DBMS and SQL Questions for Interview

Question 1: What is a database management system (DBMS)?

Answer: A DBMS is software that manages databases, providing an interface to

store, retrieve, and manipulate data efficiently. It ensures data integrity, security,
and facilitates data organization, access, and sharing among multiple users.

Question 2: What are the advantages of using a DBMS?

Answer: A DBMS offers advantages like data integrity, data security, data
consistency, data sharing, and data independence. It enables efficient data storage
and retrieval, supports concurrent user access, provides backup and recovery
mechanisms, and allows for data scalability and extensibility.

Question 3: What are the different types of database models?

Answer: Some common database models include the hierarchical model, network
model, relational model, and object-oriented model. Each model organizes data in
a specific way, offering different strengths and limitations in terms of data
manipulation and querying.

Question 4: Explain the relational database model.

Answer: The relational model organizes data into tables, consisting of rows
(tuples) and columns (attributes). It establishes relationships between tables using
keys. This model enables efficient data querying, manipulation, and supports the
use of Structured Query Language (SQL) for managing and accessing the data.

Question 5: What is a primary key in a database?

Answer: A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a table. It ensures
data integrity by preventing duplicate or null values. It serves as a reference point
for establishing relationships with other tables, allowing efficient data retrieval and
manipulation.

Question 6: What is normalization in database design?

Answer: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to eliminate

redundancy and dependency issues. It involves decomposing a table into multiple
tables based on functional dependencies. The goal is to reduce data anomalies and
improve data integrity, efficiency, and maintainability.

Question 7: What is an index in a database?

Answer: An index is a database structure that enhances data retrieval speed by

creating an ordered representation of specific columns. It allows for faster search
and retrieval operations, particularly in large tables. Indexes can significantly
improve query performance but may add overhead during data modification
operations.

Question 8: What is a transaction in a database?

Answer: A transaction is a logical unit of work performed within a database

management system. It represents a sequence of database operations, such as
inserts, updates, and deletes, that are treated as a single atomic and consistent
operation. Transactions ensure data integrity and provide a way to recover from
failures.

Question 9: What is database normalization and why is it important?

Answer: Database normalization is the process of structuring a database to

minimize data redundancy and dependency issues. It ensures that data is stored
efficiently, eliminates anomalies, and maintains data integrity. Normalization also
improves query performance and simplifies data modification, enhancing overall
database design.

Question 10: What is a foreign key in a database?

Answer: A foreign key is a column or set of columns in a table that refers to the
primary key of another table. It establishes a relationship between two tables,
enforcing referential integrity. Foreign keys maintain data consistency and enable
efficient data retrieval across related tables.

Question 11: Explain the ACID properties in DBMS.

Answer: ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. These
properties ensure reliable and consistent database operations. Atomicity guarantees
that a transaction is treated as a single unit of work. Consistency ensures that a
transaction brings the database from one valid state to another. Isolation ensures
concurrent transactions don't interfere with each other. Durability ensures that once
a transaction is committed, its changes are permanent.

Question 12: What is a database schema?

Answer: A database schema is a blueprint or structure that defines the logical and
physical layout of a database. It describes the tables, relationships, constraints, and
other database objects. The schema provides a framework for organizing and
representing data in a consistent and understandable manner.

Question 13: What are the advantages and disadvantages of denormalization?

Answer: Denormalization can improve query performance by reducing the number

of joins and simplifying data retrieval. It can enhance data read operations and
reporting. However, denormalization may increase data redundancy, making data
modification more complex. It can also lead to potential data inconsistencies if not
handled carefully.

Question 14: What is a stored procedure?

Answer: A stored procedure is a precompiled set of SQL statements that are stored
in a database and can be executed repeatedly. It allows for modular programming,
code reusability, and simplifies complex database operations. Stored procedures
enhance performance by reducing network traffic and improving security by
limiting direct SQL access.

Question 15: What is a database trigger?

Answer: A database trigger is a set of instructions that automatically execute in

response to specific database events, such as data modification, insertions, or
deletions. Triggers can be used to enforce business rules, maintain data integrity,
log events, or perform complex data manipulations.

Question 16: What is data warehousing?

Answer: Data warehousing is the process of collecting, storing, and organizing

large volumes of data from various sources for reporting and analysis. It involves
extracting data, transforming it into a consistent format, and loading it into a
central repository called a data warehouse. Data warehousing enables decision-
making based on historical and aggregated data.

Question 17: What is data mining?

Answer: Data mining is the process of discovering patterns, relationships, and

useful insights from large datasets. It involves applying various statistical and
machine learning techniques to extract hidden knowledge and make predictions.
Data mining helps uncover trends, anomalies, and associations that can support
decision-making and improve business outcomes.

Question 18: What is database replication?

Answer: Database replication is the process of creating and maintaining multiple

copies of a database across different servers or locations. Replication enhances
data availability, fault tolerance, and scalability. It allows for local access to data,
reduces network traffic, and provides backup options in case of failures.

Question 19: What is database sharding?

Answer: Database sharding is a technique that partitions a database into multiple

smaller databases called shards. Each shard contains a subset of the data, and
together they form a distributed database system. Sharding improves scalability
and performance by distributing the workload across multiple servers or nodes.

Question 20: How do you optimize database performance?

Answer: Database performance can be optimized by techniques such as proper

indexing, query optimization, denormalization, caching, and hardware upgrades.
Tuning the database configuration, analyzing execution plans, and monitoring
performance metrics are also crucial. Regular database maintenance, such as index
rebuilds and statistics updates, helps ensure optimal performance.

Question 21: What is the difference between a clustered and non-clustered index?

Answer: A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table, while a
non-clustered index creates a separate structure that contains index key values and
pointers to the actual data. In a table, only one clustered index can exist, but
multiple non-clustered indexes can be created.
Question 22: What is a deadlock in a database?

Answer: A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for each
other to release resources, resulting in a circular dependency and a state of
inactivity. Deadlocks can lead to system performance degradation and require
intervention, such as implementing deadlock detection and resolution algorithms.

Question 23: What is a data dictionary?

Answer: A datadictionary is a centralized repository that stores metadata about the

database, including information about tables, columns, data types, constraints, and
relationships. It provides a comprehensive view of the database structure and
serves as a reference for developers, administrators, and users to understand and
query the database effectively.

Question 24: What is the purpose of the COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements in
a transaction?

Answer: The COMMIT statement is used to permanently save the changes made
within a transaction to the database. It signifies the successful completion of the
transaction. The ROLLBACK statement, on the other hand, is used to undo the
changes made within a transaction and restore the database to its state before the
transaction started.

Question 25: What is the difference between OLTP and OLAP?

Answer: OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a database design and

processing paradigm that focuses on real-time transactional operations. It is
characterized by short and frequent transactions, such as inserting, updating, and
deleting records. OLAP (Online Analytical Processing), on the other hand, is a
database design and processing paradigm that focuses on complex analytical and
reporting operations. It involves aggregating, summarizing, and analyzing large
volumes of data.

Question 26: What is a subquery in SQL?

Answer: A subquery is a query nested within another query. It is used to retrieve

data based on the results of another query. Subqueries can be used in various parts
of a SQL statement, such as the SELECT, FROM, WHERE, and HAVING
clauses. They allow for more complex and targeted data retrieval and
manipulation.

Question 27: What is the difference between a clustered and non-clustered index?

Answer: A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table, while a
non-clustered index creates a separate structure that contains index key values and
pointers to the actual data. In a table, only one clustered index can exist, but
multiple non-clustered indexes can be created.

Question 28: What is a deadlock in a database?

Answer: A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for each
other to release resources, resulting in a circular dependency and a state of
inactivity. Deadlocks can lead to system performance degradation and require
intervention, such as implementing deadlock detection and resolution algorithms.

Question 29: What is a data dictionary?

Answer: A data dictionary is a centralized repository that stores metadata about the
database, including information about tables, columns, data types, constraints, and
relationships. It provides a comprehensive view of the database structure and
serves as a reference for developers, administrators, and users to understand and
query the database effectively.
Question 30: What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE
commands?

Answer: The DELETE command is used to remove specific rows from a table
based on a condition. It allows for a selective deletion and triggers associated
triggers or constraints. On the other hand, the TRUNCATE command is used to
remove all rows from a table, effectively resetting it. TRUNCATE is faster than
DELETE but cannot be rolled back and does not trigger constraints or triggers.

Question 31: What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL operators
in SQL?

Answer: The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or more SELECT
statements and removes duplicate rows. It performs a distinct operation.
Conversely, the UNION ALL operator also combines result sets but includes all
rows, including duplicates. UNION ALL is faster than UNION but does not
eliminate duplicate rows.

Question 32: What is the difference between a primary key and a unique key?

Answer: A primary key is a column or set of columns that uniquely identifies each
row in a table. It ensures data integrity and enforces entity integrity. Only one
primary key can exist per table. A unique key, on the other hand, allows for
uniqueness but does not necessarily serve as the primary identifier for the table.
Multiple unique keys can exist in a table.

Question 33: What is a self-join in SQL?

Answer: A self-join occurs when a table is joined with itself. It is used to retrieve
related information from a single table. To perform a self-join, aliases are used to
differentiate between the table instances being joined. Self-joins are commonly
used in hierarchical or recursive data structures.
Question 34: What is the difference between a candidate key and a composite key?

Answer: A candidate key is a column or set of columns that can uniquely identify a
row in a table. It is a potential candidate for a primary key. A composite key, on
the other hand, is a key that consists of multiple columns, combined to uniquely
identify a row. It offers a more granular level of uniqueness compared to a single
column candidate key.

Question 35: What is the difference between a view and a table in a database?

Answer: A table is a physical storage structure that holds data in rows and
columns. It is a persistent object in a database. A view, on the other hand, is a
virtual table created by defining a query on one or more tables. Views do not store
data physically but provide a way to present selected data.

Question 36: How can you improve database performance?

Answer: Database performance can be improved by various methods such as

proper indexing, optimizing queries, using caching mechanisms, partitioning
tables, implementing efficient database design, and regularly monitoring and
tuning the database. Hardware upgrades, such as increasing memory or using solid-
state drives (SSDs), can also boost performance.

Question 37: What is the difference between a clustered and non-clustered index?

Answer: A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table, while a
non-clustered index creates a separate structure that contains index key values and
pointers to the actual data. In a table, only one clustered index can exist, but
multiple non-clustered indexes can be created.

Question 38: What is a deadlock in a database?

Answer: A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for each
other to release resources, resulting in a circular dependency and a state of
inactivity. Deadlocks can lead to system performance degradation and require
intervention, such as implementing deadlock detection and resolution algorithms.

Question 39: What is the role of a DBA (Database Administrator)?

Answer: A DBA is responsible for managing and maintaining a database system.

Their roles include database design, implementation, security management,
performance optimization, backup and recovery, capacity planning, and ensuring
data integrity and availability. DBAs also handle user access, troubleshoot
database issues, and ensure compliance with data regulations.

Question 40: How do you handle database backups and recovery?

Answer: Database backups are essential for data protection. Regular backups can
be scheduled using database-specific backup tools or scripts. They can be full,
incremental, or differential backups. Recovery involves restoring the database from
a backup and applying transaction logs to bring it to a consistent state. Point-in-
time recovery allows restoring the database to a specific transaction or time.
Backup strategies should consider recovery objectives, retention policies, and
storage options.