Line Models

There are three models based on the length of lines.

1. Short line - line length is less than 80 kM (50 miles)
2. Medium line - line length is between 80 kM (50 miles) and
240 kM (150 miles)
3. Long line - line length is more than 240 kM (150 miles)

I Lumped parameters are used in the short and medium line

models.
I Distributed parameters are used in the long line model.
Short Line Model:
I Shunt capacitance is neglected.
I Lumped parameters are used.

IS R X IR

VS VR

The total impedance of the line is

Z = R + X Ω

where
R = r × l; X =x ×l
r and x are resistance and reactance per kM and l is the length of
the line in kM.
 VS = VR + IR Z
IS = IR
By comparing with ABCD parameters,

A = 1; B = Z ; C = 0; D = 1

For symmetrical networks, A = D.

For reciprocal networks, AD − BC = 1.

|VR,NL | − |VR,FL |
%Regn = × 100
|VR,FL |
Since VR,NL = VS ,

|VS | − |VR.FL |
%Regn = × 100
|VR,FL |
Medium Line Model:
I Shunt capacitance is considered.
I Lumped parameters are used.
There are two different representations.
1. nominal-π network
2. nominal -T network
1. nominal -π network
This representation is used in load flow studies.

IS Z IR

Y Y
VS 2 2 VR
where Y = ωC and C is the total capacitance of the line in
F.

Y Y
IS = IR + VR + VS
2 2
Y YZ
VS = VR + (IR + VR )Z = VR (1 + ) + ZIR
2 2
Substituting VS in IS ,

YZ YZ
IS = VR Y (1 + ) + IR (1 + )
4 2
By comparing with ABCD parameters,

YZ
A = (1 + )=D
2
B=Z
YZ
C = Y (1 + )
4
2. nominal -T network
Z Z
IS 2 2 IR

VS Y VR

Z YZ
IS = IR + (VR + IR )Y = YVR + (1 + )IR
2 2
Z Z
VS = VR + IR + IS
2 2
Substituting IS in VS ,

YZ YZ
VS = (1 + )VR + Z (1 + )IR
2 4
 By comparing with ABCD parameters,

YZ
A = (1 + )=D
2
YZ
B = Z (1 + )
4
C =Y

|VR,NL | − |VR,FL |
%Regn = × 100
|VR,FL |
VS
Since VR,NL = ,
A
|VS |
− |VR,FL |
|A|
%Regn = × 100
|VR,FL |
Example 1 (Grainger and Stevenson 6.12) :
A 60 Hz three-phase transmission line is 100 miles long. It has a
total series impedance of 35 + 140 Ω and a shunt admittance of
930 × 10−6 ∠90◦ f. It delivers 40 MW at 220 kV with 0.9 power
factor lagging. Use nominal -π model.
1. Determine the sending end voltage.
2. Find the voltage regulation.

VS = AVR + BIR ; IS = CVR + DIR

In nominal-π model,

YZ 930 × 10−6 × (35 + 140)

A = (1+ ) = (1+ ) = 0.9344+0.01395
2 2
B = Z = (35 + 140 Ω

220
VR,Phase = √ = 127.01 kV
3
 40 × 103
|IR | = √ = 116.64 A
3 × 220 × 0.9
IR = 116.64∠−25.84◦ A
On substituting,
VS,Phase ≈ 130∠6.6◦ kV
√
VS,Line = 3 × 130 ≈ 225 kV
The % voltage regulation

|VS |
− |VR,FL |
|A|
= × 100
|VR,FL |

130
− 127
|0.9344 + 0.01395|
= × 100 = 9.53 %
127
Long Line Model:
I Distributed parameters are used.
I This gives more accuracy.
∆V
IS I + ∆I r ∆x x∆x IR
I

VS V + ∆V y ∆x V VR
∆I

∆x x
l Let
∆x be a very small element of the line. The impedance and
admittance of the section are z∆x and y ∆x, respectively.
From the circuit,
∆V = Iz∆x
 ∆V
= Iz
∆x
As ∆x → 0,
dV
= Iz
dx
Similarly,
∆I = Vy ∆x
Pursuing the same steps,

dI
= Vy
dx
Let us differentiate them w.r.to x,

d 2V dI
2
=z
dx dx
d 2I dV
2
=y
dx dx
On substituting the values of dI /dx and dV /dx in the above
equations,
d 2V
= yzV
dx 2
d 2I
= yzI
dx 2
On solving the voltage equation,
√ √
V = A1 e yzx
+ A2 e − yzx

Since,
1 dV
I = ×
z dx
1 √ 1 √
I =p A1 e yzx − p A2 e − yzx
z/y z/y
To find the constants A1 and A2 , we use the following conditions.

V = VR and I = IR when x=0

On substitution,
VR = A1 + A2
1
IR = p (A1 − A2 )
z/y
p
Let Zc = z/y .
VR + IR Zc
A1 =
2
VR − IR Zc
A2 =
2
√
Let γ = yz.

VR + IR Zc γx VR − IR Zc −γx
V = e + e
2 2
VR /Zc + IR γx VR /Zc − IR −γx
I = e − e
2 2
p
where Zc = z/y and is called the characteristic impedance of
√
the line and γ = zy and is called the propagation constant.
When x = l, V = VS and I = IS .
VR + IR Zc γl VR − IR Zc −γl
VS = e + e
2 2
VR /Zc + IR γl VR /Zc − IR −γl
IS = e − e
2 2
e γl −e −γl e γl +e −γl
Since sinh γl = 2 and cosh γl = 2 .

VS = VR cosh γl + IR Zc sinh γl
sinh γl
IS = VR + IR cosh γl
Zc
ABCD parameters are,

A = cosh γl = D

B = Zc sinh γl
sinh γl
C=
Zc
Equivalent-π Representation of a Long Line:

IS Z0 IR

Y0 Y0
VS 2 2 VR

ABCD parameters of the above representation are

Y 0Z 0
A = (1 + )=D
2
B = Z0
Y 0Z 0
C = Y (1 + )
4
By comparing this with the ABCD parameters of a long line.
r
0 z sinh γl sinh γl
Z = Zc sinh γl = sinh γl = zl √ =Z Ω
y l yz γl
 Y 0Z 0 Y0
cosh γl = (1 + )=1+ Zc sinh γl
2 2
Rearranging the above equation,

Y0 1 cosh γl − 1
=
2 Zc sinh γl

By using the following identity,

γl cosh γl − 1
tanh =
2 sinh γl

Y0
r
1 γl y γl
= tanh = tanh
2 Zc 2 z 2
γl
Y0 Y tanh 2
= γl
2 2
2
When l becomes small, sinh γl ≈ γl and tanh γl2 ≈ γl
2.

Z0 ≈ Z; Y0 ≈ Y

This means that when the length of the line is small, modeling of
lines with lumped parameters is enough. However, if the line length
increases, lumped parameters model gives inaccurate results.

How small should it be ?

Interpretation of the Equations:

VR + IR Zc γx VR − IR Zc −γx
V = e + e
2 2
VR /Zc + IR γx VR /Zc − IR −γx
I = e − e
2 2
Zc and γ are complex quantities. Let

γ = α + β

where α is the attenuation constant in nepers/unit length. β is the

phase constant in radians/unit length.

VR + IR Zc αx βx VR − IR Zc −αx −βx

V = e e + e e
2 2
VR /Zc + IR αx βx VR /Zc − IR −αx −βx
I = e e − e e
2 2
 I The first term of the above equations increases in magnitude
and advances in phase from the receiving end. It is called the
incident wave.
I The second term of the above equations decreases in
magnitude and retards in phase from the receiving end. It is
called the reflected wave
For a lossless line, R = 0. Zc is a pure real number and is called as
the surge impedance. γ is a pure imaginary number.
r
L
Zc = Ω
C
γ = β
VR
If a line is terminated with the surge impedance, IR = .
Zc

V = VR e βx

I = IR e βx
 I There is no reflected wave of either voltage or current.
I The magnitudes of voltage and current are constant. But they
are phase displaced by βl radian.
This line is called a flat line or an infinite line.
VS

IS
δ
IR VR

The phase angle between VS and VR

δ = βl

A wavelength λ is the distance along a line between two points of

a wave which differ in phase by 360◦ or 2π radian.
If β is the phase shift in radian per kM, the wavelength in kM is
2π
λ=
β

The velocity of propagation of a wave in km/sec

2πf
Velocity = λf =
β
For a lossless line of length l,
√
β = ω LC
1
λ= √ km
f LC
1
Velocity = √ km/sec
LC
I The actual velocity of the propagation of a wave along a line
will be close to the speed of light.
 I If f = 50 Hz, the wavelength (λ) will be 6000 km.

2πl
|γl| = |βl| =
λ
γl will be small when l/λ is small. We have already seen that
when γl is small, the lumped circuit model is enough.

Therefore, lumped parameter medium line model may be used for

lines up to 400 km.
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
SIL of a line is the power delivered by a line to a purely resistive
load equal to its surge impedance.
The line current will be
|VL |
IL = r A
√ L
3×
C
where |VL | is the line to line voltage at the load. Since the load is
pure resistance,
√ |VL |
SIL = 3 × |VL | × r W
√ L
3×
C
If |VL | is in kV,
|VL |2
SIL = r MW
L
C
Example 2 (Kothari Example 5.5) :
A three-phase 50 Hz transmission line is 400 km long. The voltage
at the sending end is 220 kV. The line parameters are r =0.125
Ω/km, x=0.4 Ω/km and y = 2.8 × 10−6 f/km Find the following:

1. the sending end current and the receiving end voltage when
there is no load on the line.
2. the maximum permissible line length if the receiving end no
load voltage is not to exceed 235 kV.
1. Let us both medium Line π and long line models.
1.1 Medium Line Model :

Z = z × l = (0.125 + 0.4) × 400 = (50 + 160) Ω

Y = y × l = 2.8 × 10−6 × 400 = 1.12 × 10−3 f

When IR =0,
 VS = AVR ; IS = CVR
YZ
A = (1 + ) = 0.91 + 0.028
2
YZ
C = Y (1 + ) = 0.011
4
√
|VS | 220/ 3
|VR | = = = 139.45 kV (phase)
|A| 0.91

|VR | = 241.54 kV (line)

|IS | = |C ||VR | = 149.2 A

1.2 Long Line Model :

√ p
γ= zy = (0.125 + 0.4) × 2.8 × 10−6 = 0.0002+0.0011
r
z
Zc = = 382.44 − 58.365 Ω
y
sinh γl
VS = cosh γlVR IS = VR
Zc
 VR = 139.27 kV (phase)

VR = 241.23 kV (line)

IS = 151.4 A
I Even lumped model gives almost the same results.
I But the receiving end voltage is higher than the sending end
voltage. Why?
2. To find the maximum permissible length, let us use medium
line model. √
220/ 3
|A| = √
235/ 3
|A| = 0.9362
Since l is unknown,

A = (1 + zy × l 2 /2) = 1 + ((0.125 + 0.4) × 2.8 × 10−6 × l 2 )/2

A = (1 − 0.56 × 10−6 l 2 ) + 0.75 × 10−6 l 2

Neglecting the imaginary part (it is very small),

|A| ≈ 1 − 0.56 × 10−6 l 2

l = 338 km
Ferranti Effect:

When a long line is operating under no load or light load condition,

the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage.
This is known as Ferranti-effect.
Assume No load condition. When x = l and IR = 0,
VR αl βl VR −αl −βl
VS = e e + e e
2 2
At l = 0, V = VR .
VR VR
VR = +
2 2
As l increases
I the incident voltage increases in magnitude and advances in
phase by βl.
I the reflected voltage decreases in magnitude and retards in
phase by the same angle.
The sum of these two components of sending end voltage gives a
voltage which is smaller than Vr .

Let us consider the lumped parameter model to study this.

R Ic X Ic X
Ic VS Ic R

VS Y VR
Ic VR

If the reactive power generated at a point is more than the reactive

power absorbed, the voltage at that point becomes higher than the
normal value and vice versa.
I At no-load or light loaded conditions, the capacitance is
predominant.
 I Since the capacitors produce reactive power, the line generates
more reactive power than consumption (Inductors consume).
I To avoid this problem, inductors are connected in parallel.
When load on the line increases, they will be disconnected.
Otherwise, consumption of reactive power increases and the
voltage will drop.
This can also be explained as follows:
I If the transmission line is loaded with the surge impedance, no
net reactive power and the voltage is flat.
I If it is loaded above the surge impedance loading, it needs
reactive power and hence the voltage drops at the receiving
end.
I If it is loaded below the surge impedance loading, it produces
more reactive power and hence the voltage increases at the
receiving end.
Power Flow Through a Transmission Line:
The power flow through a line can be found using ABCD
parameters.
VS = AVR + BIR
Solving for IR ,
VS − AVR
IR =
B
Let
VS = |VS | δ VR = |VR | 0◦
A = |A| α B = |B| β
On Substitution,
|VS | δ − β |A||VR | α − β
IR = −
|B| |B|

The per phase complex power at the receiving end is

SR = VR IR∗
 |VR ||VS | β − δ |A||VR |2 β − α
PR + QR = −
|B| |B|
The per phase real an reactive power at the receiving end are

|VR ||VS | cos(β − δ) |A||VR |2 cos(β − α)

PR = −
|B| |B|

|VR ||VS | sin(β − δ) |A||VR |2 sin(β − α)

QR = −
|B| |B|
Let us find PR and QR for short lines with R = 0.
In short lines,
A = 1 0◦ B = |Z | θ
Since R = 0,
B = |X | 90◦
Substituting A and B in PR and QR ,

|VR ||VS |
PR = sin δ
|X |

|VR ||VS | cos δ |VR |2

QR = −
|X | |X |

where |VS | and |VR | are per phase sending end and receiving end
voltages.

Do you remember where we saw the above equations?