UNIT 3: INFILTRATION

Consider a small container covered with wire gauze as shown in

the figure. If water is poured into the container a part of it will go
into the container and part overflows. Further, the container can
hold only a fixed quantity and when it is full no more flow into the
container can take place.

Infiltration can be schematically modelled in two situations. One is under low intensity
rainfall, and the other under high intensity rainfall.

Given these,

(a) If the rate of supply of

water at the surface is less
than the potential infiltration
rate then, the actual
infiltration rate will be less
than the potential.

(b) If water is ponded on

the surface, the infiltration
occurs at the potential
infiltration rate.

Most infiltration equations

are described by (b) where 𝑖
is always greater than 𝑓 .

Try to understand the infiltration that occurs in soil due to light rainfall and compare this
to when rain is continuous like during the monsoon season. Is there a difference? In the
models given above, can you differentiate what it means by actual and potential
infiltration?

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 Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. Infiltration volume
is subtracted from a precipitation event in order to determine the net volume of rainfall,
or rainfall excess, which is equivalent to the direct runoff from a watershed area.

Factors that affect infiltration include:

1. condition of soil surface and vegetative cover
2. soil properties: porosity and hydraulic conductivity
3. current moisture content of soil
4. Soil strata with different physical properties may overlay each other forming
horizons. e.g. silt soil overlying a clay zone

The distribution of soil moisture within the soil profile during the downward movement of
water is illustrated by the figure below.

There are four moisture zones:

Zone 1: Saturated Zone - a thin layer near the surface

Zone 2: Transition Zone – shows the variation in moisture

content along the wetting front

Zone 3: Transmission Zone. MC is above FC but below SC;

Fairly uniform moisture content.

Zone 4: Wetting Zone. MC is near FC and decreases with

depth.
*MC = moisture content (amount of water in the soil), FC = field
capacity (amount of water that a soil can hold after excess has
drained away by gravity), SC = saturation capacity (level of soil
moisture where all voids are filled with water)

Horton (1933) showed that when the rainfall rate 𝑖

exceeds the infiltration rate 𝑓, water infiltrates the
surface soils at a rate that generally decreases
with time as shown by the figure.

He developed one of the earliest infiltration

equations where 𝑖 is always greater than 𝑓.

𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + (𝒇𝟎 − 𝒇𝒄 )𝒆 𝒌𝒕
Horton’s Equation

Where:
𝑓= infiltration capacity 𝑓 = initial infiltration capacity
𝑓 = final/ equilibrium infiltration capacity 𝑘=empirical constant

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 Illustrative example 1. The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated as 1.5
in./hr., and the time constant is taken to be 0.35/ hr. The equilibrium capacity is 0.2
in./hr. Use Horton’s equation to find (a) the values of 𝑓 at 𝑡 = 10 min, 30 min, 1 hr., 2 hrs.,
and 6 hrs., and (b) the total volume of infiltration over the 6-hr period.

We first identify the given parameters:

𝑓 = initial infiltration capacity = 1.5 in/hr.
𝑓 = final/ equilibrium infiltration capacity = 0.20 in/hr.
𝑘=empirical constant = 0.35/hr.

Substituting these in Horton’s equation, 𝑓 = 0.20 + (1.30)𝑒 .

(a) For the given time values,

Time, 𝒕 Infiltration capacity, 𝒇

10 mins = 0.1667 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( . )
= 1.4263 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
30 mins = 0.5 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( . )
= 1.2913 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
1 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( ) = 1.1161 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
2 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( )
= 0.8456 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟
6 hr 𝑓 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 + 1.30 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 𝑒 . / ( )
= 0.3592 𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑟

(b) If the values from (a) are plotted in a

curve, the total volume of infiltration
over the 6-hr period can be found
by finding the area under the curve
as shown.

Alternatively, this can also be

determined by integrating Horton’s
equation,
𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 This is the equation for the mass curve of infiltration
𝐹 =𝑓𝑡+ 1−𝑒 or cumulative infiltration volume
𝑘

(1.30)
𝐹 = 0.20 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 (6ℎ𝑟) + 1 − 𝑒−(0.35/ℎ𝑟)(6ℎ𝑟) 𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟒 𝒊𝒏
0.35

To check,

𝐹 = 0.20 + (1.30)𝑒 .
𝑑𝑡 = 0.2𝑡 + (1.30 − 0.35)𝑒 . ]6
0

𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟒 𝒊𝒏

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 Philip (1957), using analytical solutions for unsaturated flow, developed two
equations of the form,

𝑓 = 𝑆𝑡 +𝐾 and 𝐹 = 𝑆𝑡 + 𝐾𝑡 Philip’s Equations

Where: 𝑓= infiltration capacity

𝐹= cumulative infiltration volume
𝑆= sorptivity, a constant related to soil suction potential
𝐾 = soil hydraulic conductivity

A more advanced treatment of infiltration is

by the use of an analytical solution such as
the Green and Ampt infiltration model. It
represents the typical relationship between
moisture content and soil depth as a sharp
wetting front separating saturated moisture
content at the top of the soil column 𝜂 from
the initial moisture content at the column
base 𝜃 . The wetting front has penetrated to
a depth 𝐿 in time 𝑡 since infiltration began.
Water is ponded to a small depth ℎ on the
soil surface.

Considering the vertical column of soil of unit horizontal cross-sectional area between
the surface and depth L, the cumulative infiltration, the Green and Ampt equation for
cumulative infiltration is given by:
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜓∆𝜃 ln 1 +
𝜓∆𝜃

and infiltration rate can be obtained by

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)
Where: 𝑓= infiltration rate, 𝐾= hydraulic conductivity, 𝜓 = wetting front soil suction head and 𝐹 =
cumulative depth of water infiltrated into the soil, ∆𝜃 = moisture deficit;

where ∆𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠 )𝜃 ,
𝑠 = effective saturation and, 𝜃 = 𝜂 − 𝜃 is effective porosity

In 1983, Rawls, Brakensiek, and Miller used the Brooks-Corey equation to analyze
approximately 5000 soil horizons across the United States and determined average
values of the Green-Ampt parameters for different soil classes.

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 It can be seen in that as the soil particles get finer, from sands to clays, the saturated
hydraulic conductivity Ks decreases, the average wetting front suction c increases
(negatively), and porosity us is variable.

Illustrative example 2. Compute the infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) and cumulative infiltration 𝐹(𝑡)
after one hour of infiltration into a silt loam soil that initially had an effective saturation of
30 percent. Assume water is ponded to a small but negligible depth on the surface.

We can take the Green-Ampt parameters from the table as follows:

The initial effective saturation 𝑠 = 0.30, 𝜃 = 0.486, 𝜓 = 16.68 𝑐𝑚 & 𝐾 = 0.65

We solve for ∆𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠 )𝜃 = (1 − 0.30)(0.486) = 0.3402 so that

𝜓∆𝜃 = 16.68(0.3402) = 5.6745𝑐𝑚

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 The cumulative infiltration at 𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟 is determined from the equation,
𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜓∆𝜃 ln 1 +
𝜓∆𝜃
𝑐𝑚 𝐹(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 (1ℎ𝑟) + 5.6745 ln 1 + 𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑟 5.6745
ℎ𝑟
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝒄𝒎

The infiltration rate after 𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟 is then obtained from,

𝑐𝑚
𝜓∆𝜃 5.6745
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 + 1 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 1 + ℎ𝑟 = 1.8152 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝐹(𝑡) 3.1656 𝑐𝑚

The infiltration methods discussed above uses the assumption that water is ponded to a
small depth on the soil surface so all the water that the soil can infiltrate is available at
the surface. However, this ponding only results when the rainfall intensity is greater than
the infiltration capacity of the soil.

The ponding time t is defined as the time

elapsed between when rainfall begins
and the time water begins to pond on the
soil surface. The figure shows the variation
in moisture profile before, during and after
ponding time occurs.

Mein and Larson (1973) presented a

method for determining the ponding time
with infiltration into the soil described by
the Green-Ampt equation for rainfall of
intensity 𝑖 starting instantaneously and
continuing indefinitely. This involves the following concepts:

1. prior to the time ponding occurs, all the rainfall is infiltrated

2. the potential infiltration rate is a function of the cumulative infiltration F
3. ponding occurs when the potential infiltration rate is less than or equal to the
rainfall intensity

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 Infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) and cumulative infiltration
𝐹(𝑡) are related by the Green-Ampt equation by,
𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)
The figure shows that cumulative infiltration at
ponding time 𝐹 is equal to

𝐹 = 𝑖𝑡 and 𝑓 = 𝑖,

Where 𝑖 = rainfall intensity, 𝑡 = ponding

time, and 𝑓 = infiltration rate

So that substituting these in 𝑓(𝑡),

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑖=𝐾 +1
𝑖𝑡

and solving for 𝑡

𝑲𝝍∆𝜽
𝒕𝒑 =
𝒊(𝒊 − 𝑲)

Illustrative example 3. Compute the ponding time and the depth of water infiltrated at
ponding for a silt loam soil of 30 percent initial effective saturation, subject to rainfall
intensity of 5 cm/h.

Since the parameters given are the same as in illustrative example 3, we may use the
values for
𝐾 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 and 𝜓∆𝜃 = 5.6745
In solving for the ponding time,
𝑐𝑚
𝐾𝜓∆𝜃 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 5.6745
𝑡 = = ℎ𝑟 = 0.1696 ℎ𝑟 (≈ 10.1760 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠)
𝑖(𝑖 − 𝐾) 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
5 5 − 0.65
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
This means that it takes 10.1760 minutes to saturate the soil.

For the depth of water infiltrated,

𝑐𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑡 = 5 (0.1696 ℎ𝑟) = 0.8479 𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑟
This is the ponding depth required to produce saturation.

In this case, the infiltration rate 𝑓(𝑡) is equal to rainfall intensity 𝑖 at ponding.

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 However, after ponding 𝑡 > 𝑡 , the infiltration depth increases exponentially
according to this equation,
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝜓∆𝜃 ln =𝐾 𝑡−𝑡
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹

where infiltration depth varies with time. Only the cumulative infiltration is unknown at at
any time after ponding. The infiltration rate is later obtained using the equation,

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 +1
𝐹(𝑡)

Illustrative example 4. Calculate the cumulative infiltration 𝐹 and the infiltration rate 𝑓
after one hour (𝑡 = 1 ℎ𝑟) of rainfall of intensity 5 cm/hr on a silt loam soil with an initial
effective saturation of 30 percent.
Since the parameters given are the same as in illustrative examples 3 and 4, we may use
the values for

𝐾 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟, 𝜓∆𝜃 = 5.6745 , 𝑡 = 0.1696 ℎ𝑟 and 𝐹 = 0.8479 𝑐𝑚

Substituting,
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝐹 − 𝐹 − 𝜓∆𝜃 ln =𝐾 𝑡−𝑡
𝜓∆𝜃 + 𝐹
𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚 5.6745 +𝐹
𝐹 − 0.8479 𝑐𝑚 − 5.6745 ln ℎ𝑟 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 (1 − 0.1696 ℎ𝑟)
ℎ𝑟 𝑐𝑚
5.6745 + 0.8479 𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑟

𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎
This is the cumulative infiltration (depth) after an hour of rainfall of intensity of 5 cm/hrl.

The infiltration rate is obtained as,

𝑐𝑚
𝜓∆𝜃 5.6745
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 + 1 = 0.65 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟
𝐹(𝑡) ℎ𝑟 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎 + 1 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟕 𝒄𝒎/𝒉𝒓

Comparing the results in example number 2 and 4, the infiltration depth obtained under
continuous ponding is more than the infiltrated depth after an hour of 5cm/hr of rainfall. This is
because of the time it took for ponding to occur in the first 0.1696 hr and during this period, the
infiltration rate is also less than its potential value.

Under continuous ponding 𝐹 = 3.1656 𝑐𝑚 𝑓(𝑡) = 1.8152 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟

Under 1 hr of 5cm/hr rainfall 𝐹 = 3.0165 𝑐𝑚 𝑓(𝑡) = 1.8727 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟

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 Another infiltration method is the use of
the ∅-index. It assumes that infiltration loss
is uniformly distributed across the rainfall
pattern where the area above the ∅-
index sums to the volume of direct runoff
and the area below sums to the volume
of infiltration loss.

Illustrative example 5. Use the rainfall data below to determine the ∅-index for a
watershed that is 0.875 square miles, where the runoff volume is 228.7 ac-ft.

Infiltration when taken away from precipitation is equal to the direct runoff from a watershed
area, 𝑃 − 𝐼 = 𝑅. This may be written as,

(𝑖 − ∅)∆𝑡 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

Where: 𝑖 = rainfall intensity, ∅ = infiltration index and ∆𝑡= time interval.

Given the runoff volume of 228.7 ac-ft, its equivalent depth can be computed by
dividing it the runoff volume with the watershed area,
228.7 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = = 0.4084 𝑓𝑡 ≈ 4.9007 𝑖𝑛
640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
0.875𝑚𝑖 ×
𝑚𝑖
Substituting this in our first equation,

(𝑖 − ∅)∆𝑡 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

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 We can now determine the ∅-index by trial and error. In choosing a starting point, it is
logical to choose any of the rainfall intensities.

Say we start with a ∅-index = 1.1 in/hr,

(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛
Note that when the assumed ∅-index is greater that rainfall 𝑖, the term is cancelled out. This is
because it is assumed that 𝑖′𝑠 did not generate any runoff, thus fully infiltrated into the soil. In this
case we remove the 3rd, 4th and 5th terms in the equation that correspond to intensities less than 1.1
in/hr.

The first trial yields a ∅-index of 0.9599 in/hr. But since it is not equal to the original
assumption of 1.1 in/hr., another iteration is needed.

We can use the outcome of the first iteration as the starting point of the next iteration
such that we remove the 4th and 5th terms (since they correspond to intensities less
than 0.9599 in/hr.)
(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

The second trial yields a ∅-index of 0.9999 in/hr ≠ 0.9599 in/hr (from the 1st iteration)

With a ∅-index = 0.9999 in/hr., the equation remains the same which means that
(1.4 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (2.3 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (1.1 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 + (0.7 − ∅)3ℎ𝑟 + (0.3 − ∅)2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9007 𝑖𝑛

It gives us the same ∅-index of 0.999 in/hr. This is the closest approximation of the
infiltration index ∅.

Plotting the ∅-index against the

rainfall hyetograph gives us the
boundary between infiltration
losses and rainfall excess
(surface runoff. The duration of
rainfall excess (direct runoff) is
also shown equal to 7 hours
long.

The total depth of runoff is equal to

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∅ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
ℎ𝑟 7ℎ𝑟 + 0.7 ℎ𝑟 3ℎ𝑟 + 0.3 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 = 9.70 𝑖𝑛

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 The volume of infiltration losses can easily be estimated by solving the shaded area
under the plot of the ∅-index, and multiplying by the watershed area.
𝑓𝑡 640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 9.70 𝑖𝑛 × × 0.875𝑚𝑖 × = 452.6667 𝑎𝑐. 𝑓𝑡
12𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖
To check, the runoff volume should be equal to the shaded area above the ∅-index
line multiplied by the watershed area.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 ∅ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1.4 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 + 2.3 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 3ℎ𝑟 + 1.1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 − 1 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 2ℎ𝑟 = 4.9 𝑖𝑛

𝑓𝑡 640 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 4.90 𝑖𝑛 × × 0.875𝑚𝑖 × = 228.6667 𝑎𝑐. 𝑓𝑡
12𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖

This value checks with the given runoff.

EFFECT OF INFILTRATION

The effect of infiltration is to:

1. reduce flood magnitude
2. delay the time of arrival of water to the channel
3. reduce the soil erosion
4. recharge to the ground water reservoir
5. fill the soil pores with water to its field-capacity, which subsequently supply water
to the plants
6. avail the ground water during the non-rain periods in the channels
7. help to supply water to plants

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

Factors affecting infiltration depend on both meteorological and soil medium

characteristics. These are:
• Surface Entry
• Percolation
• Antecedent Moisture Condition
• Rainfall Intensity and Duration
• Human Activities
• Depletion of Ground Water Table
• Quality of Water

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 Methods of measuring Infiltration

 Flooding type infiltrometers - used to measure the rate of water infiltration into soil
or other porous media

Check out the video on the use of infiltrometer from this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYvfTxQhbOQ

 Measurement of subsidence of free water in a large basin or pond.

 Rainfall simulator

 Hydrograph analysis

Answer the following problems with your choice of study mate:

1. A 5-hr storm over a 15-ac basin produces a 5-in. rainfall: 1.2 in./hr for the first hour,
2.1 in./hr for the second hour, 0.9 in./hr for the third hour, and 0.4 in./hr for the last
2 hr. Determine the infiltration that would result from the Horton model with 𝑘 =
1.1/hr, 𝑓 = 0.2 in./hr, and 𝑓 = 0.9 in./hr. Plot the overland flow for this condition in
in./hr vs. t.

2. Parameters in Philip's equation for a clay soil are S = 45 cm-h-1/2 and K = 10 cm/h.
Determine the cumulative infiltration and the infiltration rate at 0.5-hour
increments for a 3-hour period. Plot both as functions of time. Plot the infiltration
rate as a function of the cumulative infiltration. Assume continuously ponded
conditions.

3. For a sandy loam soil, calculate the infiltration rate (cm/h) and depth of
infiltration (cm) after one hour if the effective saturation is initially 40 percent,
using the Green-Ampt method. Assume continuously ponded conditions.

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 4. Compute the ponding time and cumulative infiltration at ponding for a clay
loam soil with a 25 percent initial effective saturation subject to a rainfall intensity
of 1 cm/hr.

5. A storm with 10 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. The

duration of the rainfall was 16 hours and its distribution is given below:

Take note that the rainfall data given is cumulative.

Compare the infiltration methods discussed in class, which did you appreciate most?
Share your thoughts in the forum.

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 UNIT 4: EVAPORATION

Pre-assessment Quiz. For the following, write T if the statement is true and F is false.
____ 1. Water lost through evaporation and transpiration is in the form of water vapor.
____ 2. Transpiration occurs only in the daytime.
____ 3. Evaporation continues all day and all night at a constant rate.
____ 4. Evaporation stops when air is fully saturated.
____ 5. Water intercepted by plant leaves that turn to water vapor still comprise
transpiration.

Click the link below for supplemental reading on evaporation.

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/evaporation-and-water-cycle?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

Evaporation is the process by which liquid water from water bodies (rivers, ponds, lakes)
or soil is converted to vapor. It is commonly expressed in mm/h or in/hr.

Water molecules in a water body are tightly held by intermolecular forces. In

evaporation, energy is consumed to overcome these forces and move the molecules
away. The energy required to move to the vapor form is called the latent heat of
vaporization (λ). Its value is about 2.5 MJ/kg; this also depends upon temperature and is
computed by

𝜆 = 2.501 − 0.00236𝑇 where 𝑇= temperature in degrees Celsius

The figure shows that under normal conditions, there is

a regular exchange of molecules between a water
body and the atmosphere.

The rate at which water is converted into vapor is called the rate of vaporization. While
the rate at which water vapor is converted to liquid water, is called the rate of
condensation.

When the vapor pressure is low, vaporization takes place, and so does evaporation. If
the rate of vaporization equals condensation, the air is saturated and evaporation
stops. The difference between saturated vapor pressure (eS) and vapor pressure of the

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 air (ea) determines the rate of evaporation. As this difference increases, evaporation
also increases, and vice versa.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is considered separately as the combined loss of water vapor

from the surface of plants (transpiration) and the evaporation of moisture from soil.

Factors that affect evaporation in open water include solar radiation, temperature of
the water and air, difference in vapor pressure between water and the overlying air,
and wind speed across the lake.

The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the following
methods: (a) using evaporimeter data, (b) empirical formulas and (c) analytical
formulas

(a) Evaporimeters are water-containing pans exposed to the atmosphere wherein loss
of water is monitored at regular intervals. Examples of these are

Each pan has a coefficient given by Cp, so that lake evaporation is estimated as,

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 (b) Empirical Equations commonly used meteorological data. Some formulas are
enumerated below:

Dalton’s Law of Evaporation where:

𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝐾 a coefficient
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲 𝒇(𝒖) (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 ) 𝑓(𝑢) wind speed correction factor
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm
Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm Hg

Meyer’s Formula where:

𝒖𝟗 𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝑴 (𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )(𝟏 + ) 𝐾 coefficient (0.36 for large deep waters, 0.50 for small, shallow
𝟏𝟔
waters)
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm
Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in
mm Hg
𝑢 monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at about 9m above
ground
* At the lower part of the atmosphere, wind velocity can be
assumed to follow the 1/7 power law,
𝑢 = 𝐶ℎ ⁄

Rohwer’s Formula 𝑬𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏(𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒑𝒂 )(𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑𝒖𝟎 )(𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 )

where:
𝐸 lake evaporation in mm/day
𝑒 saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature in mm Hg
𝑒 actual vapor pressure of overlying air at a specified height in mm Hg
𝑝 mean barometric reading in mm of Hg
𝑢 monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at 0.6 m above ground

(c) Analytical Methods include the water budget, energy budget and mass transfer
methods

Between the three approaches, analytical methods can provide good results.
However, they involve parameters that are difficult to assess. Empirical equations can at
best give approximate values of the correct order of magnitude. In view of the above,
pan measurements find wide acceptance in practice.

Review the entire module in preparation for your Summative Quiz 1.

Accomplish the Summative Quiz for Module 1 and the Midterm Examination.

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