Design of Analog
Integrated Circuit
VO TUAN MINH
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
University of Science and Technology - The University of Danang
Chủ đề
2
Giới thiệu Thiết kế vi mạch & Đặc tính của MOSFET
Mạch khuếch đại đơn
Mạch khuếch đại vi sai
Mạch gương dòng
Bộ chuyển đổi tương tự/số
Vòng khóa pha
DN, 2020 V.T.M
Overview
3
1. General Considerations
2. Common-Source Amplifiers
3. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers
4. Common-Gate Amplifiers
5. Cascode Amplifiers
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Why Amplifiers?
4
Amplifiers are essential building blocks of both analog and digital
systems.
Amplifiers are needed for variety of reasons including:
To amplify a weak analog signal for further processing
To reduce the effects of noise of the next stage
To provide a proper logical levels (in digital circuits)
Amplifiers also play a crucial role in feedback systems
We first look at the low-frequency performance of amplifiers.
Therefore, all capacitors in the small-signal model are ignored!
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Amplifier Characteristics
5
Ideally, we would like that the output of an amplifier be a linear
function of the input, i.e., the input times a constant gain:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑥(𝑡)
y
𝛼0
x
In real world the input-output characteristics is typically a
nonlinear function:
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝛼2 𝑥 2 (𝑡) + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 (𝑡)
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Analog Design Trade-offs
6
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Overview
7
1. General Considerations
2. Common-Source Amplifiers
3. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers
4. Common-Gate Amplifiers
5. Cascode Amplifiers
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Common Source (CS) Basics
8
In common-source amplifiers, the input is (somehow!) connected
to G and the output is (somehow!) taken from D.
We can divide CS amplifiers into two groups:
Without source degeneration (no
body effect for the main transistor)
With source degeneration (with
body effect for the main transistor)
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Common Source Basics
9
Different types of loads can be used in an amplifier
Resistive Load
Diode-Connected Load
Current-Source Load
The following parameters of amplifiers are very important
Small-signal gain
Voltage swing
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Resistive Load
10
The region of operation of M1 depends on its size and the values
of Vin and RD.
We are interested in the small-signal gain and the headroom
(which determines the maximum voltage swing).
We will calculate the gain using two different methods
Large-signal analysis
Small-signal model
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Resistive Load - Large-Signal Analysis
11
For M1, VGS = Vin, VDS = Vout
If Vin < VTH, M1 is off and Vout = VDD = VDS
If Vin becomes slightly larger than VTH, M1 turns on and goes into
saturation, because of VDS = Vout > VGS – VTH
1 𝑊
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑅𝐷 𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 2
2 𝐿
𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜕𝐼𝐷
𝐴𝑣 = = −𝑅𝐷 = −𝑅𝐷 𝑔𝑚
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆
M1 converts an input voltage change DVin to a drain current
change gmDVin, and hence an output voltage change DVout = −gm
RDDVin
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Resistive Load - Large-Signal Analysis
12
As Vin > Vin1, VDS decreases and M1 goes into triode region.
2
𝑊 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −
𝐿 2
𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=> 𝐴𝑣 = : complicated
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛
If Vin increases further, M1 goes into deep triode
region if Vout << 2(Vin – VTH).
𝑅𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝐷𝐷
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 =
𝑅𝑜𝑛 + 𝑅𝐷 1 + 𝑅 𝜇 𝐶 𝑊 𝑉 − 𝑉
𝐷 𝑛 𝑜𝑥 𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐻
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Resistive Load - Large-Signal Analysis
13
The value of Vin that makes M1 switch its region of operation
1 𝑊 2
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑅𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻
2 𝐿
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Resistive Load - Small-Signal Model
14
Assuming that the transistor is in saturation region and channel
length modulation is ignored
G D
S
Output Voltage:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉1 𝑅𝐷 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐷
Small-signal Gain:
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷
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Resistive Load - Example
15
Sketch ID and gm of M1 as a function of Vin.
𝑾
VRD 𝒈𝒎 = 𝝁𝒏 𝑪ox 𝑽ov
𝑳
Vin1
gm depends on Vin so if Vin changes by a large amount then the
small-signal approximation will not be valid anymore.
In order to have a linear amplifier, the gain should not depend on
parameters like gm since this parameter depends on the input
signal.
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Resistive Load
16
𝑊 𝑉𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑣 = − 2𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥
𝐿 𝐼𝐷
Increase the gain by increasing W / L or VRD or decreasing ID if
other parameters are constant
Increasing W / L leads to greater device capacitances
Increasing VRD limits the voltage swing
Decreasing ID leads to a greater time constant at the output
node since RD is increased
Trade-offs between gain, bandwidth, and voltage swings, in
particular, with lower supply voltages
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Resistive Load – Channel Length Modulation
17
Channel length modulation becomes more significant as RD
increases?
Using the Small-Signal Model because of its simplicity
G D
S
𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝐷 𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝐷
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉1 𝑅𝐷 ||𝑟𝑂 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚
𝑟𝑂 + 𝑅𝐷 𝑟𝑂 + 𝑅𝐷
If RD ≈ ∞ (current source as load) => Av ≈ -gmrO: intrinsic gain
Today’s short-channel CMOS technology, gmrO is between roughly
5 and 10 => 1/gm << rO.
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Example
18
Assuming that M1 in the figure below is biased in saturation,
calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the circuit.
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Example
19
Suppose the common-source stage of the figure below is to
provide an output swing from 1 V to 2.5 V. Assume that VTH0 = 0.7
V, W / L = 50 / 0.5, RD = 2 kW and λ = 0.
Calculate the input voltages that yield Vout = 1 V and 2.5 V.
Calculate ID and gm of M1 for both cases.
How much does the small-signal gain, gmRD, vary as the output
goes from 1 V to 2.5 V? (Variation of small-signal gain can be
viewed as nonlinearity.)
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Diode-Connected Load
20
Often, it is difficult to fabricate resistors with tightly controlled
values or reasonable sizes on chip => replace RD with MOSFET
Body
Effect Rx (λ≠0) Rx (λ=0)
1 1
NO 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑟𝑂 || 𝑅𝑥 =
𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚
1 1
YES 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑟𝑂 || 𝑅𝑥 =
𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏
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Diode-Connected Load
21
Body Effect
D
NO G
S
G D
YES S
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NMOS Diode-Connected Load
22
This is a CS configuration with M2 being the load.
Body effect of M2 needs to be considered. Rx
Replacing RD in the Resistive load CS by Rx
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚1 𝑅𝑥 ||𝑟𝑂1
1
= −𝑔𝑚1 (𝑟𝑂2 || ||𝑟𝑂1 )
𝑔𝑚2 +𝑔𝑚𝑏2
Ignoring the channel length modulation (rO1 = rO2 = ∞), we have:
1 𝑔𝑚1 1
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚1 = −
𝑔𝑚2 +𝑔𝑚𝑏2 𝑔𝑚2 1+𝜂2
𝑊/𝐿 1 1
=−
𝑊/𝐿 2 1+𝜂2
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Diode-Connected Load
23
If the variation of 𝜂 with Vout is neglected, Av is independent of the
bias currents and voltages (so long as M1 stays in saturation) =>
the input-output characteristic is relatively linear.
Av is a weak function (square root) of the transistor sizes =>
change the dimensions by a considerable amount so as to
increase the gain.
The voltage swing is constrained by both the required overdrive
voltages and the threshold voltage of the diode-connected
device.
𝑀1 : 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 > 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻1 ; 𝑀2 : 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − |𝑉𝑇𝐻2 |
A high amplifier gain Av leads to a high overdrive voltage Vov for
the diode-connected device which limits the voltage swing.
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Example
24
Consider the circuit shown in the figure below. In some cases, we
are interested in the impedance seen looking into the source, RX.
Determine RX if λ = 0.
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PMOS Diode-Connected Load
25
This is a CS configuration with M2 being the load without body
effect.
Replacing RD in the Resistive load CS by Rx, then Rx
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚1 𝑅𝑥 ||𝑟𝑂1
1
= −𝑔𝑚1 (𝑟𝑂2 || ||𝑟𝑂1 )
𝑔𝑚2
Ignoring the channel length modulation (rO1 = rO2 = ∞), we have:
𝑔𝑚1 𝜇𝑛 𝑊/𝐿 1 |𝑉𝐺𝑆2 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻2 |
𝐴𝑣 = − =− =
𝑔𝑚2 𝜇𝑝 𝑊/𝐿 2 𝑉𝐺𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻1
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Diode-Connected Load - Example
26
Find the gain of the following circuit if M1 is biased in saturation region
and Is = 0.75I1. Assume λ = 0.
𝑔𝑚1 4𝜇𝑛 𝑊/𝐿 1
Since 𝐼𝐷2 = 𝐼1 /4 ⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = − =−
𝑔𝑚2 𝜇𝑝 𝑊/𝐿 2
𝑊 2 𝑊 2
Or, 𝜇𝑛 𝑉𝐺𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻1 = 4𝜇𝑝 𝑉𝐺𝑆2 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻2
𝐿 1 𝐿 2
4|𝑉𝐺𝑆2 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻2 |
⇒ |𝐴𝑣 | =
𝑉𝐺𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻1
- For fixed transistor sizes, using the current source increases Av by 2
- For fixed overdrive voltages, using the current source increases Av by 4
- For a given gain, using the current source allows us to make the size or the
overdrive voltage of the diode-connected load 4 times smaller => increases the
headroom for voltage swing
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Example
27
Assuming a constant L, plot the intrinsic gain of a saturated
device versus the gate-source voltage if (a) the drain current is
constant, (b) W is constant.
Assuming a constant L, plot the intrinsic gain of a saturated
device versus W/L if (a) the gate-source voltage is constant, (b)
the drain current is constant.
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Current-Source Load
28
Using current-source as load to increase the load
impedance without dropping a large DC voltage
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚1 𝑟𝑂1 ||𝑟𝑂2 Constant
For large gain at given power, we want large rO
Since,
1 1 𝐿2
𝑟𝑂 ≈ ∝ =
𝜆𝐼𝐷 1 𝑊 𝑊
∙
𝐿 𝐿
=> Increase L and W keeping the aspect ratio constant (so rO
increases while ID remains constant). However, this approach
increases the capacitance of the output node.
DC voltage of Vout is not well-defined
Vin – VTH1 < Vout < VDD – |Vov2|
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Current-Source Load - Example
29
Compare the maximum output voltage swings of CS stages with
resistive and current-source loads.
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Source Degeneration
30
Lemma: In linear systems, the voltage gain is equal to −𝐺𝑚 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
where 𝐺𝑚 = 𝜕𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷
𝐺𝑚 = ⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = −
1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆
G D
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Source Degeneration
31
For large values of Vin
ID / Vin of the input device becomes more linear
Gm approaches 1/RS
𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚
𝐺𝑚 = ⇒ 𝐼𝐷 = 𝑉
1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 1 + 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 𝑖𝑛
w/o Source Degeneration w/i Source Degeneration
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Source Degeneration
32
G D
𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑂
𝐺𝑚 =
𝑅𝑆 + 1+ 𝑔𝑚 +𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑅𝑆 𝑟𝑂
S
G D
Excluding RD, then
𝑅′𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑅𝑆 𝑟𝑂 + 𝑅𝑆
= 1 + 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝑂 S
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Example
33
Assuming λ = γ = 0, calculate the small-signal gain of the
circuit shown in the figure below (a).
𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑣 = −
1 1
+
𝑔𝑚1 𝑔𝑚2
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Example
34
Calculate the voltage gain of the circuit shown in the
figure below. Assume that I0 is ideal.
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Overview
35
1. General Considerations
2. Common-Source Amplifiers
3. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers
4. Common-Gate Amplifiers
5. Cascode Amplifiers
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Why Buffers?
36
CS amplifiers needs a large-impedance load to achieve high
voltage gain. If the load is low-impedance, a buffer is used.
Source-Follower (SF) amplifiers can be used as buffers.
Ideal Buffer: Rin = ∞, Rout = 0, Av = 1
ZL
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Resistive Load
37
Examine the Source follower amplifier with two different loads:
Resistive Load
Current-Source Load
Resistive Load
M1 never enters triode region as long as Vin < VDD + VTH.
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Resistive Load – Small-Signal Analysis
38
G D
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ; 𝑉𝑏𝑠 = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅𝑆
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 S
⇒ 𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1+ 𝑔𝑚 +𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑅𝑆
𝛾
1. As Vin increases, gm increases and 𝜂=
𝑔𝑚 1 2 2∅𝐹 + 𝑉𝑆𝐵
the gain becomes: 𝐴𝑣 = =
𝑔𝑚 +𝑔𝑚𝑏 1+𝜂
2. As Vout increases, η decreases, the
maximum gain increases.
3. Even if RS = ∞, Av is less than 1
4. Av depends heavily on the DC level of Vin (nonlinear amplifier).
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Current-Source Load
39
To avoid the problem of
nonlinear voltage gain, we
can use a current-source as
the load.
The output resistance is:
Constant
1
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅𝑀1 ||𝑅𝑀2 = (𝑟𝑂1 || ||𝑟𝑂2 )
𝑔𝑚1 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏1
If channel length modulation is ignored (rO1 = rO2 = ∞):
1
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑔𝑚1 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏1
=> The body effect reduces the output impedance of the SF
amplifiers.
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Example
40
Suppose that in the source follower of the figure below, (W/L)1 =
20/0.5, I1 = 200 μA, VTH0 = 0.6 V, 2FF = 0.7 V, VDD = 1.2 V, μnCox
= 50 μA/V2, λ = 0 and γ = 0.4 V1/2.
Calculate Vout for Vin = 1.2 V.
If I1 is implemented as M2 in the right figure, find the minimum value of
(W/L)2 for which M2 remains saturated when Vin = 1.2 V.
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Advantages and Disadvantages
41
Source followers have typically moderate output impedance,
large input impedance. However, avoid using because:
Source followers are nonlinear because of body effect
Variable bias current which can be resolved if we use a
current-source to bias the SF => Dependence of rO on VDS in
submicron devices.
Body effect can be resolved for PMOS devices, because each
PMOS transistor can have a separate n-well. However,
because of low mobility, PMOS devices have higher output
impedance. (In more advanced technologies, NMOS in a
separate p-well can be implemented)
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Advantages and Disadvantages
42
SFs have voltage headroom limitations
due to level shift. Consider the circuit that
a CS is followed by a SF
If there is only the CS stage
𝑉𝑋 > 𝑉𝐺𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻1
With the SF stage, 𝑉𝑋 > 𝑉𝐺𝑆3 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻3 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆2 .
Therefore, adding the SF will reduce the allowable voltage
swing at node X.
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Overview
43
1. General Considerations
2. Common-Source Amplifiers
3. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers
4. Common-Gate Amplifiers
5. Cascode Amplifiers
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Common-Gate
44
Bias current of M1 flows through the input signal source, or, by a
constant current source
𝜕𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑣 = = 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑅𝐷
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 𝑔𝑚 1 + 𝜂 𝑅𝐷
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Common-Gate Input Impedance
45
G D
𝑅𝐷 + 𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝐷 1
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = ≈ +
1 + 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏
Input impedance of CG stage is relatively low only if RD is small
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Impedance Transformation
46
MOS transistor transforms its source resistance up
and its drain resistance down
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Common-Gate – Output Impedance
47
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑟𝑂 ||𝑅𝐷
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Common-Gate
48
G D
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂
𝐴𝑣 = = 𝑅𝐷
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑂 + 𝑔𝑚 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑂 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐷
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Common-Gate Example
49
Calculate the voltage gain of the following circuit
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Overview
50
1. General Considerations
2. Common-Source Amplifiers
3. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers
4. Common-Gate Amplifiers
5. Cascode Amplifiers
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Cascode Stage
51
Cascade of a CS stage and a CG stage is called a “cascode”
stage.
M1: input device, M2: cascode device
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 𝑔𝑚2 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏2 𝑟𝑂2 𝑟𝑂1 + 𝑟𝑂2 ||𝑅𝐷
≈ 𝑔𝑚2 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏2 𝑟𝑂2 𝑟𝑂1 ||𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑣 = −𝑔𝑚1 [ 𝑔𝑚2 + 𝑔𝑚𝑏2 𝑟𝑂2 𝑟𝑂1 ||𝑅𝐷 ] ∝ 𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝑂 2
Telescopic
However, limited voltage
headroom
DN, 2020 V.T.M
Triple Cascode
52
What is the output resistance of this circuit?
DN, 2020 V.T.M
Folded Cascode
53
The input device and the cascode device of the
cascode stage need not be of the same type
DN, 2020 V.T.M
Summary
54
The CS stage provides a moderate voltage gain, a high
input impedance, and a moderate output impedance.
Source degeneration improves the linearity but lowers the
voltage gain.
Source degeneration raises the output impedance of CS
stages considerably.
The CG stage provides a moderate voltage gain, a low
input impedance, and a moderate output impedance.
The voltage gain expressions for CS and CG stages are
similar but for a sign.
The source follower provides a voltage gain less than
unity, a high input impedance, and a low output
impedance, serving as a good voltage buffer.
DN, 2020 V.T.M
