Rev Lunge 3 x 8-10 3 x 10 10,10,8 2 x 10
3B BB Landmine Press 3 x 6-8 e 4x6e 4x8e 3x8e
4A Machine Glute Hamstring Raise 2x6 3 x 6-8 3x8 2 x 8-10
4B Seated Row 3 x 10 10,10, 3 x 6 10, 8, 3 x 6 10, 8, 3 x 6
Band Deadbugs, Pallof Press to OH,
5 2x8e 2x8e 3x6e 3x8e
Plate Rev Woodchop
Mobility: Foam Rolling and Band Assisted Mobility, pick 2-3 target areas: Hip Flexors, Quads, Adductors, Glutes,
Hamstrings, Calf/Ankle, or Thoracic.

Strength Program – Day 2

Warm Up: T Hops (2 x 3 el), Deep Squat to Lateral Shift (1 x 5 e), Gorillas (2 x 10m)
Band Monster Walks (2 x 10m), Skater Hops (Fwd & Back)
Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
1A Trap Bar Jump 3x3 3x4 3x4 4x3
Broad Jumps or
1B 2 x 3-4 3 x 3-4 3 x 4-5 2x4
Non-Countermovement Jumps
2A Trap Bar Deadlift 3x8 8,8,8,6 8,8,6,6 8,6,6
2B BB Bench Press 3 x 10 4x8 8,8,6,6 8,6,6
3A Loaded SL Squat or BB Step Up 3 x 6-8 3x8 4x6 3x6
3B BB Bench Pull 3 x 10 10,8,8,6 10,8,8,6 10,8,6,6
4A SL Hammy Slides 2x4e 3 x 4-6 e 3x6e 2x6e
4B SL Adductor Bridges 2 x 30s 3 x 30s 3 x 30-45s 2 x 45s
5 TRX Row 3 x 8-10 3 x 10 3-4 x 10 2 x MAX
V Sit w/ Plate Raise, Swiss Ball
6 2x8e 2x8e 2x8e 3x8e
Rollout, MB Russian Twist
Mobility: Foam Rolling and Band Assisted Mobility, pick 2-3 target areas: Hip Flexors, Quads, Adductors, Glutes,
Hamstrings, Calf/Ankle, or Thoracic.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

31
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

Strength Program – Day 3

Warm Up: Side Lying Thoracic Around the Clock Stretch (2 x 5 e), Front, Side, Rev Lunge (2 x 3 e), Handstand
Holds/Walks (2 x 20s, 10m), Acceleration Posture Switches (2 x 1,2,3’s)
Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
1A BB High Pull (from blocks) 3x5 4x4 4x4 3x4
1B MB Overhead Throws 2x4 3x4 3x5 2x5
2 Prowler March 2 x 20m 3 x 20m 4 x 20m 2 x 20m
3A DB Bulgarian Split Squat 3x8 4x8 8,8,6,6 8,6,6
3B BB Hip Thrust 3 x 10 4x8 8,8,6,6 3 x 10
4A DB One Arm Row 8,8,6 8,8,6,6 8,6,6,5 8,6,5
DB Incline Press or Single Arm Bench
4B 3x8e 8,8,6 e 8,6,6 e 3x6e
Press
5 SL Calf Raises 2 x 10-15 3 x 10-15 2 x 20 1 x 25+
KB Waiters Carry, Birddog, MB 2 x 20m, 2 x 20m, 2 x 20m, 2 x 20m,
6
Rotational Throws 8, 6 e 8, 6 e 8, 6 e 8, 6 e
Mobility: Foam Rolling and Band Assisted Mobility, pick 2-3 target areas: Hip Flexors, Quads, Adductors, Glutes,
Hamstrings, Calf/Ankle, or Thoracic.

PRACTICAL APPLICTIONS

Based on current literature and evidence from long-term athletic development frameworks, training for children and
adolescents should have clear and specific phases based on their growth and maturity. Practitioners working with youth
athletes are encouraged to apply the following training recommendations:

Pre-puberty Stage (6-12 years ± 2 years)

• Daily physical activity for up to 60 min
• Physical programs included as part of warm-up and warm down periods and incorporate fundamental movements
skills (squatting, lunging, hinging, pushing, pulling, rotating, and bracing) and locomotor patterns (running, jumping,
hopping, skipping, balancing, rolling, crawling, throwing, and climbing) in the form of short games or activities with
low structure
• Key stage for the development of speed through basic running mechanics (walking, marching, and skipping A,
ankling and dribbles) and flexibility (static and dynamic stretches).

Early Puberty Stage (11-13 years ± 2 years)

• Daily physical activity, with up to 8 hours of sport/physical activity per week
• Even emphasis on the development of speed and agility, relative (body weight) strength, flexibility and endurance.
• Small dips in coordination and speed may be observed as peak adolescent growth occurs
• This stage requires the most individualisation due large variety in individuals’ growth and coordination ability
• Chronological age groups are appropriate for skill development; however, maturation specific groups should be
identified for physical development. Separate sessions for sport and physical development may be considered.

Late Puberty Stage (13-15 years ± 2 years)

• Daily physical activity, with up to 12 hours of training or competition per week
• Even emphasis on speed, agility, flexibility, and aerobic endurance with the introduction of loaded strength training
at low loads (60-70% est 1RM, 8-15RM)
• Physical development sessions can be separate to skill/sport sessions to ensure appropriate coaching

Post-Puberty Stage (14-17 years ± 2 years)

• Daily physical activity, with up to 12 hours (± 2 hours) of training and competition each week, with specialisation in a
sport supported.
• Emphasis on strength (up to 80% 1RM) and hypertrophy (≤ 70% 1RM) training to maximise the window of peak
weight velocity
• Specific speed & power training incorporated with either strength or skill/sport training
• Gradual increase in aerobic capacity, aerobic power, and anaerobic energy system development as standards of
training and competition increase.

These practical recommendations take advantage of the natural windows of adaptation which occur throughout the
adolescent growth and maturation cycle. It is important youth athletes are provided with the opportunities to develop
fundamental movement and locomotor skills throughout each stage of maturation with particular focus on skill

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

32
 Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning

development in the pre-puberty stage and individualisation of their training in the early puberty stage where growth is
rapid and common over-use injuries are most prevalent. Adopting these focuses ensures long-term physical
development leads to a prosperous and active lifestyle no matter the level of sporting participation they are engaged in.

REFERENCES

1. Australian Institute of Sport. Physical Literacy. Available at: https://www.sportaus.gov.au/physical_literacy. Accessed August 18, 2022.
2. Balyi, I. & Hamilton, A. Long-term athlete development: trainability in childhood and adolescence. Windows of opportunity, optimal trainability.
Victoria: National Coaching Institute British Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd. 1-8. 2004.
3. Balyi, I., Way, R., Higgs, C. Long-term athlete development. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 2013.
4. Lloyd, R.S. & Oliver, J.L. The youth physical development model: a new approach to long-term athletic development. Strength and Conditioning
Journal. 34(3): 61-72. 2012.
5. Lloyd, R.S., Oliver, J.L., Faigenbaum, A.D., Howard, R., De Ste Croix, M., Williams, C.A, .... Myer, G.D. Long-term athletic development - part 1:
a pathway for all youth. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 29(5): 1439-1450. 2015.
6. Giles, K.B., Penfold, L., Giorgi, A. A guide to developing physical qualities in young athletes. Available at:
https://www.movementdynamics.com/uploads/newsletters/A_Guide_to_Developing_Physical_Qualities_in_Young_Athletes.pdf. Accessed
August 18, 2022.
7. Mughal, A.M., Hassan, N., Ahmed, A. Bone age assessment methods: a critical review. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 30(1): 211-215.
2014.
8. Sanders, J.O., Qiu, X., Duren, D.L., Liu, R.W., Dang, D., Menendez, M.E., …. Cooperman, D.R. The uniform pattern of growth and skeletal
maturation during the human adolescent growth spurt. Nature. 7(16705): 1-9. 2017.
9. Maber, M., Liversidge, H.M., Hector, M.P. Accuracy of age estimation of radiographic methods using developing teeth. Forensic Science
International. 159S: S68-S73. 2006.
10. Marshall, W.A. & Tanner, J.M. Growth and physiological development during adolescence. Annual Reviews in Medicine. 19: 283-300. 1968.
11. Balyi, I. & Way, R. The role of monitoring growth in long-term athlete development. Canadian Sport for Life. Available at https://sportforlife.ca/wp-
content/uploads/2016/11/the-role-of-monitoring-growth-in-dlta.pdf. Accessed August 18, 2022.
12. Mills, K., Baker, D., Pacey, V., Wollin, M., Drew, M.K. What is the most accurate and reliable methodological approach for predicting peak height
velocity in adolescents? A systemic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 20: 572-577. 2017.
13. Sherar, L.B., Mirwald, R.L., Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., Thoms, M. Prediction of adult height using maturity-based cumulative height velocity curves.
Journal of Pediatrics. 147: 508-514. 2005.
14. Mirwald, R.L., Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., Bailey, D.A., Beunen, G.P. An assessment of maturity from anthropometric measurements. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise. 34(4): 689-694, 2002.
15. Fransen, J., Bush, S., Woodcock, S., Novak, A.R., Deprez, D., Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M. Improving the prediction of maturity
from anthropometric variables using a maturity ratio. Pediatric Exercise Science. 30(2): 296-307. 2018.
16. Thurlow, F.G., Kite, R.J., Cumming, S. Revisiting youth player development in Australian rules football: is there a place for bio-banding?
International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching. In Press. 2021.
17. Moran, J. The effectiveness of resistance, plyometric and sprint training at different stages of maturation in male youth athletes. Doctor
of Philosophy thesis submitted to the School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex. 28 June, 2017.
18. Curnyn, S. Athletic Evolution. Growth & maturity in academy footballers (Guest Blog: Steve Curnyn – Hibernian FC Academy. Available at:
https://athleticevolution.co.uk/2018/10/growth-and-maturation-in-youth-footballers-guest-blog-steve-curnyn-hibernian-fc-academy/. Accessed
August 18, 2022.
19. Khamis, H.J. & Roche, A.F. Predicting adult stature without using skeletal age: the Khamis-Roche method. Pediatrics. 94(4): 504-507. 1994.
20. Parr, J., Winwood, K., Hodson-Tole, E., Deconinck, F.J.A., Parry, L. … Cumming, S.P. Predicting the timing of the peak of the pubertal growth
spurt in elite male youth soccer players: evaluation of methods. Annals of Human Biology. 47(4): 400-408. 2020.
21. Walker, O. Science for Sport Website. Bio-Banding Calculator. Available at https://app.scienceforsport.com/products/bonus-
content/categories/2374363/posts/8022453. Accessed 15 November 2022
22. Cumming, S.P., Lloyd, R.S., Oliver, J.L., Eisenmann, J.C., Malina, R.M. Bio-Banding in sport: applications to competition, talent identification and
strength and conditioning of youth athletes. National Strength & Conditioning Association. 39(2). 2017
23. Micheli, L.J. & Klein, J.D. Sports injuries in children and adolescents*. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 25(1): 6-9. 1991.
24. Storm, J.M., Wolman, R., Bakker, E.W.P., Wyon, M.A. The relationship between range of motion and injuries in adolescent dancers and
sportspersons: a systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology. 9:287. 2018.
25. Department of Health and Aged Care, Australian Government. Physical activity and exercise guidelines for all Australians: for children and young
people (5 to 17 years). Available at: https://www.health.gov.au/health-topics/physical-activity-and-exercise/physical-activity-and-exercise-
guidelines-for-all-australians/for-children-and-young-people-5-to-17-years. Accessed August 18, 2022
26. Faigenbaum, A.D., Kraemer, W.J., Blimkie, C.J.R., Jeffreys, I., Micheli, L.J., Nitka, M., Rowland, T.W. Youth resistance training: updated position
statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 23(5): S60–S79.
2009.
27. Moran, J., Sandercock, G.R.H., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Meylan, C., Collison, J., Parry, D.A. Age-related variation in male youth athletes’
countermovement jump following plyometric training: a meta-analysis of controlled trials. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
31(2): 552-565. 2017.
28. Naclerio, F. & Faigenbaum, A. Integrative neuromuscular training for youth. Kronos. 10(1):49-56. 2011.
29. Australian Strength and Conditioning Association. Resistance training for children and youth: a position stand from the Australian Strength and
Conditioning Association (ASCA). Original publication: 2007, updated March 2017. Available at:
https://www.strengthandconditioning.org/images/resources/coach-resources/resistance-training-for-children-and-youth-asca-position-stand.pdf.
Accessed August 18, 2022.
30. McKay, M.J., Baldwin, J.N., Ferreira, P., Simic, M., Vanicek, N., Burns, J. Normative reference values for strength and flexibility of 1,000 children
and adults. Neurology. 88(1): 36-43. 2017
31. Moran, J., Sandercock, G.R., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Meylan, C., Collison, J., Parry, D.A. A meta-analysis of maturation-related variation in
adolescent boy athletes’ adaptations to short-term resistance training. Journal of Sports Sciences. 35(11): 1041-1051. 2017.
32. Moran, J., Sandercock, G., Rumpf, M.C., Parry, D.A. Variation in responses to sprint training in male youth athletes: a meta-analysis.
International Journal of Sports Medicine. 38(1): 1-11. 2017.
33. Moran, J., Sandercock, G.R.H., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Woller, J.J., Spiros, L., Schoenmakers, P.P.J.M., Parry, D.A. Maturation-related
differences in adaptations to resistance training in young male swimmers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 32(1): 139-149.
2018.
34. Moran, J., Sandercock, G.R., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Todd, O., Collison, J. and Parry, D.A. Maturation-related effect of low-dose plyometric training
on performance in youth hockey players. Pediatric Exercise Science. 29(2): 194-202. 2016.

ASCA | Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

33
Copyright of Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning is the property of Australian
Strength & Conditioning Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.