A

PROJECT REPORT

ON

Electric Vehicle Battery Protection System

Submitted By

MAHALE KUNAL SANJAY

WALUNJ SHUBHAM GULAB

BHANDAGE SIDDESH SATISH

Under the guidance of

PROF. H.R.KULKARNI

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical Engineering SANDIP

FOUNDATION’S

SANDIP INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT

Trimbak Road, Mahiravani, Nashik, Maharashtra 422213

SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY

A.Y.2020-21
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “Electricvehical battery protection system”
submittedisabonafiderecordofthe project phase-I workdonebySHUBHAM WALUNJ, KUNAL MAHALE,
SIDDESH BHANDAGEunder my supervision and guidance, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering from Sandip Institute of
Engineering & Management, Nashik for the year2020-21.

Prof. H.R.KulkarniProf. H. R. Kulkarni

ProjectGuide Head ofDepartment

Dept. ofElectricalEngineering Dept. of ElectricalEngineering

InternalExaminer ExternalExaminer Prof. Dr. D. P.PATIL

Principal,SIEM

Place: Nashik

Date:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave me support and
helped me in understanding the subject and finally to complete my project phase-I successfully.

A special thanks to my project guide, Prof. H.R.Kulkarni, who has given his full effort in guiding
me in understanding my project as well as his encouragement to maintain our progress and also for
helping, stimulating suggestions and encouraging, coordinating my project and successfully
concluding it as this report.

I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the Head of Electrical
Engineering Department, Prof. H. R. Kulkarni and Prof. Dr. D. P. Patil, Principal, SIEM who gave
the permission to use all required facilities available in the department.

Date:

Place: SIEM ,Nashik 422003

1) MAHALE KUNAL SANJAY

2) WALUNJ SHUBHAM GULAB

3) BHANDAGE SIDDESH SATISH

SR. NO INDEX PAGE NO.

Abstract
List Of Figures
1 Introduction 1

2 Background of the electrical vehicles battery 3

innovation
2.1 Lead-acid 3

2.2 Lithium-ion 4

3 Internal component of the battery system 6

4 Recharging 7

5 Features of swap stations include 10

5.1 Concerns about swap stations include 10

6 Life cycle of EV battery 11

6.1 Down cycling of end of life EV batteries 11

7 Literature survey 12

7.1 Lifespan of the batteries 12

7.2 Recycling 14

8 The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are 15

largely delta with international standard ISO 6469
9 Modern applications are stressing the batteries 16

10 Automotive safety standard and regulations are 17

catching upto EVs
11 Computation meets chemistry 18

12 Intelligent battery management software 18

must offer three layers of protection from
battery hazard
13 ISO 26262 Electrical road vehical safety standard 21

14 Management of functional saftey 22

14.1 Hazaedous management 22

14.2 Safety goal 22

15 Safety life cycle 22

16 Block daigram 25
17 List of the component 27
18 Specifications of the component 28
19 Technical specifications 29
20 LM35 datasheet 32
21 LM35 Temperature sensor 32
22 MQ2 smoke and flammable gas sensor module 34
23 Feature of MQ2 gas sensor module 35
24 Applications of MQ2 gas sensor module 36
25 MQ8 gas sensor module 37
26 Samsung 18650battery cell 39
27 Voltage regulator 42
27.1 Specifications 42
28 Thermal overload protections 43
28.1 Applications 43
29 Relay module 44
29.1 Description 44
30 5v PCB mounting buzzer 46
30.1 Features of buzzer 46
31 PCB making process 48
31.1 Advantages 50
31.2 Disadvantages 50
31.3 Applications 52
32 Feature scope 53
33 Conclusion 54
34 Reference 55
 E.V. Battery Safety System

List of Figures

Fig TITLE PAGE NO.

No.
25.1 Block diagram 25
28.1 Arduion nano datasheet 28
32.1 LM35 datasheet 32
32.2 LM35 temperature sensor 32
34.1 MQ2 smoke flammable gas sensor 34
module
37.1 MQ8 gas sensor module 37
39.1 Samsung 18650 battery cell 39
42.1 Voltage regulator 42
43.1 Relay module 43
46.1 5v PCB mounting buzzer 46

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ABSTRACT

The safety of lithium ion batteries in vehicles is a priority of the automotive industry. The focus

of the development activities are the reduction of the risks and the improvement of the safety

concepts and systems. Constant monitoring of battery parameters such as temperature, gas

level, and voltage, current will alert the system for any abnormal or worse condition of

emergency. As these conditions may lead into battery fire or battery explosion early indication

of such activates become very important. If in practical case fire or any accidental impact on the

battery may cause the internal short circuit of the battery which leads into excessive

overheating of the battery which leads into explosion and fire. Our smart sensor based network

will keep batteries continuously monitoring and in case of emergency quickly battery will be

taken out automatically through the stepper based locks. This system will be extremely

beneficial for saving the valuable life of the driver and valuable investment on the vehicle.

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Introduction

Electrical vehicle battery

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) (also known as a traction battery) is a battery used to power
the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). These
batteries are usually rechargeable (secondary) batteries, and are typically lithium-ion batteries.
These batteries are specifically designed for a high ampere-hour (or kilowatt-hour) capacity.

Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries as they are
designed to give power over sustained periods of time and are deep-cycle batteries. Batteries for
electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific
energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because they reduce the weight
of the vehicle and therefore improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current
battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-
electric range of the vehicles.

The most common battery type in modern electric vehicles are lithium-ion and lithium polymer,
because of their high energy density compared to their weight. Other types of rechargeable
batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid ("flooded", deep-cycle, and valve regulated
lead acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, and, less commonly, zinc–air, and sodium
nickel chloride ("zebra") batteries.[1] The amount of electricity (i.e. electric charge) stored in
batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy often measured
in kilowatt-hours.

Since the late 1990s, advances in lithium-ion battery technology have been driven by demands
from portable electronics, laptop computers, mobile phones, and power tools. The BEV and
HEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances both in performance and energy
density. Unlike earlier battery chemistries, notably nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion batteries can be
discharged and recharged daily and at any state of charge.

The battery pack makes up a significant cost of a BEV or a HEV. As of December 2019, the cost
of electric-vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis. [2] As of
2018, vehicles with over 250 mi (400 km) of all-electric range, such as the Tesla Model S, have
been commercialized and are now available in numerous vehicle segments. [3]

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In terms of operating costs, the price of electricity to run a BEV is a small fraction of the cost of
fuel for equivalent internal combustion engines, reflecting higher energy efficiency.

In physics, energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space
per unit volume. It may also be used for energy per unit mass, though a more accurate term for
this is specific energy (or gravimetric energy density).

Often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that inaccessible energy
(such as rest mass energy) is ignored.[1] In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts,
however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress–
energy tensor and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with
the pressures described in the next paragraph.

Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure, and in many circumstances is
a synonym: for example, the energy density of a magnetic field may be expressed as (and
behaves as) a physical pressure, and the energy required to compress a compressed gas a little
more may be determined by multiplying the difference between the gas pressure and the external
pressure by the change in volume. A pressure gradient has the potential to perform work on the
surroundings by converting internal energy to work until equilibrium is reached.

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Background of the electrical vehicles battery innovation

Lead-acid

Flooded lead-acid batteries are the cheapest and, in the past, most common vehicle batteries
available. There are two main types of lead-acid batteries: automobile engine starter batteries,
and deep cycle batteries. Automobile engine starter batteries are designed to use a small
percentage of their capacity to provide high charge rates to start the engine, while deep cycle
batteries are used to provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf
carts.[4] Deep cycle batteries are also used as the auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but
they require different, multi-stage charging.[5] No lead acid battery should be discharged below
50% of its capacity, as it shortens the battery's life.[5] Flooded batteries require inspection of
electrolyte levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away during the normal
charging cycle.

Previously, most electric vehicles used lead-acid batteries due to their mature technology, high
availability, and low cost, with the notable exception of some early BEVs, such as the Detroit
Electric which used a nickel–iron battery. Deep-cycle lead batteries are expensive and have a
shorter life than the vehicle itself, typically needing replacement every 3 years.

Lead-acid batteries in EV applications end up being a significant (25–50%) portion of the final
vehicle mass. Like all batteries, they have significantly lower specific energy than petroleum
fuels—in this case, 30–50 Wh/kg.[6] While the difference isn't as extreme as it first appears due
to the lighter drive-train in an EV, even the best batteries tend to lead to higher masses when
applied to vehicles with a normal range. The efficiency (70–75%) and storage capacity of the
current generation of common deep cycle lead acid batteries decreases with lower temperatures,
and diverting power to run a heating coil reduces efficiency and range by up to 40%. [citation needed]

Charging and operation of batteries typically results in the emission

of hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, which are naturally occurring and normally harmless if properly
vented. Early Citicar owners discovered that, if not vented properly, unpleasant sulfur smells
would leak into the cabin immediately after charging.

Lead-acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the original versions of the EV1.

Nickel metal hydride

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Nickel-metal hydride batteries are now considered a relatively mature technology. [7] While less
efficient (60–70%) in charging and discharging than even lead-acid, they have a specific energy
of 30–80 Wh/kg, far higher than lead-acid.[6] When used properly, nickel-metal hydride batteries
can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and in the
surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs that still operate well after 100,000 miles
(160,000 km) and over a decade of service.[8] Downsides include the poor efficiency, high self-
discharge, very finicky charge cycles, and poor performance in cold weather.

GM Ovonic produced the NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1, [9] and Cobasys
makes a nearly identical battery (ten 1.2 V 85 Ah NiMH cells in series in contrast with eleven
cells for Ovonic battery).[10] This worked very well in the EV-1.[11] Patent encumbrance has
limited the use of these batteries in recent years.[12]

Zebra
The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery uses a molten sodium chloroaluminate (NaAlCl 4)
salt as the electrolyte. A relatively mature technology, the Zebra battery has a specific energy of
120 Wh/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather does not strongly affect its
operation except for increasing heating costs. They have been used in several EVs such as
the Modec commercial vehicle.[13] Zebra batteries can last for a few thousand charge cycles and
are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and
the requirement of having to heat the electrolyte to about 270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some
energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard.

Lithium-ion

lithium-ion (and the mechanistically similar lithium polymer) batteries, were initially developed
and commercialized for use in laptops and consumer electronics. With their high energy density
and long cycle life they have become the leading battery type for use in EVs. The first
commercialized lithium-ion chemistry was a lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a
graphite anode first demonstrated by N. Godshall in 1979, and by John Goodenough, and Akira
Yoshino shortly thereafter.[15][16][17][18] The downside of traditional lithium-ion batteries include
sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power performance, and performance degradation
with age.[19] Due to the volatility of organic electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal
oxides, and the thermal instability of the anode SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a

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fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly.[20] These early cells did not accept or supply
charge when extremely cold, and so heaters can be necessary in some climates to warm them.
The maturity of this technology is moderate. The Tesla Roadster (2008) and other cars produced
by the company used a modified form of traditional lithium-ion "laptop battery" cells.

Recent EVs are using new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and
specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging (as quickly
as a few minutes), and longer lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc.) have
been shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 types using lithium iron phosphate lasting
at least more than 10 years and more than 7000 charge/discharge cycles, [21] and LG Chem
expecting their lithium-manganese spinel batteries to last up to 40 years. [citation needed]

Much work is being done on lithium ion batteries in the lab. [22] Lithium vanadium oxide has
already made its way into the Subaru prototype G4e, doubling energy density[citation needed]. Silicon
nanowires,[23][24] silicon nanoparticles,[25] and tin nanoparticles[26][27] promise several times the
energy density[clarification needed]
in the anode, while composite[28][29] and superlattice[30] cathodes
also promise significant density improvements.

New data has shown that exposure to heat and the use of fast charging promote the degradation
of Li-ion batteries more than age and actual use, and that the average electric vehicle battery will
retain 90% of its initial capacity after 6 years and 6 months of service. For example, the battery
in a Nissan LEAF, will degrade twice as fast as the battery in a Tesla, because the LEAF does
not have an active cooling system for its battery.[31]

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Internal components of the battery systems

Battery pack designs for Electric Vehicles (EVs) are complex and vary widely by manufacturer
and specific application. However, they all incorporate a combination of several simple
mechanical and electrical component systems which perform the basic required functions of the
pack.

The actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical shapes, and sizes as preferred by
various pack manufacturers. Battery packs will always incorporate many discrete cells connected
in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and current requirements of the pack. Battery
packs for all electric drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells. Each cell has a
nominal voltage of 3-4 volts, depending on its chemical composition.

To assist in manufacturing and assembly, the large stack of cells is typically grouped into smaller
stacks called modules. Several of these modules will be placed into a single pack. Within each
module the cells are welded together to complete the electrical path for current flow. Modules
can also incorporate cooling mechanisms, temperature monitors, and other devices. In most
cases, modules also allow for monitoring the voltage produced by each battery cell in the stack
by using a Battery Management System (BMS).[75]

The battery cell stack has a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit
condition. A "service plug" or "service disconnect" can be removed to split the battery stack into
two electrically isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of
the battery present no high potential electrical danger to service technicians. [75][76]

The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery
pack's electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases there will be a minimum of two
main relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output
terminals of the pack, which then supply high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack
designs will include alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-
charge resistor or for powering an auxiliary buss which will also have their own associated
control relays. For safety reasons these relays are all normally open. [75][76]

The battery pack also contains a variety of temperature, voltage, and current sensors. Collection
of data from the pack sensors and activation of the pack relays are accomplished by the pack's

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Battery Monitoring Unit (BMU) or Battery Management System (BMS). The BMS is also
responsible for communications with the vehicle outside the battery pack.

Recharging

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged. BEVs most commonly charge from the power
grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a
variety of domestic resources, such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear, natural gas, and others.
Home or grid power, such as photovoltaic solar cell panels, wind, or microhydro may also be
used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.

With suitable power supplies, good battery lifespan is usually achieved at charging rates not
exceeding half of the capacity of the battery per hour ("0.5C"),[77] thereby taking two or more
hours for a full charge, but faster charging is available even for large capacity batteries. [78]

Charging time at home is limited by the capacity of the household electrical outlet, unless
specialized electrical wiring work is done. In the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with
110 volt electricity, a normal household outlet delivers 1.5 kilowatts. In European countries with
230 volt electricity between 7 and 14 kilowatts can be delivered (single phase and three-
phase 230 V/400 V (400 V between phases), respectively). In Europe, a 400 V (three-phase 230
V) grid connection is increasingly popular since newer houses don't have natural gas connection
due to the European Union's safety regulations.

Recharging time[edit]

Electric cars like Tesla Model S, Renault Zoe, BMW i3, etc., can recharge their batteries to 80
percent at quick charging stations within 30 minutes.[79][80][81][82] For example, a Tesla Model 3
Long Range charging on a 250 kW Tesla Version 3 Supercharger went from 2% state of charge
with 6 miles (9.7 km) of range to 80% state of charge with 240 miles (390 km) of range in 27
minutes, which equates to 520 miles (840 km) per hour.[83]

Connectors[edit]

The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways. The first is a direct electrical
connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a
weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user

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from high voltages. The modern standard for plug-in vehicle charging is the SAE 1772
conductive connector (IEC 62196 Type 1) in the US. The ACEA has chosen the VDE-AR-E
2623-2-2 (IEC 62196 Type 2) for deployment in Europe, which, without a latch, means
unnecessary extra power requirements for the locking mechanism. [citation needed]

The second approach is known as inductive charging. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on
the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When
the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack.
In one inductive charging system,[84] one winding is attached to the underside of the car, and the
other stays on the floor of the garage. The advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no
possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special
connectors and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive
charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard. [85] An
inductive charging advocate from Toyota contended in 1998, that overall cost differences were
minimal, while a conductive charging advocate from Ford contended that conductive charging
was more cost efficient.[85]

Recharging spots[edit]
Main article: charging station

As of April 2020, there are 93,439 locations and 178,381 EV charging stations worldwide. [86]

Travel range before recharging[edit]

The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used. The weight and type of
vehicle as well as terrain, weather, and the performance of the driver also have an impact, just as
they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversion performance depends
on a number of factors including the battery chemistry:

 Lead-acid batteries are the most available and inexpensive. Such conversions generally have
a range of 30 to 80 km (20 to 50 mi). Production EVs with lead-acid batteries are capable of
up to 130 km (80 mi) per charge.
 NiMH batteries have higher specific energy than lead-acid; prototype EVs deliver up to
200 km (120 mi) of range.

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 New lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 320–480 km (200–300 mi) of range per
charge.[87] Lithium is also less expensive than nickel. [88]
 Nickel-zinc battery are cheaper and lighter than Nickel-cadmium batteries. They are also
cheaper than (but not as light as) lithium-ion batteries. [89]

The internal resistance of some batteries may be significantly increased at low

temperature[90] which can cause noticeable reduction in the range of the vehicle and on the
lifetime of the battery.

Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and
battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer.

With an AC system or advanced DC system, regenerative braking can extend range by up to

50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is
extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending
upon terrain.

BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to
extend their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use.
Discharged basket trailers can be replaced by recharged ones en route. If rented then
maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency.

Some BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types of energy and
powertrain.

Trailers[edit]

Auxiliary battery capacity carried in trailers can increase the overall vehicle range, but also
increases the loss of power arising from aerodynamic drag, increases weight transfer effects and
reduces traction capacity.

Swapping and removing[edit]

Main article: battery swapping

An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range
extender modules) with fully charged batteries. This is called battery swapping and is done
in exchange stations.[91]

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Features of swap stations include:[92]

1. The consumer is no longer concerned with battery capital cost, life cycle, technology,
maintenance, or warranty issues;
2. Swapping is far faster than charging: battery swap equipment built by the firm Better
Place has demonstrated automated swaps in less than 60 seconds; [93]
3. Swap stations increase the feasibility of distributed energy storage via the electric grid;

Concerns about swap stations include:

1. Potential for fraud (battery quality can only be measured over a full discharge cycle;
battery lifetime can only be measured over repeated discharge cycles; those in the swap
transaction cannot know if they are getting a worn or reduced effectiveness battery;
battery quality degrades slowly over time, so worn batteries will be gradually forced into
the system)
2. Manufacturers' unwillingness to standardize battery access / implementation details [94]
3. Safety concerns[94]

Re-filling[edit]

Zinc-bromine flow batteries can be re-filled using a liquid, instead of recharged by connectors,
saving time.

Lifecycle of EV batteries[edit]

Down-cycling of end-of-life EV batteries[edit]

Electric vehicle batteries which are in the end-of-life stage (having reduced power capacity and
no longer being suitable for powering electric vehicles) can be reused for second-life
applications such as use in e-bus power packs, backups for large buildings, use in home energy
storage, supply stabilization for solar and wind power generators, backup power for telecom base
stations and data centers, the powering of fork lifts, electric scooters and bikes,
etc.[95][96][97][98][99][100] Reuse of automotive batteries in second life applications requires special
expertise in reverse logistics. Alexander Kupfer, responsible for sustainable product
development/circular economy at Audi, states that “a common connection interface through
which these automotive batteries can be controlled by a stationary storage management system"

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would need to be developed. This kind of interface would provide a mechanism for
communication with the storage control system independent of the battery manufacturer. The
interface would need to be developed together with storage suppliers.

Lifecycle of EV batteries

Down-cycling of end-of-life EV batteries

Electric vehicle batteries which are in the end-of-life stage (having reduced power capacity and
no longer being suitable for powering electric vehicles) can be reused for second-life
applications such as use in e-bus power packs, backups for large buildings, use in home energy
storage, supply stabilization for solar and wind power generators, backup power for telecom base
stations and data centers, the powering of fork lifts, electric scooters and bikes,
etc.[95][96][97][98][99][100] Reuse of automotive batteries in second life applications requires special
expertise in reverse logistics. Alexander Kupfer, responsible for sustainable product
development/circular economy at Audi, states that “a common connection interface through
which these automotive batteries can be controlled by a stationary storage management system"
would need to be developed. This kind of interface would provide a mechanism for
communication with the storage control system independent of the battery manufacturer. The
interface would need to be developed together with storage suppliers.

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Literature survey

1) Lifespan of the batteries

Individual batteries are usually arranged into large battery packs of various voltage and ampere
hour capacity products to give the required energy capacity. Battery service life should be
considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all batteries eventually wear out
and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire depends on a number of factors.

The depth of discharge (DOD) is the recommended proportion of the total available energy
storage for which that battery will achieve its rated cycles. Deep cycle lead-acid batteries
generally should not be discharged to below 20% of total capacity. More modern formulations
can survive deeper cycles.

In real world use, some fleet Toyota RAV4 EVs, using Nickel–metal hydride batteries, have
exceeded 100,000 miles (160,000 km) with little degradation in their daily range. [101] From a
Southern California Edison (SCE) assessment:

"The five-vehicle test is demonstrating the long-term durability of Nickel Metal Hydride
batteries and electric drive trains. Only slight performance degradation has been observed
to-date on four out of five vehicles.... EVTC test data provide strong evidence that all five
vehicles will exceed the 100,000-mile (160,000 km) mark. SCE’s positive experience
points to the very strong likelihood of a 130,000 to 150,000-mile (240,000 km) Nickel
Metal Hydride battery and drive-train operational life. EVs can therefore match or exceed
the lifecycle miles of comparable internal combustion engine vehicles.
"In June 2003 the 320 RAV4 EVs of the SCE fleet were used primarily by meter readers,
service managers, field representatives, service planners and mail handlers, and for
security patrols and carpools. In five years of operation, the RAV4 EV fleet had logged
more than 6.9 million miles, eliminating about 830 tons of air pollutants, and preventing
more than 3,700 tons of tailpipe carbon dioxide emissions. Given the successful operation
of its EVs to-date, SCE plans to continue using them well after they all log 100,000
miles."

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Lithium ion batteries are perishable to some degree; they lose some of their maximum
storage capacity per year even if they are not used. Nickel metal hydride batteries lose
much less capacity and are cheaper for the storage capacity they give, but have a lower
total capacity initially for the same weight.

Jay Leno's 1909 Baker Electric still operates on its original Edison cells. Battery
replacement costs of BEVs may be partially or fully offset by the lack of regular
maintenance such as oil and filter changes required for internal combustion engine
vehicles, and by the greater reliability of BEVs due to their fewer moving parts. They
also do away with many other parts that normally require servicing and maintenance in a
regular car, such as on the gearbox, cooling system, and engine tuning. And by the time
batteries do finally need replacement, they can be replaced with later generation ones
which may offer better performance characteristics.

Lithium iron phosphate batteries reach, according to the manufacturer, more than 5000
cycles at respective depth of discharge of 70%.[102] BYD, the world's largest
manufacturer of lithium iron phosphate batteries, has developed a wide range of cells for
deep cycle applications. Such batteries are in use in stationary storage systems. After
7500 cycles, with discharge of 85%, they still have a spare capacity of at least 80% at a
rate of 1 C; which corresponds with a full cycle per day to a lifetime of min. 20.5 years.
The lithium iron phosphate battery developed by Sony Fortelion has a residual capacity
of 71% after 10,000 cycles at 100% discharge level. This battery has been on the market
since 2009.[103]

Used in conjunction with solar panels, lithium-ion batteries have partly a very high cycle
resistance of more than 10,000 charge and discharge cycles and a long service life of up
to 20 years.[104][105]

Plug-in America conducted a survey of Tesla Roadster (2008) drivers regarding the
service life of their batteries. It was found that after 100 mi (160 km), the battery still had
a remaining capacity of 80 to 85 percent, regardless of which climate zone the car was
driven in.[106][107] Tesla warranties the Model S with a 85-kWh battery for unlimited
mileage within a period of 8 years.[108]

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Varta Storage offers a guarantee of 14,000 full cycles and a service life of 10
years.[109][110]

As of December 2016, the world's all-time best-selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf,
with more than 250,000 units sold since its inception in 2010.[111] Nissan stated in 2015
that until then only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or
problems and then only because of externally inflicted damage. There are a few vehicles
that have already covered more than 200,000 km; none of these had any problems with
the battery.[112]

Li-ion batteries generally lose 2.3% capacity per year. Liquid-cooled Li-ion battery
packs lose less capacity per year than air-cooled packs.

Recycling[edit]

At the end of their useful life batteries can be reused or recycled. With significant international
growth in EV sales, the US Department of Energy has established a research program to
investigate methodologies for recycling used EV lithium-ion batteries. Methods currently under
investigation include pyrometallurgical (reduction to elements), hydrometallurgical (reduction to
constituent metals), and direct recycling (re-establishment of electrochemical properties with
maintenance of the structure of the original materials).[114]

Bloomberg BNEF has projected that the electric car battery industry will be worth over $500
billion by 2050 as adoption of electric vehicles accelerates in the intervening years [115]

Vehicle-to-grid[edit]
Main article: Vehicle-to-grid

Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid at any time, especially:

 During peak load periods (When the selling price of electricity can be very high. Vehicles
can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates which helps absorb excess night
time generation. The vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.)
 During blackouts, as backup power sources.

Safety[edit]

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The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international
standard ISO 6469. This standard is divided into three parts:

 On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery

 Functional safety means and protection against failures
 Protection of persons against electrical hazards.

Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and
chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents
may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge,
many experts agree that BEV batteries are safe in commercially available vehicles and in rear-
end collisions, and are safer than gasoline-propelled cars with rear gasoline tanks. [116]

Usually, battery performance testing includes the determination of:

 State Of Charge (SOC)

 State of Health (SOH)
 Energy Efficiency

Performance testing simulates the drive cycles for the drive trains of Battery Electric Vehicles
(BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) as per the
required specifications of car manufacturers (OEMs). During these drive cycles, controlled
cooling of the battery can be performed, simulating the thermal conditions in the car.

In addition, climatic chambers control environmental conditions during testing and allow
simulation of the full automotive temperature range and climatic conditions.

Battery Safety issues in electrical vehicles

Electric Vehicles (EVs) are very different from Internal Combustion Engine (ICEs) Vehicles.
They are essentially big battery packs on wheels. Hundreds of battery cells are linked together
into a package to store a considerable amount of energy up to 100 kWh or even more. Each cell is
susceptible to failures that can lead to a fire that spreads to adjacent cells resulting in significant
damage or loss of life. Furthermore, each cell is unique — even when cells are made on the same

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day and on the same equipment, there will be variances. Therefore, testing a few cells during a
controlled safety certification process is insufficient to guarantee overall safety.

Modern Applications Are Stressing the Batteries

For broader adoption, EVs must deliver a driver experience similar or better than conventional
vehicles: >300 miles with a full tank; less than 20-minutes to fill the tank; >100,000-mile
warranty, and >500,000-mile for commercial fleets; utmost safety; and affordability. These
increasing demands for extended range, shorter charge times, safety, reliability, and longevity can
add significant challenges to the current battery capabilities.

Vehicle range is a product differentiation. The range is a function of the total energy capacity of
the battery. To pack more energy without a proportionate increase in size or weight, the energy
density, defined as the amount of electrical energy per unit volume (or per unit weight) that a
rechargeable battery can store, must increase.

There is a natural design tension between increasing energy density, fast charging, and safety.
Increasing energy density requires a more tightly packed battery structure and may precipitate
safety risks when subjected to fast charging. Over several charge and discharge cycles, dendrites
form and may create internal shorts resulting in catastrophic failure. Extreme operating conditions
can further accelerate this process.

The rapid adoption and broader usage of EVs may lead the battery industry to make more
tradeoffs between reliability, performance, and safety.

Battery Defects Are One Source of Potential Safety Hazards

Battery failures occur when latent problems cause the battery to swell, lose its ability to hold a
charge, or, worst-case, ignite.

Hidden defects are of particular concern. For example, a minute defect may lead to the formation
of dendrites between the electrodes. A separator failure may also lead to an electric short.
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Furthermore, mismatched anode/cathode capacity ratios as well as uneven compression in the cell
structure can introduce sources of defects that are difficult to detect early on. These types of
defects manifest themselves much later during the life of the battery and can lead to safety risks.
In 2016, minute latent defects in the battery led to the expensive recall of the Samsung Note 7
smartphone.

EV batteries undergo tremendous stress during their long life. The two leading stressors are fast
charging and extreme temperature. The battery’s capacity to accept charge varies significantly
with temperature. Traditional battery management systems do not adjust the degree and rate of
charge based on health. Temperature gradients across the pack cause uneven degradation,
especially during fast charging. Therefore, any one of the hundreds of cells in the battery pack can
develop an internal short and ignite the whole pack.

A more intelligent approach would be to control the degree and rate of charge in real-time based
on detailed diagnostics of the cells and the pack.

Automotive Safety Standards and Regulations Are Catching up to EVs

The automotive safety standards mainly focus on design and operational safety. The standard tests
simulate real road conditions to certify the reliability and performance of equipment in the
vehicle. These tests focus on passive safety equipment like thermal barriers that protect
passengers when accidents occur. But passive safety is not sufficient to keep EVs safe. EVs
require an active safety system besides thermal barriers (passive systems) to prevent battery
failures and achieve zero battery fires.

ISO 26262 is the international standard for functional safety of electrical and electronic systems in
vehicles. This standard covers only the hardware and software malfunction of the battery
management system that causes failure of preventing excess temperature, charge, current, and
voltage leading to a battery fire. The non-electric and electronic system malfunctions such as
chemical or mechanical defects in batteries are out of these standards’ scope.

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While ISO 26262 covers automotive safety, a dedicated EV safety regulation body was formed in
2012 under the United Nations with China, Japan, the European Union, and the United States co-
sponsoring two working groups to address EV environmental and safety issues. The EV Safety
(EVS) working group specifies the vehicle’s in-use and post-crash safety. Vehicles are required to
warn of a hazardous situation inside the passenger compartment that will allow egress within 5
minutes. Furthermore, vehicles remain safe and do not catch fire or explode for up to one hour
after a crash. These requirements align with the China GB standards and address occupant safety
for thermal events leading to fire, explosion or smoke. Its latest regulation (GTR) focuses on
future standards for active safety systems that use software intelligence to perform prognostics
and diagnostics to prevent battery fires.

There are two complementary ways to improve battery safety for safer EVs:

1) Develop safer cell chemistries. Considerable research and investments are pursuing new
technologies.

2) Deploy software intelligence to predict the rare presence of defects and ensure the batteries
operate safely.

We believe that intelligent software with predictive capabilities is essential to provide additional
safety safeguards. Moreover, the technology is available today and can deliver the required safety
at a fraction of the cost.

Computation Meets Chemistry: Intelligent Battery Management Software

Intelligent Battery Management Software must offer three layers of protection from battery
hazards:

1) Mitigate conditions that could cause battery failures;

2) Predict battery defects;

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3) Provide early warnings for possible safety hazards;

The first step is to complete detailed battery diagnostics of batteries in the vehicle.
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely known and well-established
diagnostic method used in laboratories worldwide to measure and separate the contribution of the
different electrochemical processes taking place as the cell ages. These processes occur at
different frequencies and can be isolated to determine which electrochemical process dominates
the degradation. The EIS spectrum can be implemented in electric vehicles to diagnose the unique
signatures of the battery’s underlying electrochemical processes and generate a chemical state of
health in real-time. This can be implemented in software and should run a continuous assessment
of the impact of the operating conditions such as voltage, current, temperature, state-of-charge,
and depth of discharge on the battery’s health. By combining chemistry, control systems, and
software, this historical diagnostic is critical to accurately assess and predict the state of health of
the cell.

Second, accurate chemical models are necessary to normalize cell variations and provide a
benchmark for expected behavior for a given cell type. These models describe the dependencies
of material properties on temperature, state-of-charge, voltage, current, depth-of-discharge, cell
design, chemistry, and vendors. They should also measure the impact of manufacturing variations,
isolate embedded defects, compensate for non-uniformity of the material properties and assess the
effect of the operating conditions in real-time to adapt the charging conditions to the battery’s
health. These models must be dynamic and learn from the field data to improve their accuracy
over time. This marriage of chemistry, data, and software can generate an accurate predictive state
of health.

Lastly, the ability to adapt the charging conditions in real-time to optimize the operation of the
battery based on the predictive state of health is critical to improving safety. This is where closed-
loop algorithms come into play — being able to diagnose, measure, predict and adjust the
charging conditions in real-time to ensure safety at all times. Current open-loop systems such as
CCCV and step-charging use fixed charging profiles regardless of battery SOH, further
contributing to potential safety issues, especially in the presence of defects.

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Not all safety issues can be avoided. In rare conditions, batteries fail. These include
manufacturing inconsistencies, mechanical defects, and collisions. While these inconsistencies
may pass initial quality checks and remain latent for many charge-discharge cycles, these defects
change internal chemical processes, leaving distinct early signatures. A database of defect
signatures to identify and assess the failure under wide operating conditions can help predict the
safety failures weeks before they lead to a fire.

Early warning systems are essential to identify and remove unsafe batteries

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ISO 26262 Electrical road vehicle safety standard

Road vehicles – Functional safety", is an international standard for functional safety of electrical
and/or electronic systems that are installed in serial production road vehicles (excluding
mopeds), defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 2011, and
revised in 2018.

Overview of the Standard

Functional safety features form an integral part of each automotive product development phase,
ranging from the specification, to design, implementation, integration, verification, validation,
and production release. The standard ISO 26262 is an adaptation of the Functional Safety
standard IEC 61508 for Automotive Electric/Electronic Systems. ISO 26262 defines functional
safety for automotive equipment applicable throughout the lifecycle of all automotive electronic
and electrical safety-related systems.

The first edition (ISO 26262:2011), published on 11 November 2011, was limited to electrical
and/or electronic systems installed in "series production passenger cars" with a maximum gross
weight of 3500 kg. The second edition (ISO 26262:2018), published in December 2018,
extended the scope from passenger cars to all road vehicles except mopeds. [1]

The standard aims to address possible hazards caused by the malfunctioning behaviour of
electronic and electrical systems in vehicles. Although entitled "Road vehicles – Functional
safety" the standard relates to the functional safety of Electrical and Electronic systems as well as
that of systems as a whole or of their mechanical subsystems.

Like its parent standard, IEC 61508, ISO 26262 is a risk-based safety standard, where the risk of
hazardous operational situations is qualitatively assessed and safety measures are defined to
avoid or control systematic failures and to detect or control random hardware failures, or
mitigate their effects.

Parts of ISO 26262

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Part 2: Management of functional safety[edit]

ISO 26262 provides a standard for functional safety management for automotive applications,
defining standards for overall organizational safety management as well as standards for a safety
life cycle for the development and production of individual automotive products. [6][7][8][9] The
ISO 26262 safety life cycle described in the next section operates on the following safety
management concepts:[1]

Hazardous Event
A hazardous event is a relevant combination of a vehicle-level hazard and an operational
situation of the vehicle with potential to lead to an accident if not controlled by timely
driver action.

Safety Goal
A safety goal is a top-level safety requirement that is assigned to a system, with the
purpose of reducing the risk of one or more hazardous events to a tolerable level.

Automotive Safety Integrity Level

An Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) represents an automotive-specific risk-
based classification of a safety goal as well as the validation and confirmation measures
required by the standard to ensure accomplishment of that goal.

Safety Requirement
Safety requirements include all safety goals and all levels of requirements decomposed
from the safety goals down to and including the lowest level of functional and technical
safety requirements allocated to hardware and software components.

Parts 3-7: Safety Life Cycle[edit]

Processes within the ISO 26262 safety life cycle identify and assess hazards (safety risks),
establish specific safety requirements to reduce those risks to acceptable levels, and manage and
track those safety requirements to produce reasonable assurance that they are accomplished in
the delivered product. These safety-relevant processes may be viewed as being integrated or
running in parallel with a managed requirements life cycle of a conventional Quality
Management System:[10][11]

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1. An item (a particular automotive system product) is identified and its top level system
functional requirements are defined.
2. A comprehensive set of hazardous events are identified for the item.
3. An ASIL is assigned to each hazardous event. (See Part 9 below)
4. A safety goal is determined for each hazardous event, inheriting the ASIL of the hazard.
5. A vehicle level functional safety concept defines a system architecture to ensure
the safety goals.
6. Safety goals are refined into lower-level safety requirements.
(In general, each safety requirement inherits the ASIL of its parent safety
requirement/goal. However, subject to constraints, the inherited ASIL may be lowered
by decomposition of a requirement into redundant requirements implemented by
sufficiently independent redundant components.)
7. "Safety requirements" are allocated to architectural components (subsystems, hardware
components, software components)
(In general, each component should be developed in compliance with standards and
processes suggested/required for the highest ASIL of the safety requirements allocated to
it.)
8. The architectural components are then developed and validated in accord with the
allocated safety (and functional) requirements.

Part 8: Supporting Processes[edit]

ISO 26262 defines objectives for integral processes that are supportive to the Safety Life Cycle
processes, but are continuously active throughout all phases, and also defines additional
considerations that support accomplishment of general process objectives.

 Controlled corporate interfaces for flow down of objectives, requirements, and controls to all
suppliers in distributed developments
 Explicit specification of safety requirements and their management throughout the Safety
Life Cycle

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 Configuration control of work products, with formal unique identification and

reproducibility of the configurations that provides for traceability between dependent work
products and identification of all changes in configuration
 Formal change management, including management of impact of changes on safety
requirements, for the purposes of assurance of removal of detected defects as well as for
product change without introduction of hazards
 Planning, control, and reporting of the verification of work products, including review,
analysis, and testing, with regression analysis of detected defects to their source
 Planned identification and management of all documentation (work products) produced
through all phases of the Safety Life Cycle to facilitate continuous management of functional
safety and safety assessment
 Confidence in software tools (qualification of software tools for the intended and actual use)
 Qualification of previously developed software and hardware components for integration in
the currently developed ASIL item
 Use of service history evidence to argue that an item has proven sufficiently safe in use for
the intended ASIL

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Methodology

1) Block diagram

Block diagram description

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2) Circuit diagram
 Under development

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List of the components

Sr. Name OF THE COMPONENTS Specifications of the Cost

No. components
1 Controller Arduino Nano 370
2 Temp sensor LM35 150
3 Smoke sensor MQ-2 300
4 Hydrogen gas sensor MQ-8 300
5 Voltage regulator 7812 Voltage 20
regulator
6 Buzzer 5V DC Buzzer 30
7 Indicator 12v, Panel mount 120
type
8 Fire extinguisher tank Co2 Gas based 500
9 Battery bank Li-Ion 12v, 18650 600
batteries, 2600Mah
10 Battery casing Plastic 3 mm sheet 200
closed box
11 Solenoid valve 12V, Press fit type, 120
6mm inlet
12 Resistors 1k ohm, 10k ohm 10
1314 PCB Board Arduino nano 50
compatible pcb board
15 Heat sink TO-220AB Package 20
16 Pipe fittings for fire extinguisher 6mm, white tube PVC 50
17 Miscellaneous ------ 500
18 Relay Module 5V DC, SPDT Type 180

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Specifications of the components

1) Controller
 Arduino Nano Datasheet


 Arduino Nano Board



 Arduino Nano Pin

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 Pin Configuration


 Technical Specification

Microcontroller ATmega 32
Architecture AVR
Operating Voltage 5v
Flash Memory 32 kb of switch2kb used by bootloader
SRAM 2kb
Clock Speed 16mhz
Analog I/O pins 8
EEPROM 1kb
DC Current per I/O pins 40mA I/O pins
Input Voltage 7-12v
Digital I/O pins 22
PWM Output 6
Power Consumption 19mA
PCB size 18*45mm
Weight 7g
Prouct Code A000005


 power
 The Arduino Nano can be powered via the Mini‐B USB connection, 6‐20V unregulated
external power supply (pin 30), or 5V regulated external power supply (pin 27). The
power source is automatically selected to the highest voltage source.
 Memory
 The ATmega328 has 32 KB, (also with 2 KB used for the bootloader. The ATmega328
has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM.


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 Inpunt Output
 Each of the 14 digital pins on the Nano can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull‐up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20‐50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions: Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the FTDI USB‐to‐TTL
Serial chip. External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the
attachInterrupt() function for details. PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8‐bit PWM
output with the analogWrite() function. SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13
(SCK). These pins support SPI communication, which, although provided by the
underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino language. LED: 13. There
is a built‐in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is
on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Nano has 8 analog inputs, each of which provide
10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to
5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the
analogReference() function. Analog pins 6 and 7 cannot be used as digital pins.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality: I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL).
Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library (documentation on the
Wiring website). There are a couple of other pins on the board: AREF. Reference
voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference. Reset. Bring this line LOW to
reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the
one on the board.
 Programming
 The Arduino Nano can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select
"Arduino Duemilanove or Nano w/ ATmega328" from the Tools > Board menu
(according to the microcontroller on your board). The ATmega328 on the Arduino Nano
comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the
use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500

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protocol. You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through
the ICSP (In‐Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar

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2) Temperature sensor

LM35 Datasheet

LM35 Temperature Sensor

 LM35 is a temperature measuring device having an analog output voltage proportional to

the temperature.
 It provides output voltage in Centigrade (Celsius). It does not require any external
calibration circuitry.
 The sensitivity of LM35 is 10 mV/degree Celsius. As temperature increases, output
voltage also increases.

E.g. 250 mV means 25°C.

 LM35 is a temperature measuring device having an analog output voltage proportional to

the temperature.
 It provides output voltage in Centigrade (Celsius). It does not require any external
calibration circuitry.

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The sensitivity of LM35 is 10 mV/degree Celsius. As temperature incre

increases,
ases, output voltage also

increases.

LM35 Pinout

VCC: Supply Voltage (4V – 30V)

Out: It gives analog output voltage which is proportional to the temperature (in degree Celsius).

GND: Ground

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3) Mq-2 Smoke Sensor

MQ2 Smoke Flammable Gas Sensor Module:-

MQ2 Smoke and Flammable Gas Sensor Module:-

This is a very easy to use low cost semiconductor Gas sensor Module with analog and digital
output. This module uses MQ2 Smoke & Flammable gas sensor as a gas sensing element. It
requires no external components just plug in Vcc & ground pins and you are ready to go.

For Digital output the threshold value can be easily set by an on-board potentiometer. Using this
module you can easily interface MQ2 Smoke & Combustible gas Sensor to any Microcontroller,
Arduino or even Raspberry Pi.

Since this Gas Sensor module is sensitive to smoke it can be used in for fire detection. MQ2 Gas
Sensor is also sensitive to flammable/combustible gasses like LPG, Propane & Hydrogen.

Specification of MQ2 GAS Sensor Module:-

• Power Supply : 5 Volts

• Interface Type : Analog & Digital

• High Sensitivity to Smoke & combustible gasses like Hydrogen, LPG & Propane.

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• Low Cost.

• Stable & Long Life.

• On board Power indication.

Features of MQ2 GAS Sensor Module:-

• Operating Voltage is +5V.

• Can be used to Measure or detect LPG, Alcohol, Propane, Hydrogen, CO and even
methane.

• Analog output voltage: 0V to 5V.

• Digital Output Voltage: 0V or 5V (TTL Logic).

• Preheat duration 20 seconds.

• Can be used as a Digital or analog sensor.

• The Sensitivity of Digital pin can be varied using the potentiometer.

Advantages of MQ2 GAS Sensor Module:-

• The catalytic combustion gas sensor has accurate measurement, fast response and long
life.

• The output of the sensor is directly related to the explosion hazard of the environment.

• It is a leading sensor in the field of safety detection.

Disadvantages of MQ2 GAS Sensor Module:-

• Poor stability and greater environmental impact; in particular.

• the selectivity of each sensor is not * and the output parameters cannot be determined.

• Therefore, it should not be used in places where accurate measurement is required

• the thermal conductivity type gas sensor.

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• non-selective in the flammable gas range. Under fire, there is a danger of igniting an
explosion. Most elemental organic vapors are toxic to the sensor.

Applications of MQ2 GAS Sensor Module:-

• Detects or measure Gases like LPG, Alcohol, Propane, Hydrogen, CO and even methane.

• Air quality monitor.

• Gas leak alarm.

• Safety standard maintenance.

• Maintaining environment standards in hospitals.

• These sensors are used to detect the presence of gases in the air such as methane, butane,
LPG and smoke but they are unable to distinguish between gases. Thus, they cannot tell
which gas it is.

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4) MQ8 Gas Sensor Module:-

MQ8 Hydrogen Gas sensor Module:-

A sensitive material MQ-8 Hydrogen Gas Sensor Module H2 Alarm Detection use in clean air
low conductivity tin oxide (SnO2). When there is the environment in which the combustible gas
sensor, conductivity sensor with increasing concentration of combustible gases in air increases.
Using a simple circuit to convert the change in conductivity of the gas concentration
corresponding to the output signal.

MQ-8 hydrogen gas sensor of high sensitivity, the monitoring of the other hydrogen-containing
gas is also very satisfactory. This sensor can detect a wide range of hydrogen gas, city gas, in
particular, is a low-cost sensor for a variety of applications.

Features MQ8 Gas Sensor Module:-

• Using high-quality dual-panel design, with power indicator and TTL signal output
instructions.

• The switching signal having a DO (TTL) output and analog output AO.

• TTL output valid signal is low. ( Low-level signal when the output light can directly
connect to the microcontroller or relay module )

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• The higher the voltage, the concentration of the analog output voltage is higher.

• A hydrogen gas detection with good sensitivity.

• There are four screw holes for easy positioning.

• Has a long life and reliable stability.

• Rapid response and recovery characteristics.

Specifications MQ8 Gas Sensor Module:-

• Input voltage : DC 5 Volts.

• Power consumption ( current ) : 150 mA.

• Digital D0 output : TTL digital 0 and 1 ( 0.1 and 5 Volts).

• Analog A0 output : 0.1-0 .3 V ( relative to pollution ), the maximum concentration of a

voltage of about 4V.

Applications MQ-8 Hydrogen Gas Sensor Module:-

• Suitable for home or industrial hydrogen leakage monitoring devices.

• it Can not interfere with ethanol vapor.

• soot.

• carbon monoxide and other gases.

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5) Battery

18650 Battery Cells

Datasheet

Samsung 18650 Battery Cell

Specifications and Features:

Very Small in size and weight compared to Ni-Cd, Ni-MH and Lead Acid Batteries

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Full Charge in 90 minutes with Li-ion battery charger

Cell Specifications:

3.7V 2600mAh

Diameter 18mm, height 65mm

Weight 45grams

Maximum safe discharge current 5200mA (2C)

Maximum charging voltage 4.2V (Do not overcharge the cell, it may explode or be internally
damaged.)

Maximum charging current 1000mA

Safety Standards

1 Overcharge test

Test method: To charge with 20A-20V at 25℃ for 3hr.

Criteria: No fire, and no explosion.

2 External short-circuit test

Test method: To short-circuit the standard charged cell (or 50% discharged cell) by connecting
positive and negative terminal by 80mΩ wire for 10min.

Criteria: No fire, and no explosion.

3 Reverse charge test

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Test method: To charge the standard charged cell with charge current 10A By 0V for 2.5 hours.

Criteria: No fire, and no explosion.

4 Heating test

Test method: To heat up the standard charged cell at heating rate 5℃ per minute up to 130℃ and
keep the cell in oven for 10 minutes.

Criteria: No fire, and no explosion.

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6) Voltage regulator

7812 Datasheet

Fig. 7812 Voltage regulator

Specifications

Sr.No Specification Range

1 DC output voltage 12V DC
2 DC input voltage Upto 35V DC
3 Output current capacity 1.5 Amp
4 Operating junction temperatur -55 to 150 celcius
5 Storage temprature -65 to 160 celcius

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6 Package used in our project TO-220A Package( through hole

package)
7 Short circuit current 2.5 amp for 1 milli seconds
8

Special features of 7812 voltage regulators

THERMAL OVERLOAD PROTECTION

SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION

PACKAGES AVAILABLE – TO220AB (Through hole package) , surface mount packages are
also available.

General Information and purpose of use

In our project we have used 7812 voltage regulator for the voltage regulation purpose for
controller. The L7800 series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in TO-220
ISOWATT220 TO-3 and D2PAK packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in
a wide range of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating
the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible.
If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed
primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to
obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Applications

1) Power supplies.
2) Voltage regulation.
3) Battery chargers.

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7) Relay Module

Relay Module

5Volt Relay Module

Description

The new KEYES 5V Relay Module is perfectly made for Arduino application. It has three pins,
the VCC, GND and Signal. It can act as switch if the circuit and the load circuit have different
supply voltage. It is commonly use if the load circuit is AC. It is a switch used to connect
isolated connection from the circuit using a circuit signal. It has red LED that turns on every time
the coil is energized or the signal pin has a high input.

Specifications

5V – 12 V TTL control signa

l Maximum AC current and voltage : 10A 250VAC

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 Maximum DC current and voltage : 10A 30VDC

 The control signal DC or AC, 220V AC load can be controlled

 There is a normally open and one normally closed contact

 To make the coil of relay energized you must need to have an input of 1 in

 the signal pin. Pin Configuration + : 5V power supply

 - : Ground

 S : Signal from the Arduino

 NC : normally closed

 NO : normally open

 COMMON : common

Pin Configuration

 VCC: 5V DC
 COM: 5V DC
 IN1: high/low output
 IN2: high/low output
 GND: ground

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8) Buzzer

1. 5v PCB Mounting Buzzer

5v PCB Mounting Buzzer

This is a small PCB (printed circuit board) mountable buzzer.

Its small size makes it perfect for all types of DIY and breadboard projects as well as actual
electronics production.

This Buzzer module emit really loud sound when 3V to 5V is apply to it. Unlike a plain piezo,
this buzzer does not need an AC signal. Inside is a piezo plus the driver circuitry that makes it
oscillate at 2 KHz. On one hand, that makes it really great for integrating into projects because
you don’t need an oscillating control signal. but On the other hand, you cannot change the
frequency.

FEATURES OF BUZZER:-

1. Tone Type : single

2. Operating Voltage : 4.5-5.5Vdc

3. Rated Voltage : 5V DC

4. Current Consumption : 50mA

5. Osc. Frequency : 2.3kHz±0.4

6. Sound Level : 85dB

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7. Connector Type : PCB

8. Body Color : black

9. Weight : 3gm

ADVANTAGES:-

1. Excellent frequency response

2. small size

3. wide voltage usage range

4. high sound level

5. less energy usage, and easy compatibility.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1. The frequency changes with the change of the driving voltage. ...

2. The frequency changes with the change of temperature, when the temperature increases, the
frequency will decrease; when the temperature decreases, the frequency will increase.

Typical Applications of a Piezo Buzzer:-

1. alarms / warning devices / automobile alarms.

2. pest deterrents. computer devices.

3. telephones. toys / games.

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PCB Making Process

 PCB Development: PCB development can be defined as the process of taking a circuit board
design from the design to the production. This typically includes three stages: design,
manufacturing and testing. And for all but the simplest designs, this process is iterative with the
objective of arriving at the highest quality design within the development time allotted.
 PCB Manufacturing: PCB manufacturing is the construction of your board design. This is a two-
step process that begins with board fabrication and ends with printed circuit board assembly
(PCBA).
 PCB Testing: PCB testing, sometimes referred to as bring up, is the third stage of PCB
development; performed after manufacturing. Testing during development is done to evaluate the
board’s ability to perform its intended operational functionality. During this stage, any errors or
areas where the design should be modified to improve performance are identified and another
cycle is initiated to incorporate the design changes.

 PCB Assembly: PCB assembly or PCBA is the second step or stage of PCB manufacturing in
which the board components are mounted to the bare board through a soldering process.

he PCB Fabrication Process

PCB fabrication is the process or procedure that transforms a circuit board design into a physical
structure based upon the specifications provided in the design package. This physical
manifestation is achieved through the following actions or techniques:

 Imaging desired layout on copper clad laminates

 Etching or removing excess copper from inner layers to reveal traces and pads
 Creating the PCB layer stackup by laminating (heating and pressing) board materials at high
temperatures
 Drilling holes for mounting holes, through hole pins and vias
 Etching or removing excess copper from the surface layer(s) to reveal traces and pads
 Plating pin holes and via holes

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 Adding protective coating to surface or solder masking

 Silkscreen printing reference and polarity indicators, logos or other markings on the surface
 Optionally, a finish may be added to copper areas of surface

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Advantages

 Close loop monitoring and control of the battery parameters which are critical for battery
safety.
 In build extinguisher works in two way one is to cool the battery pack and another is to
extinguish the fire
 An fire resistant based materials casing is developed to cover the battery in a closed
chamber. This saves any of the external parameter to enter inside the battery and any of
the internal parameter to enter outside of the casing such as fire.
 Battery is kept safe from the fire and temperature rise, thus chances of the explosion is
reduced.
 Automatic battery health parameters monitoring will make Electric vehicle drive safer
and trouble free for the driver and passengers.
 System consumes less energy which is a key benefit from electric vehicles point of view.

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Disadvantages

1) Increase in battery auxiliary system increases the overall cost of the vehicle.

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Applications

 Electric bikes.

 Electric cars.

 Heavy load electric vehicles such as cranes, trucks and other construction vehicles such
as forklifts, hoists.

 Defense and security forces vehicles.

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Future scope

 A more reliable and safety ensuring system for the safety while using electric vehicles.

 Automatic and trouble free operation which should not disturb the normal operation of
the vehicle.

 Smart safety System should itself not get damaged and its internal faults should be
minimum.

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Conclusion

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References

1. "Axeon Receives Order for 50 Zebra Packs for Modec Electric Vehicle; Li-Ion Under
Testing". Green Car Congress. 24 November 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
2. ^ "Battery prices are falling, which is good news for EVs". Marketplace. 3 December
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3. ^ "EV Database". EV Database. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
4. ^ "Deep-cycle battery", Wikipedia, 18 March 2020, retrieved 26 April 2020
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Barre, Harold (1997). Managing 12 Volts: How To Upgrade, Operate,
and Troubleshoot 12 Volt Electrical Systenms. Summer Breeze Publishing. pp. 63–
65. ISBN 978-0-9647386-1-4.(discussing damage caused by sulfation due to discharge
below 50%)
6. ^ Jump up to:a b "Energy density", Wikipedia, 4 April 2020, retrieved 26 April2020
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Electric cars and solar power reduce dependence on foreign oil by living oil-free, we
review the options". Retrieved 26 April 2020.
12. ^ "Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries", Wikipedia, 4 March 2020,
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15. ^ Godshall, N.A.; Raistrick, I.D.; Huggins, R.A. (1980). "Thermodynamic investigations
of ternary lithium-transition metal-oxygen cathode materials". Materials Research
Bulletin. 15 (5): 561. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90135-X.

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16. ^ Godshall, Ned A. (18 May 1980) Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of
Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxygen Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University
17. ^ "USPTO search for inventions by "Goodenough, John"". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 8
October 2011.
18. ^ Mizushima, K.; Jones, P. C.; Wiseman, P. J.; Goodenough, J. B. (1980). "Li
xCoO

2(0<x<-1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density". Materials
Research Bulletin. 15 (6): 783–789. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4.
19. ^ Jalkanen, K.; Karrpinen, K.; Skogstrom, L.; Laurila, T.; Nisula, M.; Vuorilehto, K.
(2015). "Cycle aging of commercial NMC/graphite pouch cells at different
temperatures". Applied Energy. 154: 160–172. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.110.
20. ^ "Lithium-Ion Batteries Hazard and Use Assessment" (PDF). Retrieved 7
September 2013.
21. ^ "A123 Inks Deal to Develop Battery Cells for GM Electric Car". 10 August 2007.
Retrieved 10 December 2016.

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