B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.

Tech in Biotechnology [BT]

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

Study Material
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Table of Contents

Topic Page Number(s)

2.1: The Concept of P-N Junction Diode 2-4

2.2: Principle of Operation Diode equation 5-6

2.3: V-I characteristics of a Forward and reverse-biased P-N Junction Diode 7-8

2.4: Ideal Versus Practical Diode 9-11

2.5: Static and Dynamic Resistances 12-15

2.6: Zener Diode Characteristics and Applications 16-20

2.7: Zener and Avalanche Breakdown 21-22

2.8: Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator 23-25

2.9: P-N Junction as a Rectifier - Half Wave Rectifier, Full Wave Rectifier, 26-30
Bridge Rectifier

2.10: Various Rectifier Parameters 31-41

2.11: Filters – Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L-section Filters, 𝜋-section 42-47
Filters

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 1
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.1: The Concept of P-N Junction Diode

The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material is between that of a conductor, such as metallic copper,
and that of an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity decreases as the temperature rises, whereas metals have the
reverse effect. Adding impurities (doping) into the crystal structure can change its conducting characteristics in
beneficial ways. Diodes, transistors, and most contemporary electronics are built on the behaviour of charge
carriers such as electrons, ions, and electron holes at these junctions.

Silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and elements along the periodic table’s so-called metalloid staircase are
examples of semiconductors. Gallium arsenide is the second most common semiconductor after silicon, and it is
used in laser diodes, solar cells, microwave-frequency integrated circuits, and other applications. Silicon is a crucial
component in the production of most electrical circuits.

P-N Junction
Inside a semiconductor, a p-n junction is an interface or a border between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type.

The semiconductor’s p-side, or positive side, has an excess of holes, whereas the n-side, or negative side, has an
excess of electrons. The doping process is used to produce the p-n junction in a semiconductor.

Formation of P-N Junction

When we utilize various semiconductor materials to form a p-n junction, there will be a grain boundary that will
prevent electrons from moving from one side to the other by scattering electrons and holes, which is why we
employ the doping procedure.

For example, Consider a p-type silicon semiconductor sheet that is very thin. A portion of the p-type Si will be
changed to n-type silicon if a tiny quantity of pentavalent impurity is added. This sheet will now have both a
p-type and an n-type area, as well as a junction between the two. Diffusion and drift are the two sorts of

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 2
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

processes that occur following the creation of a p-n junction. As we all know, the concentration of holes and
electrons on the two sides of a junction differs, with holes from the p-side diffusing to the n-side and electrons
from the n-side diffusing to the p-side. This causes a diffusion current to flow across the connection.

When an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, it leaves an ionized donor on the n-side, which is
stationary. On the n-side of the junction, a layer of positive charge develops as the process progresses. When a
hole is moved from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side, causing a layer of
negative charges to develop on the p-side of the junction. The depletion area is defined as a region of positive and
negative charge on each side of the junction. An electric field direction from a positive charge to a negative charge
is generated due to this positive space charge area on each side of the junction. An electron on the p-side of the
junction travels to the n-side of the junction due to the electric field. The drift is the name given to this motion.
We can observe that the drift current runs in the opposite direction as the diffusion current.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 3
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

PN Junction Diode
A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a
potential barrier voltage across the diode junction

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 4
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.2: Principle of Operation Diode equation

Biasing Conditions for p-n Junction Diode
In a p-n junction diode, there are two operational regions:

● p-type
● n-type

The voltage applied determines one of three biasing conditions for p-n junction diodes:

● There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias.
● Forward bias: The p-type is linked to the positive terminal of the voltage potential, while the n-type is
connected to the negative terminal.
● Reverse bias: The p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the voltage potential, while the n-type is
connected to the positive terminal.

Forward Biased PN Junction

The p-n junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
and the n-type to the negative terminal. The built-in electric field at the p-n junction and the applied electric field
are in opposing directions when the p-n junction is forward-biased.

The resulting electric field is smaller than the built-in electric field when both electric fields are added together. As
a result, the depletion area becomes less resistant and thinner. When the applied voltage is high, the resistance of
the depletion zone becomes insignificant. At 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion area in silicon becomes
insignificant, allowing current to flow freely over it.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 5
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

Reverse Biased PN Junction

The p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the battery and
the n-type is attached to the positive side. The applied electric field and the built-in electric field are both in the
same direction in this situation.

The resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, resulting in a more resistive, thicker
depletion zone. If the applied voltage is increased, the depletion area gets more resistant and thicker.

P-N Junction Formula

The p-n junction formula, which is based on the built-in potential difference generated by the electric field, is as
follows:

⎡ 𝑁 −𝑁 ⎤
𝐸0 = 𝑉𝑇𝑙𝑛⎢ 𝐷 2 𝐴 ⎥
⎢ 𝑛𝑖 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where,

The zero-bias junction voltage is 𝐸0.

At room temperature, 𝑉𝑇 is the thermal voltage of 26 mV.

The impurity concentrations are denoted by the letters 𝑁𝐷 and 𝑁𝐴.

The intrinsic concentration is denoted by 𝑛𝑖

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 6
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.3: V-I characteristics of a Forward and reverse-biased P-N Junction Diode

Current Flow in PN Junction diode
When the voltage is increased, electrons move from the n-side to the p-side of the junction. The migration of
holes from the p-side to the n-side of the junction occurs similarly as the voltage rises. As a result, a concentration
gradient exists between the terminals on both sides.

There will be a movement of charge carriers from higher concentration regions to lower concentration regions as
a result of the development of the concentration gradient. The current flow in the circuit is caused by the
movement of charge carriers inside the p-n junction.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

A curve between the voltage and current across the circuit defines the V-I properties of p-n junction diodes. The
x-axis represents voltage, while the y-axis represents current.

The V-I characteristics curve of the p-n junction diode is shown in the graph above. With the help of the curve, we
can see that the diode works in three different areas, which are:

● Zero bias
● Forward bias
● Reverse bias
Mr. Arnab Das
Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 7
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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Zero Bias
There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias, which implies the potential
barrier at the junction prevents current passage.

Forward bias
When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-type is linked to the positive terminal of the external
voltage, while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal. The potential barrier is reduced when the diode is
placed in this fashion. When the voltage is 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, the potential
barriers fall, and current flows.

The current grows slowly while the diode is under forward bias, and the curve formed is non-linear as the voltage
supplied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode has crossed the potential barrier, it
functions normally, and the curve rises quickly as the external voltage rises, yielding a linear curve.

Reverse Bias
When the PN junction diode is under negative bias, the p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the external
voltage, while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal. As a result, the potential barrier becomes higher.
Because minority carriers are present at the junction, a reverse saturation current occurs at first.

When the applied voltage is raised, the kinetic energy of the minority charges increases, affecting the majority
charges. This is the point at which the diode fails. The diode may be destroyed as a result of this.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 8
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.4: Ideal Versus Practical Diode

As the name suggests, an ideal diode is a diode that has all of its properties perfectly without any flaws. Diodes
may operate either forward or reverse biased. Thus, these two modes of operation can be analyzed separately to
determine the characteristics of the ideal diode.

This ideal behaviour and its respective symbol representation are shown below.

Ideal Diode V-I Curve

An ideal diode has the same characteristics curve as an ideal switch, which conducts when applied potential and is
open-circuited when there is no supply. This means that the ideal diode offers zero resistance in forward bias and
infinite resistance in reverse bias. Hence no current flows in reverse bias and maximum current flows in forward
bias.

The characteristics curve of an ideal diode is shown below.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 9
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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Comparison Between Conventional and Ideal Diode

Below, we will distinguish between an ideal and conventional diode’s properties and characteristics.

Characteristics Ideal Diode Conventional Diode

Threshold Voltage The junctions of an ideal diode do not A threshold voltage is present in
have a threshold voltage, so they conventional diodes before conducting
conduct current when you apply a forward currents. For silicon diodes, this
forward voltage across them. voltage is approximately 0.7V, while for
germanium diodes, it is approximately
0.3V.

Forward Current A diode would have zero internal A diode would have zero internal
resistance in an ideal condition, resulting resistance in an ideal condition, resulting
in an infinite forward current when a in an infinite forward current when a
forward voltage is applied across its forward voltage is applied across its
terminals. terminals.

Breakdown Voltage Due to their infinite resistance to reverse When a reverse bias is applied to
voltage, ideal diodes do not have a conventional diodes, the junctions will
breakdown voltage. break down and conduct a large amount
of current.

Reverse Leakage As an ideal diode has no breakdown There will be some leakage current on
Current point, it never conducts reverse current, conventional diodes even with reverse
also known as leakage current. voltage.

Characteristics Curve

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 10
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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Biasing Circuit

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 11
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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2.5: Static and Dynamic Resistances

An ideal diode should offer zero resistance in the forward bias and infinite resistance in the reverse bias. The diode
behaves as a perfect conductor in forward-biased conditions and acts as an insulator in reverse-biased conditions.
In practical situations, a diode will not behave as an ideal diode and thus offers the minimum amount of resistance
in forward bias.

Forward Resistance
The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in the forward-biased condition is called forward resistance.
There are two types of forward resistance.

● ( )
i. Static resistance or DC resistance 𝑅𝐹
● ii. Dynamic resistance or AC resistance (𝑟𝐹)

Static Forward Resistance 𝑅𝐹

It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current when the p-n junction is used in the DC circuit and forward
DC voltage is applied.

In the bellow Fig shown, at point X, the static forward resistance RF is defined as the ratio of the DC voltage
applied across the p-n junction to the DC flowing through the p-n junction.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝐴
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑂𝐵

The DC resistance will be low when the diode current is high.

Mr. Arnab Das
Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 12
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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Dynamic Forward Resistance 𝑟𝐹 ( )

The resistance offered by the p-n junction under AC conditions is called dynamic resistance. It is defined as the
reciprocal of the slope of the volt-ampere characteristics.

The change in applied voltage from point A to C in the previous Fig. is denoted as Δ𝑉. The change in forward
current from point B to D is represented as Δ𝐼.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Δ𝐼
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
= Δ𝑉

1 Δ𝑉
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟𝐹 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
= Δ𝐼

The dynamic resistance varies inversely with the current. At room temperature ac resistance of a diode is the sum
of ohmic resistance and junction resistance.

Reverse Resistance
It is the resistance offered by the PN junction diode under reverse bias conditions. It is very large compared to the
forward resistance, in the order of MΩ.

Static Reverse Resistance 𝑅𝑟 ( )

It is the reverse resistance under DC-applied voltage. It is defined as the ratio of applied reverse voltage to the
reverse saturation current 𝐼𝑜.

𝑂𝐸 𝑂𝐸
𝑅𝑟 = 𝑂𝐹
= 𝐼𝑂

Dynamic Reverse Resistance 𝑟𝑟 ( )

It is defined as the ratio of incremental change in the reverse voltage applied to the corresponding change in the
reverse current. It is found under ac conditions.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑉𝑅

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
= ∆𝐼𝑅

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 13
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

V-I Equation of a diode

The mathematical representation of the V-I characteristics of the diode is called the V-I characteristic equation or
diode current equation.

The diode current is represented as

𝑉
⎡ η𝑉 ⎤
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂⎢𝑒 − 1⎥𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑇

⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Where

𝐼 = 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝐼𝑂 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

η = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, η = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 η = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

The emission coefficient or ideality factor η represents the recombination occurring in the depletion region.

The voltage equivalent of temperature indicates the dependence of diode current on temperature.

𝑉𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

−5
𝐾 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛'𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 8. 62 ×10 𝑒 𝑉/𝐾

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐾

At room temperature 27°C, T = 273 + 27 = 300 K

−5
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 = 8. 62 ×10 ×300 = 26 𝑚𝑉 𝑇

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 = = =
( )
1
𝐾 ( 1
8.62 ×10
−5 ) 11600

When the voltage applied is zero ie., V = 0

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 14
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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𝑉
⎡ η𝑉 ⎤ 0
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂⎢𝑒 − 1⎥ = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 1 = 0 𝐴
⎢ ⎥
𝑇
( )
⎣ ⎦
ie., no current flows through the diode.
𝑉
η𝑉𝑇
When forward bias is applied, current increases exponentially and 𝑒 ≫1
𝑉

𝐼𝑓 ≃ 𝐼𝑜𝑒 η𝑉 𝑇

𝑉
η𝑉𝑇
During reverse bias, the voltage applied is negative and 𝑒 ≪1 thus neglects the exponential term

𝐼𝑅 ≃ 𝐼𝑜(− 1)≃ − 𝐼𝑜

The negative sign indicates the current flows in the opposite direction to that of the forward current.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 15
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.6: Zener Diode Characteristics and Applications

Zener Diode
A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a Zener Diode. They are special
semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions. For the Zener
diode, the voltage drop across the diode is always constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes
are used as a voltage regulator.

A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in reverse bias conditions. An electrical breakdown
occurring in the reverse-biased condition of the PN junction diode is called the Zener effect. In this condition when
the electric field increases to a high value it enables the tunneling of electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band of a semiconductor, which suddenly increases the reverse current.

In reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of the power supply,
and the n-type material is connected with the positive terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very
thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped semiconductor material.

Zener Diode Working

High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more conductive and thus the Zener diodes can easily
conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction diodes. These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the
Zener diode and make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.

In no biasing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons accumulate in the valence band of the p-type
semiconductor material and thus no current flow occurs through the diode.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 16
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied voltage, the diode conducts electricity in
the direction of reverse bias. When the Zener voltage equals the supplied voltage the depletion layer vanishes
completely.

Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased

In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in the reverse-biased condition, a
small leak current flows through the diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the
reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as Vz and in this condition,
the current starts flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the current increases drastically until it
reaches a stable value.

In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener Diode which are,

● Avalanche Breakdown
● Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and Zener Diode at high reverse
voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the free electron in the PN junction diode gains energy and acquires
high velocity and these high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock electrons from those atoms.
This collision continues and new electrons are available for conducting current thus the current increases rapidly
in the diode.

This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche breakdown. This phenomenon
damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener diode is a specific diode that is made to operate in this
reverse voltage area.

If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown happens in the Zener diode.

Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown happens as Zener diodes are heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse
bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to pull
electrons from the valence band. These electrons then gain energy from the electric field and break free from the
atom.

Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase in
the current.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 17
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

The graph given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode can be studied under the following two headings,

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward characteristics of any normal diode. It is
clearly evident from the above diagram in the first quadrant that the VI forward characteristics are similar to other
P-N junction diodes.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener diode. This current is because of
the electrons which are thermally generated in the Zener diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage at any
particular value of reverse voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this voltage is
called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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Zener Diode Specifications

Zener Diode is one other most commonly used diode and some of the specifications of Zener diode are,

● Zener Voltage: The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs in the Zener diode is called Zener Voltage. It
is denoted by Vz generally it ranges from 2.4 volts to 200 volts.
● Current Iz (max): The maximum current that the diode can achieve at the Zener Voltage is called max
current. It ranges from 200μA to 200 A
● Current Iz (min): The minimum current required for the diode to break down is called min current.
● Power Rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate is the power rating of that diode. Power
is calculated by taking the product of the breakdown voltage and the value of current at that time.
● Temperature Stability: The temperature stability of the Zener diode is greatest at 5V.
● Voltage Tolerance: Voltage Tolerance for any Zener diode is normally ±5%
● Zener Resistance (Rz): The resistance exhibited by the Zener diode is called Zener Resistance.

Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diodes are very useful diodes. Due to its ability to allow current to flow in reverse bias conditions, it is used
widely for various purposes. Some of the common uses of Zener Diode are discussed below,

● Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

The Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing voltage across little loads. The
breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be steady for a wide scope of current. The Zener diode is
associated with corresponding to the heap to make it switch predisposition and when the Zener diode
surpasses knee voltage, the voltage across the heap will become consistent.

● Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection

At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the
resistor drops bringing about a short-out. This can be kept away from by utilizing the Zener diode.

● Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits

Zener diodes are utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by restricting the pieces of it is
possible that one or both the half patterns of an AC waveform.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 19
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 20
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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2.7: Zener and Avalanche Breakdown

The Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown have some similarities and differences. The Zener breakdown is observed
because of the reverse saturation current from free electrons generated by the reverse biased junction whereas the
Avalanche breakdown is observed because of the current generated by the high electric field produced by applying high
reverse voltage across diodes. The junction doping is high in Zener breakdown whereas it is light in Avalanche breakdown. The
electric field produced by the Zener breakdown is strong but the electric field produced by the Avalanche breakdown is weak.
Finally, the VI curve is sharp in the case of Zener breakdown and the VI curve is less sharp in the case of Avalanche
breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown which can easily be understood
by the table discussed below,

Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Avalanche breakdown occurs when the high voltage Zener breakdown happens when electrons from the
increases the free electron in the semiconductor and a valence band gain energy and reach the conduction
sudden increase in current is seen. band which then conducts electricity.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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Avalanche breakdown is seen in the diodes having Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes having
breakdown voltage greater than 8 volts. breakdown voltage in the range of 5 to 8 volts.

Avalanche breakdown is observed in diodes that are Zener breakdown is observed in highly doped diodes.
lightly doped.

In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI characteristics Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI characteristics curve.
curve is not as sharp as the VI characteristics curve in
the Zener breakdown.

For Avalanche breakdown, an increase in temperature For Zener breakdown, an increase in temperature
increases the breakdown voltage. decreases the breakdown voltage.

Similarities Between Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

● Both Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown are types of PN junction breakdown.
● Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown both produce electric fields.
● In both Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown voltages affect temperature

From the above description, we conclude that Zener breakdown occurs due to reverse saturation current
produced due to free electrons generated by reverse biased junction whereas Avalanche breakdown occurs due to
current produced by high electric field caused by applying high reverse voltage across the diode. i.e. The primary
difference between Zener and avalanche breakdown lies in their mechanisms. Zener breakdown happens due to
the high electric field, while avalanche breakdown is a result of the collision of free electrons with atoms. Both can
occur simultaneously.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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2.8: Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode that permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will
also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above the breakdown voltage, or ‘zener’ voltage.

Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts.

A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of the load current,
temperature, and AC line voltage variations. A Zener diode of breakdown voltage VZ is reverse connected to an
input voltage source VI across a load resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain
steady at its breakdown voltage VZ for all the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the
breakdown region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑍 is obtained across RL, whenever the
𝑂
input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage.

Basically, there are two types of regulations such as:

● Line Regulation
● Load Regulation

Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input voltage is
changing. The output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a minimum
value.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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In Line Regulation, the Load resistance is constant and input voltage varies. 𝑉𝐼 must be sufficiently large to turn
the Zener Diode ON.
𝑉𝐼 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛

(𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝐿)

Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, the input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output
voltage remains the same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

In Load Regulation, input voltage is constant and Load resistance varies. Too small a Load Resistance 𝑅𝐿, will result
in 𝑉𝑇ℎ < 𝑉𝑍 and Zener Diode will be OFF.

𝑉𝐼 × 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛

(𝑅𝑆+𝑅𝐿)
Load regulation and line regulation are two important parameters that describe the performance of a voltage
regulator, such as a Zener diode voltage regulator, in maintaining a stable output voltage despite changes in load
and input voltage.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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● In the context of a Zener diode voltage regulator, load regulation measures how well the regulator can
hold the output voltage steady as the current drawn by the load changes.

Mathematically, load regulation is often expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following
formula:
𝑉𝑁𝐿−𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝐹𝐿
×100 %,

where, 𝑉𝐹𝐿 is the full load resistor voltage.

● Line regulation, quantifies how well the regulator compensates for changes in the input voltage.

Line regulation is also expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following formula:
∆𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∆𝑉𝐼
×100 %

Where 𝑉𝑂 is the output voltage and 𝑉𝐼 is the input voltage. ∆𝑉 is the change in output voltage for a
𝑂
particular change in input voltage ∆𝑉𝐼.

In both load and line regulation, a lower percentage indicates better performance. A well-regulated voltage
regulator, such as a Zener diode voltage regulator, should exhibit minimal changes in output voltage due to
variations in load or input voltage.

Zener diode voltage regulators can provide relatively good load regulation due to their ability to maintain a nearly
constant output voltage in the breakdown region. However, their line regulation may not be as strong, as they are
sensitive to changes in input voltage. To enhance line regulation, additional circuitry, such as an emitter follower
configuration or a voltage regulator IC, can be used in conjunction with the Zener diode.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 25
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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2.9: P-N Junction as a Rectifier - Half Wave Rectifier, Full Wave Rectifier, Bridge Rectifier
Rectification is the process of conversion of alternating input voltage to direct output voltage. The rectifier is a
circuit that converts AC voltage to a DC voltage and permits the current to flow in one direction.

General Aspects
► AC to DC converters without control are known as diode rectifiers. They are designed using diodes,
which convert input AC voltage into fixed AC output voltage at the same frequency.

► AC to DC controlled converters are designed using thyristors, such as SCR. which convert input AC
voltage into variable AC output voltage at the same frequency.

► The rectifiers are required to supply ripple-free DC voltage or DC current to the load.

► The rectifiers usually draw highly non-sinusoidal current from the electric utility supply, giving rise to
poor power factor and thus poor efficiency.

Rectifier Applications
● DC power supplies for computers and electronic equipment.
● Battery charging systems.
● High voltage DC (HVDC) transmission converters.
● DC motor control
● Reactor controls.
● Variable-speed industrial drives.
● Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).
● Portable hand tool drives.
● Magnet power supplies.
● AC fed traction system using DC traction motor.
● Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.

Rectifier Topologies

Mr. Arnab Das

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NOTE:
● Half-wave topology has less semiconductor switches but requires higher component stresses.
● Full-wave topology has more switches but is capable of handling high power with minimum component
stresses.

The Pulse number in the output voltage waveform of the rectifier represents the rate of repetition in the output
according to one cycle of input.

Rectifiers are classified according to the output pulse numbers (2, 3, 4, 6, 12, etc.)

Types of Loads for Rectifier

Mr. Arnab Das

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► Resistive Load: (L=0, E=0)

► Inductive-Resistive: (medium L, low R, and E=0) magnetic lift and relays.

► Inductive-Voltage Sink: (medium L, low R, and E) DC motors, HVDC bus, and battery charging circuit.

► Current Sink: (high L, low R, and E) DC motors, heavy magnetic pick UPS, and relays.

► Capacitive-Resistive: (L =0, R and E replaced by capacitor)

So, the process in which alternating voltage or alternating current is converted into a direct voltage or direct
current is known as rectification. The device used for this process is called a rectifier. The junction diode has the
property of offering low resistance and allowing current to flow through it, in the forward-biased condition. This
property is used in the process of rectification.

Half wave rectifier:

A circuit that rectifies half of the a.c wave is called a wave rectifier.

Mr. Arnab Das

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Fig shows the circuit for half-wave rectification. The a.c. voltage (Vs) to be rectified is obtained across the
secondary ends S1 S2 of the transformer. The P-end of the diode D is connected to S1 of the secondary coil of the
transformer. The N-end of the diode is connected to the other end S2 of the secondary coil of the transformer,
through a load resistance RL. The rectified output voltage Vdc appears across the load resistance RL.

● During the positive half cycle of the input a.c. voltage Vs, S1 will be positive and the diode is forward
biased and hence it conducts. Therefore, current flows through the circuit and there is a voltage drop
across RL. This gives the output voltage as shown in Fig.
● During the negative half cycle of the input a.c. voltage (Vs), S1 will be negative and the diode D is reverse
biased. Hence the diode does not conduct. No current flows through the circuit and the voltage drop
across RL will be zero. Hence no output voltage is obtained. Thus corresponding to an alternating input
signal, the unidirectional pulsating output is obtained.
● The ratio of d.c. power output to the a.c. power input is known as rectifier efficiency. The efficiency of a
half-wave rectifier is approximately 40.6%.

Full wave rectifier - Bridge rectifier:

A bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. There are four diodes D1, D2, D3, and D4 used in the circuit, which are connected
to form a network. The input ends A and C of the network are connected to the secondary ends S1 and S2 of the
transformer. The output ends B and D are connected to the load resistance RL.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 29
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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● During the positive input half cycle of the a.c. voltage, the point A is positive with respect to C.
● The diodes D1 and D3 are forward-biased and conduct, whereas the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse-biased
and do not conduct. Hence current flows along S1-A-B-D-C-S2 through RL.
● During the negative half cycle, the point C is positive with respect to A.
● The diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and conduct; whereas the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased
and they do not conduct. Hence current flows along S2-C-B-D-A-S1 through RL.
● The same process is repeated for subsequent half cycles. It can be seen that current flows through RL in
the same direction, during both half cycles of the input a.c. signals.
● The output signal corresponding to the input signal is shown in Fig. The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is
approximately 81.2%.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 30
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.10: Various Rectifier Parameters

Before starting to examine different topologies of single-phase or multi-phase rectifiers, we should define some
rectifier parameters. These parameters are needed to compare the performances among the different structures.

1) Average, RMS, and Form Factor of the waveform

The root means square RMS or the effective value of the periodic function f(t) is given by:

𝑏
1 2
𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑡
𝑡=𝑎

The average value of the function or the DC value is given by:

𝑏
1
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐 = 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓𝑑𝑡
𝑡=𝑎

The form factor of f(t) is the ratio of the RMS value to the average value.
𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔

FF is a measure of the shape of the output voltage.

If the output voltage is pure DC then 𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 → 𝐹𝐹 = 1.

A. Half-Wave Rectifier:

A half-wave rectifier passes only one-half (either positive or negative) of the input AC signal.
The voltage waveform is a sinusoidal wave for the positive half and 0 for the negative half.
Mr. Arnab Das
Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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Average Voltage Derivation:

The average voltage is the mean of the rectified waveform over one complete cycle of the AC
signal. For a sinusoidal voltage 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡), where ω is the angular frequency and 𝑉𝑚 is
the peak voltage:
𝑇
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑣(ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

For a half-wave rectifier, only the positive half is considered over one cycle (𝑇):
π
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

Solving the integral:

𝑉𝑚 π
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2π
[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡)]0

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2π
[− (− 1) − (− 1)] = π

𝑉𝑚
Thus, for the half-wave rectifier, we only take the positive half: 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = π

RMS Voltage Derivation:

The RMS voltage is the square root of the mean of the squared voltage over one complete
cycle. For a half-wave rectifier:

𝑇
1 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑣 (ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

For the half-wave rectifier:

π
1 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2π
∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 (ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

2 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(2θ)
Using the identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (θ) = 2
, this simplifies to:

1 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 4
= 2

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
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Form Factor:

The form factor is the ratio of the RMS voltage to the average voltage:
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 π
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 𝑉𝑚 = 2
≈ 1. 57
π

B. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier:

In a full-wave rectifier, both halves (positive and negative) of the input AC signal are rectified,
but the negative half is inverted and becomes positive.

Average Voltage Derivation:

Since both halves are rectified, the average voltage is:

𝑇
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑣(ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

For the full-wave rectifier, considering the whole cycle:

(
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑆1 − 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐷 − 𝐶 − 𝑆2 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑅𝐿 + )

(𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑆1 − 𝐶 − 𝐵 − 𝐷 − 𝐴 − 𝑆2 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑅𝐿)

( ) ( )
π 2π
1 1
= 2π
∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡) + 0 − 2π
0 + ∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0 π

[Note: -ve sign due to opposite current direction]

𝑉𝑚
= ⎡⎢[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡)]π − [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡)]2π⎤⎥
2π ⎣ 0 π ⎦

𝑉 𝑉
= ⎡⎢ 2π𝑚 {+ 1 − (− 1)⎤⎥ − ⎡⎢ 2π𝑚 {− 1 − (+ 1)⎤⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
​as 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0) = 1, 𝑐𝑜𝑠(π) =− 1 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2π) = 1.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= π
+ π

2𝑉𝑚
= π

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 33
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
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RMS Voltage Derivation:

For a full-wave rectifier, since both positive and negative halves are included, the RMS voltage
is calculated over the full cycle:

𝑇
1 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑣 (ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)
0

For the full-wave rectifier, it becomes:

1
π 2
⎡1 2 2 ⎤
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⎢ π ∫ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 (ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)⎥ (since voltage is of the same form in the two halves)
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1
2 π 2
⎡𝑉 2 ⎤
= ⎢ π𝑚 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (ω𝑡)𝑑(ω𝑡)⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
𝑉𝑚
=
2

Form Factor:
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 π
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 2𝑉𝑚 = ≈ 1. 11
2 2
π

2) Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)

𝑃𝑂(𝑑𝑐) = 𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐) × 𝐼𝑂(𝑑𝑐); 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 × 𝐼𝑑𝑐

Where,

𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐) = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.

𝐼𝑂(𝑑𝑐) = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡.

3) Output AC power
𝑃𝑂(𝑎𝑐) = 𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) × 𝐼𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆)

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 34
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

4) Rectification efficiency
The rectification ratio (η), also known as rectification efficiency, is expressed by
𝑃𝑂(𝑑𝑐) 𝑃𝑂(𝑑𝑐)
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, η = 𝑃𝑂(𝑎𝑐)
; % 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, η = 𝑃𝑂(𝑎𝑐)
×100 %

2
𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐)𝐼𝑂(𝑑𝑐) 𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐) 1 2
η= 𝑉𝑂(𝑟𝑚𝑠)𝐼𝑂(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= 2
𝑉𝑂(𝑟𝑚𝑠)
= ( )
𝐹𝐹

We have assumed ideal switches, with no losses, that is 𝑅𝐷 = 0.

5) AC component
The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two components

● The dc component 𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐) = 𝐷𝐶 or average value of output voltage.

● The ac component or the ripple component

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.

The total RMS value of output voltage is given by

2 2
𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) = 𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) + 𝑉𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠)

2 2
Therefore, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) − 𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐)

Hence: 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 0𝑉 for smooth DC voltage.

6) Ripple Factor
The Ripple Factor (RF) which is a measure of the ac ripple content in the output voltage waveform. The
output voltage ripple factor defined for the output voltage waveform is given by
𝑉𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑟𝑣 = 𝑅𝐹 = 𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐)
= 𝑉𝑑𝑐

(we have to keep in mind that our goal is to obtain a voltage and a current in the load as steady as
possible).

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 35
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2 2 2
𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆)−𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐)
𝑟𝑣 = = ⎡ 𝑉𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) ⎤ − 1
𝑉𝑂(𝑑𝑐) ⎢ 𝑉 ⎥
⎣ 𝑂(𝑑𝑐) ⎦
2
Therefore, 𝑟𝑣 = 𝐹𝐹 − 1

The RF is defined as the ratio of the effective AC component of the load voltage versus the DC voltage.

7) Current Ripple Factor

Defined for the output (load) current waveform is given by
𝐼𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠) 𝐼𝑎𝑐
𝑟𝑖 = 𝐼𝑂(𝑑𝑐)
= 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 2
Where, 𝐼𝑟(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑂(𝑅𝑀𝑆) − 𝐼𝑂(𝑑𝑐)

The peak to peak ac ripple load current is the difference between the maximum and the minimum values
of the output load current.

𝐼𝑟(𝑝𝑝) = 𝐼𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝐼𝑂(𝑚𝑖𝑛)

8) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

A transformer is most often used both to introduce a galvanic isolation between the rectifier input and the
AC mains and to adjust the rectifier AC input voltage to a level suitable for the required application. One of
the parameters used to define the characteristics of the transformer is the Transformer Utilization Factor
(TUF):
𝑃𝐷𝐶
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑃𝑂(𝑑𝑐)
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝑉𝑆×𝐼𝑆

Where

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦)

𝐼𝑆 = 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡).

13) Peak Inverse Value (PIV)

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 36
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse-biased condition
without breaking down. It's a critical factor in rectifier design to prevent the diodes from being damaged.

A. PIV for Half-Wave Rectifier: 𝑉𝑚

In a half-wave rectifier, only one diode is used. During the negative half-cycle of the input AC signal, the
( )
diode is reverse-biased, and no current flows. During this time, the entire peak voltage 𝑉𝑚 of the AC
signal appears across the diode in reverse.

● During the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and the input AC voltage is at its peak.
● The diode must block this peak voltage, which means the maximum reverse voltage (PIV) it must
withstand is 𝑉𝑚.

Thus, the PIV for a half-wave rectifier is the peak value of the input AC voltage, i.e., 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚.

B. PIV for Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier: 𝑉𝑚

In a full-wave bridge rectifier, four diodes are used. During each half-cycle of the input, two diodes
conduct and allow current to flow, while the other two diodes are reverse-biased. Even though the
( )
rectifier is full-wave, the voltage each reverse-biased diode experiences is still the peak voltage 𝑉𝑚 of
the AC signal.

● During each half-cycle, the diodes that are reverse-biased must block the peak voltage across the
transformer’s secondary winding.
● Even in the bridge configuration, the reverse-biased diodes will experience the full peak of the AC
( )
input voltage 𝑉𝑚 .

Thus, the PIV for each diode in a full-wave bridge rectifier is also the peak value of the input AC voltage,
i.e., 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚.

14) Peak factor

The Peak Factor (or Crest Factor) is the ratio of the peak value of a waveform to its RMS (Root Mean
Square) value. It tells us how "peaky" the waveform is relative to its effective (RMS) value.

𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

Where:

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 37
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 is the peak value of the rectified waveform.

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the RMS value of the rectified waveform.

A. Peak Factor for Half-Wave Rectifier:

For a half-wave rectifier:
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑉𝑚

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2

​Now, the peak factor is:

𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚 =2
2

​Peak Factor for Half-Wave Rectifier: 2

B. Peak Factor for Full-Wave (Bridge) Rectifier:
For a full-wave bridge rectifier:
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑉𝑚

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

The peak factor is:

𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚 = 2 ≈ 1. 414
2

Peak Factor for Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier: 1.414

Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

Sl. No. Parameter Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) Full Wave Rectifier (FWR)

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 38
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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1 Definition An electronic circuit which An electronic circuit that

converts half cycle of converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into direct alternating current into direct
current is known as half-wave current is known as full-wave
rectifier. rectifier.

2 Types No further classification. The full-wave rectifier is of

two types: center-tapped FWR
and bridge FWR.

3 Number of diodes required Half wave rectifier requires The number of diodes
only one diode. required in a full-wave rectifier
are as −
● Center-tapped FWR
requires two diodes.
● Bridge FWR requires 4
diodes.

4 Rectified cycles of AC In half wave rectifier, only half Full wave rectifier rectifies the
cycle of AC (either positive or both positive and negative
negative) being rectified. cycles of AC.

5 Electric current through The electric current through A continuous electric current
load the load is not continuous. flows through the load.

6 Peak inverse voltage (PIV) The peak inverse voltage for For the full wave rectifier, the
the half wave rectifier is equal peak inverse voltage is equal
to the maximum value of the to the double of the maximum
input voltage, i.e., 𝑉𝑚. value of input voltage, i.e.,
2𝑉𝑚.

7 Output frequency For half wave rectifier, the The output frequency for the
frequency of ripple output is full-wave rectifier is double of
equal to the input supply the supply frequency, i.e., 2𝑓.
frequency, i.e., 𝑓.

8 Maximum efficiency of For half wave rectifier, the The maximum efficiency of
rectification maximum efficiency of rectification for a full-wave
(for sinusoidal AC) rectification is 40.6%. rectifier is equal to 81.2%.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 39
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

9 Ripple factor The ripple factor for The ripple factor for full-wave
(for sinusoidal AC) half-wave rectifier is 1.21. rectifier is 0.482.

10 Form factor The form factor of half-wave The form factor of a full-wave
(for sinusoidal AC) rectifier is 1.57. rectifier is 1.11

11 Peak factor For half-wave rectifier, the The peak factor of a full-wave
(for sinusoidal AC) peak factor is equal to 2. rectifier is 1.414.

12 Transformer utilization The transformer utilization The transformer utilization

factor factor of a half-wave rectifier factor of a full-wave rectifier is
is 0.2865. 0.692 (centre-tapped rectifier)
and 0.8106 (bridge rectifier).

13 Average output current The average output DC of a The average output DC of a

half-wave rectifier is, full-wave rectifier is,
𝑙𝑚 2𝑙𝑚
𝑙𝑎𝑣 = π
𝑙𝑎𝑣 = π

14 Voltage regulation The half-wave rectifier has The voltage regulation of a

good voltage regulation. full-wave rectifier is better
than that of half-wave rectifier.

15 Saturation of transformer In case of half-wave rectifier A full-wave rectifier does not

core circuit, the DC saturation of have DC saturation of the
the transformer core is a transformer core.
common problem.

16 Cost Half wave rectifier is less Full wave rectifier is costlier

costly as it requires only one than half-wave rectifier as it
diode. requires more number of
diodes.

Comparison of rectifiers

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 40
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 41
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

2.11: Filters – Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L-section Filters, 𝜋-section Filters
The rectifier converts the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). But the obtained Direct Current (DC) at
the output is not a pure Direct Current (DC). It is a pulsating Direct Current (DC).

The pulsating Direct Current (DC) is not constant. It fluctuates with respect to time. When this fluctuating Direct
Current (DC) is applied to any electronic device, the device may not work properly. Sometimes the device may also
be damaged. So the fluctuating Direct Current (DC) is not useful in most of the applications.

Therefore, we need a Direct Current (DC) that does not fluctuate with respect to time. The only solution for this is
smoothing the fluctuating Direct Current (DC). This can be achieved by using a device called filter.

A filter circuit is an electronic device which blocks the ac component present in the rectified output and allows the
dc component to reach the load.

The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.

A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor

● An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.

● A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.

Types of Filters
Series Inductor Filter:
As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be constructed by
connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load. The figure below shows the circuit of
a series inductor filter.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 42
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac components that are
present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc. This is a simple primary filter.

Shunt Capacitor Filter:

As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor Filter can be constructed
using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the following figure.

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the ac components present in the signal are
grounded through the capacitor which allows ac components. The remaining dc components present in
the signal are collected at the output.

The above filter types discussed are constructed using an inductor or a capacitor. Now, let’s try to use both
of them to make a better filter. These are combinational filters.

L-C Filter:
A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to obtain a better output
where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be used. The figure below shows the circuit
diagram of a LC filter.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 43
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows dc components to pass through it,
blocking the ac components in the signal. Now, from that signal, few more ac components if any present
are grounded so that we get a pure dc output.

This filter is also called as a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the inductor. The output of
this filter is a better one than the previous ones.

Π- Filter Pi-filter:
This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor at its input and hence it
is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors and one inductor are connected in the form
of π shaped

network. A capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes
this circuit.

If needed, several identical sections can also be added to this, according to the requirement. The figure
below shows a circuit for π filter Pi−filter.

Working of a Pi filter

In this circuit, we have a capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in
parallel.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 44
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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● Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to dc and low reactance to ac signal. After
grounding the ac components present in the signal, the signal passes to the inductor for further
filtration.
● Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to dc components, while blocking the ac
components if any got managed to pass, through the capacitor C1.
● Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so that it allows any ac
component present in the signal, which the inductor has failed to block.

A comparison table for Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L-section Filters, and π-section Filters:

Feature Inductor Filter Capacitor Filter L-section Filter π-section Filter

Components Inductor (L) Capacitor (C) Inductor (L) + Capacitor (C) +

Capacitor (C) Inductor (L) +
Capacitor (C)

Design Series inductor Parallel capacitor Series inductor, Capacitor, inductor,

parallel capacitor capacitor
configuration

Impedance High for high Low for high Combines high and Low impedance at
frequencies frequencies low impedance both ends

Filtering Efficiency Moderate, good for Moderate, good for Better than single High, effective for a
low frequencies high frequencies component filters wide frequency
range

Voltage Regulation Better voltage Poor voltage Balanced voltage Excellent voltage
regulation regulation regulation regulation

Ripple Reduction Better ripple Better ripple Good ripple Excellent ripple
reduction for lower reduction for higher reduction overall reduction
frequencies frequencies

Size & Cost Larger and more Smaller and less Moderate size and Larger and more
expensive expensive cost expensive

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 45
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
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Applications Used when Used for Used in power Used in

low-frequency noise high-frequency supplies with high-performance
needs reduction noise filtering moderate power supplies
requirements

Disadvantages Large size, more Poor performance Requires more Requires larger
expensive at low frequencies space than single components, more
component filters space, and higher
cost

Summary of the key concepts

P-N Junction Diode: A semiconductor device formed by joining p-type and n-type materials, allowing
current to flow in one direction.

Principle of Operation: When forward-biased, the diode allows current to flow; when reverse-biased, it
blocks current except for a small leakage.

Diode Equation: Describes the current through the diode as a function of the voltage across it, given by
𝑉
⎡ η𝑉 ⎤
the exponential relationship 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂⎢𝑒 − 1⎥ Amperes.
𝑇

⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
V-I Characteristics:

● Forward Biased: Current increases rapidly after the threshold voltage is exceeded.
● Reverse Biased: Very small current flows until breakdown occurs.

Ideal vs Practical Diode: An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward-biased and infinite resistance
when reverse-biased. Practical diodes have small forward voltage drops and some leakage current in
reverse.

Static and Dynamic Resistances:

● Static Resistance: Ratio of voltage to current at a particular point on the V-I curve.
● Dynamic Resistance: Slope of the V-I curve, representing resistance under small signal conditions.

Zener Diode: A special type of diode designed to operate in reverse breakdown mode.

● Characteristics: Sharp breakdown voltage, used for voltage regulation.

Mr. Arnab Das
Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 46
B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering [AIML/DS/CYS] and B.Tech in Biotechnology [BT]
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (BES00002)
Semester - I
Academic Session 2024-2025

● Applications: Voltage regulation, protection circuits.

● Breakdown Mechanisms:
○ Zener Breakdown: Dominates at lower voltages.
○ Avalanche Breakdown: Occurs at higher voltages.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator: Maintains a constant output voltage despite changes in input voltage
or load conditions.

P-N Junction as Rectifier:

● Half Wave Rectifier: Converts only one half of the AC cycle to DC.
● Full Wave Rectifier: Converts both halves of the AC cycle to DC, more efficient than half-wave.
● Bridge Rectifier: Uses four diodes to convert the entire AC signal to DC, eliminating the need for a
centre-tapped transformer.

Rectifier Parameters: Includes efficiency, ripple factor, peak inverse voltage, etc., which measure rectifier
performance.

Filters:

● Inductor Filters: Use inductance to filter out AC components.

● Capacitor Filters: Use capacitance to smooth out the rectified output.
● L-section Filters: Combine inductor and capacitor for improved filtering.
● π-section Filters: Use a capacitor-inductor-capacitor arrangement for enhanced filtering.

This summary provides an overview of the essential concepts related to diodes, rectifiers, and filters.

Mr. Arnab Das

Asisstant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Brainware University, Kolkata 47