Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-021-00289-w

ORIGINAL PAPER

Groundwater quality evolution in the agro‑based areas of southern

Tunisia: environmental risks of emerging farming practices
Houda Besser1,2 · Latifa Dhaouadi3 · Younes Hamed2,4

Received: 10 March 2021 / Accepted: 31 December 2021

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
Increasing agricultural production is associated with serious contamination issues with different natural resources—princi-
pally groundwater resources, which are constantly used for irrigation in quasi-total agro-regions under arid and semi-arid
climatic conditions. Different types of trace elements and heavy metals are measured at high levels in shallow aquifer water
tables in agricultural lands. This nonpoint pollution represents a huge challenge, as it is often difficult to survey and remedi-
ate. In the agro-based region of SW Tunisia, the impacts of agricultural activities on natural resources have raised special
concern about the availability of these resources in sufficient quantities and with suitable quality. Thus, the evolution of trace
elements in deep groundwater resources [Complex Terminal (CT) and Continental Intercalaire (CI)] used for irrigation was
assessed with respect to farming practices (irrigation rate, fertilizer application, etc.). Data from field survey and laboratory
analyses proved that the concentrations of some trace elements, namely nitrate (­ NO3−), phosphate (­ PO42−), potassium ­(K+),
bromine (Br), and fluorine (­ F−), in the sampled groundwater exceed the recommended values for irrigation waters, as they
locally exceed 300 mg/L. According to the collected data, the contamination of these deep confined aquifers is spread across
the study area and has been occurring continuously for more than 10 years. This pollution constrains the sustainable use of
these resources and leads to numerous environmental issues. Furthermore, it brings serious health risks, as the contaminated
deep aquifers are used for both agriculture and drinking purposes. The mismanagement of agricultural activities and farm-
ing practices has induced quality degradation of reservoirs at depths of more than 1500 and 2000 m, indicating that limited
knowledge of the properties of the hydrogeological system is the main factor constraining a thorough understanding of the
hydrodynamic behavior of the aquifers. Detailed, consistent, interdisciplinary characterization of these deep resources is
required in order to implement promising management actions.

Keywords Deep aquifer contamination · Irrigation · Agricultural sustainability · Health and environmental risks · Southern
Tunisia

Introduction

Responsible Editor: Armando da Costa Duarte, Chief Editor. Groundwater contamination by agriculture-derived pollut-
ants is a global issue caused mainly by land mismanage-
* Houda Besser ment, increasing food production, and inappropriate farm-
[email protected]
ing practices. It generally involves nonpoint contamination
1
Laboratory of Geo‑Systems, Geo‑Resources by nitrate, potassium, phosphate, boron, and different trace
and Geo‑Environments (UR3G), Department of Earth chemical compounds that are present at relatively high con-
Sciences, Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, City Campus centrations in fertilizers and pesticides. Besides its impacts
Erriadh‑Zirig, 6072 Gabes, Tunisia
on soil fertility and water degradation, agro-pollution pre-
2
International Association of Water Resources in the Southern sents a high risk to human health through direct exposure
Mediterranean Basin, Gafsa, Tunisia
or via bioamplification as it moves between trophic levels
3
Eremology and Combating Desertification at the Arid Zones (Comly 1945; Simon et al. 1964; Juntakut et al. 2019).
Research Institute (IRA), Médenine, Tunisia
Unfortunately, this type of contamination is widely observed
4
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa, in different agro-based regions, especially in developing
Gafsa, Tunisia

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 Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

countries. Given the irreversible impacts of this pollution monitored through the growing risk of agro-derived pollu-
on natural resources, an accurate monitoring system cou- tion due to the decreasing rate of dilution of contaminants
pled with hydrological–hydrogeological simulation to dis- leached into aquifers (Mas-Pla and Mencio 2019). The
cern the mass dispersion of the pollutants in the groundwater resulting imbalanced contaminant mass–water dilution pro-
hydrodynamic regime is required. Different approaches and vides clear evidence of qualitative and quantitative losses of
methods (physical methods, multitracer methods, isotopic available resources to climate change.
techniques, the Pesticide Root Zone Model (PRZM), pesti- In Tunisia, numerous studies aimed at evaluating the fate
cide fate models (PFM), the Nitrate Leaching and Economic of excess amendments and fertilizers in different agricultural
Analysis Package (NLEAP) model, etc.) have been used to lands across the country have been conducted. Southern
determine the fate and the model for the transportation of Tunisia is an agriculturally intensive region, as agriculture
these contaminants into the soil–water–plant nexus and to is the principal economic activity that supports the economic
evaluate the reciprocal influences of natural and anthropo- and social needs of this region. Increasing agricultural pro-
genic factors, intrinsic proprieties of reservoirs, and farming duction and the expansion of irrigated lands have resulted
practices. Previous works have indicated that the gradually in the intensive use of fertilizers, which have been overap-
increasing severity of this issue is related to a hierarchy plied in pursuit of high yields in different agro-producing
of effects that are dominated by management factors such areas. The uncontrolled use of these chemical products
as the irrigation method, irrigation water distribution, and induces progressive risks of groundwater contamination and
quantity of fertilizer and amendment, but also include the leaching issues, as previously reported for surface water,
physical proprieties of the agricultural land (the thickness of the runoff released into the environment, and/or shallow
the vadose zone and the hydraulic conductivity), the water groundwater resources. The present study represents the first
infiltration rate, the soil texture, the groundwater depth, etc. attempt to investigate the amount of these agrochemicals
(Young et al. 2002; Devitt et al. 2005; Savard et al. 2007; in deep confined aquifers, the primary sources of irrigation
Paradis et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2016; Abdallah and El-Ram- and drinking water, in southwestern Tunisia. With depths of
ady 2019; Juntakutt et al. 2019). more than 2800 m, these reservoirs are generally considered
Sensitive modeling of the potential economic and eco- safe from these surface sources of contamination. Thus, the
logical impacts of this contamination is of paramount present work applied agro-economic statistical geochemical
importance for sustainable water exploitation and fruitful analysis using multivariate techniques to (1) determine the
agricultural development. Based on soil properties, farming distribution of trace elements in irrigation water and drain-
practices, geotectonic and hydrodynamic conditions, and age water, (2) assess the impacts of agricultural farming
aquifer characteristics, the developed model can simulate practices on the diffusion of deep confined water resources,
the probable repercussions of this pollution, thus provid- and (3) explore the constraints on healthy environmental
ing important information about the magnitude and the functioning and livelihood security via an assessment of the
timescale of the groundwater response under the projected potential risks of currently used cultural systems.
climate variability and various development strategies (Gal-
loway et al. 2008; Rosenstock et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2016;
Mas-Pla and Mencio 2019). This estimation and projection Site description
can be helpful when attempting to inhibit or at least reduce
the diffusion of potential contamination risks. Furthermore, Physiographic features
it is necessary to outline the possible alternative methods of
rehabilitation. Indeed, the decontamination process requires The study area, located in southwestern Tunisia, covers
reliable data on the climatic conditions at the contaminated approximately 28,000 ­km2. It has a hot dry continental cli-
sites and resources and their economic and ecological value mate, including long, warm summers with temperatures
in order to be able to implement efficient remediation and exceeding 48 °C and evapotranspiration as high as 2500 mm
prevention strategies based on appropriate agricultural man- and fairly cold winters characterized by low, irregular
agement (Savard et al. 2007; Ghiglieri et al. 2009; Paradis rainfall that barely reaches 90 and 80 mm (CRDA 2015,
et al. 2016). 2018). It is a rural area covered largely by desert: 66.33%
Climate change, which influences irrigation systems and (1,857,324 ha) of the total area is infertile land represented
agricultural practices, undoubtedly directly or indirectly by salt lakes, depressions, and dunes of the Great Erg Orien-
modifies contamination processes of soil and groundwater tal, while agricultural lands, forests, and pastoral lands cover
resources (Gleick 1986; Olesen and Bindi 2002; Paradis only 2.29%, 0.23%, and 31.32%, respectively. Anthropogenic
et al. 2016; Besser et al. 2018; Besser and Hamed 2019). In activities are, consequently, concentrated in the restricted
fact, besides increased groundwater pumping and reduced central part (Fig. 1). Increasing pressures on these available
aquifer recharge, the impacts of climate change can be

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Fig. 1  Location of the study area

lands, essentially for agricultural use, have led to growing of several water-bearing strata, represented principally
risks of land degradation and natural resource loss. by deep semiconfined to confined aquifers of the Conti-
nental Intercalaire (CI) and the Complex Terminal (CT)
Natural resources (Edmunds et al. 2003; OSS 2003; Hamed et al. 2014;
Besser et al. 2017). These interconnected aquifers consti-
The study area is principally devoted to agricultural produc- tute a distinct multilayered hydrogeological environment
tion and agro-industrial development, which not only sup- that was principally recharged during the humid period of
ports the socio-economic needs of the local residents but the Late Holocene and Pleistocene (Edmunds et al. 2003;
also contributes a large proportion of the national income. OSS 2003; Hamed et al. 2014). These resources, which are
The soils of the study area include gypsiferous soil, holomor- difficult to renew under present-day conditions, exhibit a
phic soil, skeletal soil, and raw mineral soil (CRDA 2016; high degree of vulnerability to increasing exploitation and
Besser et al. 2019, 2021). These soils are vulnerable to dif- emerging mismanagement issues. However, these aquifers
ferent degradation patterns given the arid climatic conditions are generally considered to be less prone to pollution and
and the continuous expansion of agricultural activities in the the impacts of climate change. Thus, they are constantly
area. In fact, in the region of interest, about 64,000 ha are used for both drinking and irrigation purposes without pre-
covered by oasis agrosystems with date palms and some fruit liminary treatment. Little attention has been paid to the
trees and about 108 ha of greenhouses. The cultivation of potential influences of agricultural activities and manu-
these lands is associated with the intensive use of agrochem- facturing on the quality of these deep confined resources
ical nutriments such as triple superphosphate (Ca(H2PO4)2; as, generally, agro-derived contamination is likely to occur
75–150 kg/ha), potassium sulfate (SOP; 150–450 kg/ha), in the shallow water table closer to the surface. Given the
and ammonium nitrate ­(NH4NO3; 120–300 kg/ha). overwhelming evidence that some of these chemicals
In the study area, agricultural development is closely may represent a risk to different life forms, and may have
related to the availability of and accessibility to groundwa- some unwanted side effects on the environment and human
ter resources used for irrigation. In contrast with the lack health, an evaluation of these chemicals in the deep CI and
of surface water resources, the hydrogeological system CT waters is required.
in this region consists of a large, multilayered reservoir

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Material and methods and fertilization calendar, and the applied amounts. The sur-
vey included an evaluation of irrigation efficiency according
Sampling campaigns were conducted in different localities to the farmers, and investigated the social acceptance and
of southwestern Tunisia to collect drainage runoff, surface local farmers’ evaluations of the accomplishments of insti-
irrigation water from agricultural lands, and more than 30 tutional and political organizations in ensuring sustainable
samples from public and private groundwater wells into agricultural development.
both the CI and CT aquifers (depths ranging from 1020 to
2774 m). Numerous nonconservative measurements were
carried in situ with a multiparameter sensor (± 0.5 to ± 5%). Results and discussion
The samples were collected in 1 L glass bottles that were
carefully rinsed with the sampled water and sealed tightly Agrochemical fertilizer content in groundwater
before being transported to the laboratory of the Regional
Center of Oasis Research (CRRO)—Degueche and the The spatial distribution of the chemical composition of the
Higher Institute of Sciences and Techniques of Water sampled waters is presented in Table 1. The concentrations
(ISSTEG)—Gabes. Analytic tests were then carried out of ­NO3−, ­PO42−, ­K+, ­Br−, and F ­ − in the sampled ground-
using an atomic absorption spectrometer sensor (± 0.5 water resources vary from 3.55 to 17.67, from 3.76 to 7.45,
to ± 5%). from 23.89 to 27.46, from 1.03 to 5.123, and from 0.3 to
Besides sampling, a field survey was completed. Site- 2.68 mg/L, respectively. The distribution of the obtained
specific conditions were investigated at a number of farms values with respect to WHO and FAO guidelines shows that
to analyze the agronomic dynamics in recent years. This more than 80% of the sampled waters are contaminated with
included inquiries about the type of fertilizer, the irrigation these elements (Table 2). The increasing contents of these
agro-derived chemicals in the semiconfined and confined
deep aquifers highlight the impacts of surface agricultural
management on deep reservoirs. These concentrations,
Table 1  Distributions of agrochemical concentrations and other which were greatly above the recommended values after a
parameters
long transit along the soil profile, emphasize (1) the large
Variable Minimum Maximum Mean SD amounts of fertilizers that are being applied at the surface;
(2) the presence of inappropriate agricultural practices
PO42− (mg/l) 3.769 7.451 5.652 0.978
that enhance excess irrigation water infiltration, and (3)
NO3− (mg/l) 3.556 17.675 9.006 4.595
the hydraulic connectivity between different water-bearing
Br− (mg/l) 1.031 5.126 2.615 1.329
strata, from shallow aquifers to semiconfined and confined
F− (mg/l) 0.361 2.681 1.689 0.452
aquifers, in the study area. The long-term use of irrigation
Temperature 42.500 72.000 62.533 10.358
(°C) waters with elevated concentrations of these elements pre-
TDS (mg/l) 601.923 2171.793 905.753 295.665 sents high risks for plant growth, human health, and soil
Cl− (mg/l) 124.090 562.630 192.809 82.189 fertility (Table 3), highlighting the importance of monitoring
Depth (m) 1020.000 2774.000 1935.467 534.545 the quality of these waters so that the appropriate remedation
measures that will reduce the impact of this contamination
TDS Total dissolved salts on human health can be devised.

Table 2  Pearson correlations Variable PO42− NO3− Br− F− Temperature TDS (mg/l) Cl− Depth
of the measured agrochemical (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
concentrations and other
parameters PO42− 1.000
(mg/l)
NO3− (mg/l) 0.656 1
Br− (mg/l) 0.653 1.000 1
F− (mg/l) 0.612 − 0.189 − 0.191 1
Temperature − 0.207 − 0.181 − 0.179 − 0.038 1
TDS (mg/l) 0.431 0.639 0.640 − 0.097 − 0.132 1
Cl− (mg/l) 0.398 0.611 0.611 − 0.101 − 0.022 0.971 1
Depth − 0.198 − 0.169 − 0.169 − 0.042 0.551 0.032 0.125 1

Bold values indicate significant correlation ratio

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Table 3  Distribution of water quality according to the WHO and FAO recommended values
Parameter Threshold Classification (%) Risks References
WHO FAO WHO FAO

NO3− 3 10 nila 19.35a Health issues Ayers and Westcot (1985)

100b 80.65b Loss of soil fertility Rowe and Abdelmajid (1995)
Plant physiologic drought Rengasamy and Marchuk (2011),
PO42− 1 2 nila nila
Loss of quality of the cultivated crop Marchuk et al. (2012)
100b 100b Smith et al. (2014),
Br− 0.5 10 nila 100a Brindha and Elango (2013); Starely et al. (2004)
100b nilb
F− 0.6 1.5 3.22a 16.12a
96.78b 83.88b
a
% of water samples withsuitable water quality
b
% of water samples with unsuitable water quality

Agrochemical contents in surface irrigation Agrochemical content evolution in groundwater

and drainage waters resources

The agro-element concentrations in drainage water, as The majority of the analyzed groundwater samples exhibit
shown in Table 4, are low compared to those measured in high nitrate concentrations when compared to the maxi-
deep confined and semi-confined groundwater resources. mum acceptable limit for irrigation water (FAO 2006).
The measured concentrations in drainage water are within This contamination seems to have been occurring con-
the safe limits for the environment, with the exception of tinuously for decades, as a review of the collected histori-
a few samples for which the potassium and iron concen- cal data indicates that the nitrate content during the last
trations exceed the levels of concern for healthy ecologi- ten years (from 2009 to 2019) in the Kebili and Tozeur
cal functioning. These concentrations in collected runoff areas has changed from lower than 4 mg/L to more
that runs directly into the environment require preliminary than 300 mg/L. The concentrations show spatial and tem-
treatment to inhibit the potential risks of the cumulative poral variability (Fig. 3). Elevated nitrate contents are seen
impacts of those elements. The distribution of these con- in groundwater from in the eastern part, with concentra-
centrations indicates that the majority of the samples show tions of up to 20 mg/L. The highest values are attributed
a narrow spectrum of values, especially for iron (­ Fe+) and to private water wells, raising concern about the lack of
nitrate ­(NO3−), with standard deviations of 0.03 and 0.11, control over the expansion of these illegal wells, agricul-
respectively, which are principally related to differences in tural land, farming practices, and derived issues. The data
irrigation scheme characteristics, farming practices, and the collected from the groundwater monitoring program indi-
fertilizer applied (i.e., in terms of type and quantity). cate that the percentage of measured nitrate concentra-
In the study area, three different irrigation systems are tions that exceed the threshold for water intended for
currently used: the ameliorated gravity system, flood irriga- domestic consumption and for short-term use in irrigation
tion, and the drip/bubbler technique. Unfortunately, the lat- (50 mg/L) represents about 10% of the monitored points,
ter—despite its great efficiency in different regions all over while the majority of the samples exhibit values exceed-
the world—is still limited to a few pilot stations in south- ing the indicative threshold value of 25 mg/L for water
western Tunisia. The other two types are characterized by intended for mid- and long-term use in irrigation. The
a generally uncontrolled waste of water resources due to spatial distribution of these values illustrates a tendency
evaporation as well as the application of large quantities of for regionalization of the highest concentrations of nitrate,
fertilizer directly under the trees or indirectly via a water as it indicates that the groundwater contamination is more
distribution network, i.e., an atmospheric cooling system pronounced in the Kebili region than in the Tozeur area,
and a number of long channels from the water well (Fig. 2). and the observation that different levels of water-bearing
formations are contaminated provides evidence of a direct
hydraulic connection within the hydrogeological system.

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According to the collected data, there is no significant

statistical correlation between the chemical composition
(major element contents) of the irrigation waters and the
salinity (Figs. 3 and 4). However, a statistically significant
correlation was found between the TDS and the nitrate
concentration of the the following year’s monitoring data.
The distribution of the nitrate concentration with increas-
ing depth shows that these parameters are inversely pro-
portional to each other. Shallower wells are likely to have
higher concentrations than deeper wells, which may be
NO3−

0.009
0.39
0.11
0.11
explained by the dilution effect, since a pronounced down-
ward trend in nitrate is attested by the increasing concen-
trations observed in deep groundwater resources. Moreo-
ver, the distribution of the historical data, according to the
factorial plan (F1, F2 & F3) accounts for about 95% of the
total variability, illustrates different groups explaining the
evolution of the water quality during the last ten years. A
similar variability tendency is obsereved for Kebili and
Tozeur region. The general trend reverses in 2010 and
2018, while individual monitoring shows a more complex
0.176
0.324
0.215

picture in which different factors are involved. Some of

Fe2+

0.03

these effects are interdependent and independent; func-

tions of local and small-scale features and conditions.

Discussion

Deep aquifer contamination

Table 4  Distribution of agro-element concentrations (in mg/L) in drainage and surface waters
Drainage runoff

Previous works have studied the deleterious effects of these

agrochemicals on the surface water, the runoff released to
54.84

65.37
99.9

10.6

the environment, and/or shallow groundwater resources.

K+

However, in this study, the amounts of these agrochemi-

cals in deep confined aquifers with depths of about 2800 m
were evaluated. There are increasing concentrations of
these agrochemicals in groundwater resources. This con-
−

0.001
NO3

0.07
0.08

tamination reflects the cumulative impacts of different fac-

0.3

tors, among which are the insufficient groundwater pro-

tection, the inadequate drainage system, the uncontrolled
use of fertilizer, inappropriate irrigation methods that lead
to large water return flows, and insufficient soil remedia-
tion measures. The spatial variability of these concentra-
2+

0.18
0.63
0.27
0.13
Fe

tions indicates that the magnitude and the spread of the

groundwater contamination depend greatly on the irriga-
Surface water

tion system and the agricultural land distribution. Besides

the percolation of nitrogen due to the excess irrigation
54.84
107.73
68.91
15.83

and drainage water in the soil profile, the high concentra-

+

tions of agrochemicals in the deep groundwater may be

K

explained by hydraulic continuity within the hydrogeologi-

cal system of the area. The neoformed aquifer just below
the agricultural lands (the oasis shallow aquifer), which is
principally formed from excess irrigation groundwater, is
Mean
Max.
Min.

relatively close to the surface, so it receives direct inputs

SD

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Fig. 2  Nitrate contamination process

Fig. 3  Factors influencing the nitrate contamination of groundwater resources in the last ten years

of fertilizer-rich leachate from the oasis soil. The con- the relative influence of hydraulic continuity within the
tinuous exploitation of deep aquifers may be facilitated by hydrogeological system of the region (deep reservoirs with
shallow–deep water mixing due to vertical draining flows, high agrochemical concentrations; shallow–deep aquifer
which explains the high levels of agrochemicals in deep continuity). It is also likely that a proportion of the pol-
aquifers, which are generally considered to be less prone lutants transported in the high-flow system has reached
to surface contamination. the underlying low-flow system (Fig. 4). Given the exam-
The spatial distribution of nitrate in groundwater may ple of nitrate, the conceptual model illustrated in Fig. 3
be explained by the dilution of contaminants in recharge, was developed to simulate the different factors controlling
leakage, and mixing processes. This may indicate an influ- nitrate contamination in agricultural lands. The estimation
ence of the soil types, land uses, and the different geochem- of the nitrate contamination of groundwater resources is
ical processes that occur along the infiltration pathways. generally associated with a high level of uncertainty due to
The contamination does not only occur in the agricultural small-scale variable features, namely land cover, an agri-
lands; it seems to be widespread in non-agricultural lands. cultural initiative of the landowner, soil type and texture,
This may be largely explained by the hydraulic continu- and hydraulic conductivity (Cameron et al. 2013; Alcala
ity of the region. A comparison of these values illustrates and Custodio 2014). The model evaluates the cumulative

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Fig. 4  Statistical analysis of the nitrate–salinity variability in the study area

impacts of the long-term increasing trend in pollutant con- runoff, the type and quantity of fertilizer applied are among
centrations in groundwater resources by examining trans- the main factors that influence the chemistry and the quality
port and dilution processes. of the drainage water.

Drainage network Drainage runoff

The variability of the hydrochemical composition of the The chemical composition of the drainage runoff presents
drainage runoff in the study area reveals the influences of low concentrations of trace elements compared to those in
different factors, such as the distribution of the morphology the initial water from the exploited wells. Given the con-
of the agro-system, the organization of the cultivated lands, stant amount of runoff water released, these findings suggest
the farming practices used, the quantity of fertilizer applied, that the runoff represents a potential resource that could be
and, indubitably, the initial quality of the water extracted permanently exploited for agricultural or industrial activi-
from wells. ties instead of being a large quantity of water that is lost
In the study area, the organization and the fragmenta- to evaporation. Additionally, the release of runoff water
tion of the agricultural lands is initially administered by a into the environment represents an important issue for
public institutional system based on a collaboration of social the healthy functioning of the environment, as this water
efforts, the GDA (Groupement de développement agricole; requires preliminary treatment. According to the findings
Agricultural Development Group), according to some cri- of this research, the quality of this water is poor, but it can
teria (oasis area, distribution of water wells, implementa- easily be treated to remove the toxic elements. This opera-
tion of drainage runoff, etc.). However, the expansion of tion could be carefully evaluated as a promising option for
private lands brings out heterogeneous characteristics that drainage water reuse, especially during the frequent water
vary from one agro-system to another. Correspondingly, shortage periods and given the climate change context for
the GDA ensures that the distribution of drainage networks these regions that receive less than 100 mm of precipitation,
is carefully implemented, with a big reservoir included at experience temperatures of 45 °C during the summer period,
the end of each oasis group to collect the runoff from the and exploit more than 80–90% of the groundwater. After
agrosystems, which are generally of a similar size, use sim- appropriate treatment, these waters can also be used for the
ilar farming practices, and use the same water well. This managed recharge of deep aquifers, thus reducing the effects
control is, unfortunately, absent for private lands, where of the current exploitation (Besser et al. 2017, 2021), and
drainage system engineering varies with the landowner and to inhibit further resource degradation (namely mixing with
the local farming scheme. This individual implementation deep reservoirs; Besser and Hamed 2019).
results in different properties of the output runoff, which
should be analyzed separately. In addition to the impact of
the characteristics of the surface leached by the collected

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Irrigation techniques Potential health and environmental risks

The variable distribution of the water quality, especially for Health risks
the runoff water, reflects the influences of both natural and
anthropogenic factors. Natural conditions, namely the high The contamination of groundwater with agrochemical-rich
evapotranspiration rate and the frequent dry periods, con- leachate from agricultural lands may have numerous adverse
tinuously challenge the efficiency of the adopted practices. effects on human health. Previously published works have
Thus, the sustainability of agricultural development mainly indicated that high contents of these elements in groundwater
depends on the human activities and strategies applied, such resources and/or runoff and drainage water released into the
as the irrigation technique, scheduling and farming practices environment are responsible for various human health disor-
concerning fertilizers, cultivation, and drainage. ders related to immune and reproductive system issues, delu-
The agricultural development in the study area does not sion, kidneys, hormonal and infertility problems, itchiness of
appear to be constrained principally by the natural condi- the skin, hyperirritability, nervous and behavioral disorders,
tions but by anthropogenic behavior with respect to natural and even cancer (Agnihotri et al. 1999; Abhilash et al. 2009;
resource exploitation and land management. The spatial Yadav et al. 2015). Alloway (1990), Raven et al. (1998),
variability of drainage runoff water and the degree of con- Thomas et al. (2012), and Srivastav (2020) have indicated
tamination of irrigation resources and oasis soil reflect the that phosphate-rich fertilizers may contain high levels of
influences of these practices, i.e., water use, irrigation tech- toxic elements (namely ­Cd2+, ­Pb2+, ­As3+, ­Cr2+, ­F−, ­Sr2+,
nique, fertilizer and pesticide application, and soil conserva- ­U3+, and ­Zn2+). All these risks may impact human health
tion. The effectiveness of these human activities is assessed via skin contact, inhalation, or ingestion (Rekha et al. 2006).
by determining the sustainability of agriculture in spite of Thus, the high levels of these elements in the deep ground-
the harsh climatic conditions. water (the CI and CT aquifers—unique resources that are
The technique used and the scheduling of irrigation used for both drinking and irrigation purposes) in south-
according to a predefined calendar based on the properties ern Tunisia raise concern regarding the sustainable use of
of the cultivated crop (its water requirements, growth phase, these resources for agriculture and, principally, the health
tolerance, etc.) are the major influences on optimal irrigation hazard they present to the local population. Furthermore, the
efficiency in SW Tunisia. Traditional techniques such as sur- exposure duration for residents constitutes another important
face flood irrigation and an ameliorated gravity system are factor that is worsening the situation. For example, as shown
the principal systems used to irrigate more than 90% of the in Fig. 4, monitoring of the nitrate content in deep ground-
irrigated land, while the new and smart technique of local- water indicates that the contamination has been occurring
ized irrigation is used in less than 9% of the agro-systems, continuously for more than 10 years now.
including some field experiences and a project pilot station. Obtaining an accurate assessment of the various environ-
Given the impacts of these traditional techniques in terms mental and health risks seems to be a difficult task. Given the
of water losses, progressive soil infertility, and drainage concern about the potential adverse impacts of agrochemi-
runoff losses to evaporation, the low efficiency of irrigation cals and their classification as one of the most important
water use with respect to agricultural productivity leads to sources of contamination, social concern about the violation
an imbalance between increasing exploitation and decreas- of the legal thresholds for nitrates, potassium, and phos-
ing productivity (quantity and quality). phates, as well as their effects on the economic income of
Additionally, the distribution of water according to the landowners, data collected on the applied quantity of agro-
cultivated land, not in response to the real requirements, is a chemicals do not reflect real behavior. The loss of correlation
limiting factor on the optimal use of these difficult-to-renew between the legal framework, governmental institutions, and
resources, as a requirement for less than 9000 M/ha/year local farmers makes the situation even more challenging,
requires the delivered quantity to exceed 12,000–8,000 m ­ 3/ and results in unclear trends in ecological security and eco-
ha/year, for an average productivity of 60 kg/trees. nomic security. The biomagnification phenomenon increases
In the study area, despite the continuous development of the risks posed by pollutants to organisms at higher levels of
date palms for more than six decades, a clear irrigation cal- the food chain as compared to the risks posed to organisms
endar coupled with predefined scheduled sessions is not yet at lower levels. Thus, different ratios and expressions have
available given the frequent breakdown of the distribution been defined to evaluate potential carcinogenic and noncar-
network for public oases or nonscientifically based irrigation cinogenic impacts on human health.
schemes used by private owners, as the extreme conditions The results obtained from this work can be used to
of excess and deficit challenge the healthy development of study the long-term impacts of agricultural develop-
yields. ment on groundwater resources in a hot and dry region,
where the ecological value of natural resources is facing

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 Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

Table 5  Indices used for health risk assessment

Index Expression Parameters References

Nitrate pollution index NPI = Cs−HAV Cs: measured concentration of USEPA (1989, 2010)
HAV
nitrate in the sample Edet and Offiong (2002)
Entropy water quality index
∑n
EWQI = i=1 Wj × Qi ej: the larger value APHA (2005)
100×Cj
Qi = Sj Cj: content (mg/L) Sun et al. (2007); Kamani et al.
Wj = ∑n 1−ej Sj: standard limit (mg/lm) (2017)
(1−ej)
i=1 Arauzo (2017)
Hazard quotient HQ = EDI EDI: daily intake
Ali et al. (2017); Dzibanek et al.
RfD: reference daily intake
RfD
EDI oral = C×IR×EP×ED (2017); Singh et al. (2017)
ED: exposure duration
BW×AT
EDI ingestion = Cw×DI×ABS×EF×EP Tepanosyan et al. (2017)
EF: exposure frequency
BW×AT
EDI dermal = Cw×SA×Kp×ET×ABS×EF×EP×CF WHO (2018)
CF: conversion factor
BW×AT
IRIS (2018); ATSDR (2019)
BW: average body weight
Chen et al. (2020)
AT: average time
Gadamsoi et al. (2021)
C: content of the element
Kp: permeability coefficient
SA: skin surface area
DI: daily average intake
ABS: gastrotestinal absorption

HAV maximum acceptable limit, IR inhalation factor,EP exposure frequency,Cw measured concentratuion,ET event duration

most commonly used ratios are the nitrate pollution index

Table 6  Distribution of NPI ratios in the study area (NPI), the hazard quotient (HQ), and the entropy water qual-
This study Historic studies ity index (EWQI), which are summarized in Table 5.
Tozeur Kebili The distribution of the results for the indices given in
Table 5 highlights the critical situation regarding natural
Min. − 0.84 − 0.79 − 0.7 resource contamination in the study area, as it indicates that
Max. 116 116 107 urgent remediation is required to inhibit or at least to reduce
Mean 4.72 5.89 10.11 the adverse effects on local residents. The calculated NPI for
SD 11.08 14.46 136 the current study ranges from a minimum of − 0.84 to 116,
CV 227.37% 245.23% 134.4% with an average value of 4.72, which is far above the pre-
defined threshold indicating extremely polluted waters with
a very high risk of health issues in the target population,
huge challenges related to anthropogenic pressure and cli- as widely discussed in previous published works (Table 6).
mate variability. Thus, the results of this study may give The values calculated from historical data for the Kebili and
insight into another source of groundwater quality deterio- Tozeur regions indicate that these resources have been con-
ration that should be incorporated into management strate- taminated since 1994, and this contamination showed an
gies. Given the exploitation rate and the hydraulic continuity increasing trend during the early 2010s. The large spectrum
within the hydrogeological system, the nitrate contamination of obtained NPI ratios, which can be explained by the high
is expected to cover a large area. When evaluating water CV, highlights the major influence of individual-farm-scale
losses and consequently water sustainability, the ratios of management, namely fertilizer application, on the conserva-
available resources to precipitation, available resources tion of the natural resources. The health risks of this contam-
to recharge, and available resources to exploitation are ination are further highlighted by the EWQI values, which
of paramount importance for defining the dilution rate of indicate that the water from the wells used for domestic con-
nitrate flows and the spatial distribution of chemical pol- sumption and irrigation is extremely poor quality. Given that
lutants. These ratios reflect the direct and indirect effects the indices are far above the recommended value of 150, the
of climate change and indicate the long-term responses of analyzed waters are polluted and unfit for particular uses
water-dependent ecosystems to changing land use and farm- (USEPA 1989, 2010; Edet and Offiong 2002; APHA 2005;
ing practices. Sun et al. 2007; Kamani et al. 2017; Ali et al. 2017; Dzi-
Different indices have been developed that allow a quan- banek et al. 2017; Singh et al. 2017; Tepanosyan et al. 2017;
titative evaluation of the potential impacts of trace element WHO 2018; ATSDR 2019; Gadamsoi et al. 2021).
concentrations on human health according to, for instance, The deep aquifers in southwestern Tunisia are no longer
exposure duration, target population characteristics (age, suitable for domestic consumption as they present high car-
weight, height, etc.), and contamination route. Among the cinogenic risks to the local population, especially children,

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 Table 7  Distribution of indices used in health issue assessment for the study area
Oral
PO42− NO3− Br− F−
Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children

Min. 3.89E−34 4.63E−32 4.59E−26 7.45E−35 8.86E−33 8.79E−27 8.64E−34 1.03E−31 1.02E−25 1.48E−33 1.76E−31 1.75E−25
Max. 3.99E−01 4.66E−01 3.48E−01 1.81E−01 2.11E−01 1.58E−01 2.10E+00 2.45E + 00 1.83E+00 1.24E+00 1.45E+00 1.08E+00
Mean 1.41E−02 1.67E−02 1.34E−02 6.43E−03 7.63E−03 6.12E−03 7.46E−02 8.85E−02 7.10E−02 4.33E−02 5.13E−02 4.07E−02
SD 7.17E−02 8.38E−02 6.29E−02 3.26E−02 3.80E−02 2.86E−02 3.78E−01 4.41E−01 3.32E−01 2.23E−01 2.60E−01 1.95E−01
Ingestion
PO42− NO3− Br− F−
Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children

Min. 0.296 0.345 0.553 0.070 0.081 0.130 0.810 0.945 1.512 0.284 0.331 0.529
Max. 0.585 0.683 1.093 0.347 0.405 0.648 4.028 4.699 7.518 2.107 2.458 3.932
Mean 0.447 0.522 0.835 0.178 0.207 0.331 2.062 2.406 3.850 1.342 1.566 2.506
SD 0.078 0.091 0.145 0.089 0.104 0.166 1.027 1.199 1.918 0.360 0.420 0.673
Dermal
PO42− NO3− Br− F−
Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children Men Women Children

Min. 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.004 0.004 0.007 0.002 0.001 0.003
Max. 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.022 0.019 0.036 0.012 0.010 0.023
Mean 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.011 0.010 0.018 0.007 0.006 0.015
SD 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.009 0.002 0.002 0.004
Hazard quotient
PO42− NO3− Br− F−
Men Women Children Men Men Women Children Men Men Women Children Men

Min. 0.298 0.347 0.556 0.070 0.082 0.131 0.815 0.949 1.519 0.285 0.333 0.534
Max. 0.588 0.685 1.097 0.349 0.407 0.651 4.050 4.718 7.554 2.118 2.468 3.956
Mean 0.446 0.520 0.833 0.176 0.205 0.329 2.047 2.386 3.817 1.337 1.559 2.497
SD 0.076 0.089 0.141 0.090 0.105 0.167 1.038 1.210 1.935 0.357 0.417 0.668

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 Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

according to the calculated ingestion, oral, and dermal indi- elements. The situation is amplified by the hydraulic con-
ces. Table 7 lists the calculated ratios for different exposure tinuity of these aquifers, which are also used for drinking
routes. This diffuse contamination seems to be related to purposes. Thus, valuable information on human exposure
evolution since the first decades of agricultural expansion (biomagnification, direct digestion, etc.) should be collected,
in the study area. The hidden characteristics of this pollu- including baseline descriptive data related to the hydrogeo-
tion coupled with the lack of appropriate remediation have logical and agricultural profiles of particular areas, interven-
induced cumulative impacts that may adversely affect the tion strategies, and accidental leakages. The sharing of infor-
health of the local population. The emerging ecological, eco- mation and decisions between farmers and decision-makers
nomic, and health issues require urgent actions. is the key to developing successful management strategies.
Indeed, an understanding of the remediation process by
Environmental contamination farmers and landowners is required to improve management
action implementation and control.
High contents of nitrate, potassium, phosphate, lead, and The psychological factor related to social acceptance of
boron in irrigation water and/or the fractions applied to the adopted strategies is a major obstacle to implementing
agricultural land often increase the levels of heavy metals, sustainable rehabilitation measures. The adoption of new
which were estimated at 13 Cd/ha for 80 kg of phosphate practices leads to widespread skepticism among farm-
per ha on Saudi Arabian agricultural lands (Modaihsh et al. ers. Supervision, education, and vulgarization efforts are
2004). The accumulation of these chemicals in the soil may needed to raise concern about the impact of farm manage-
adversely affect the soil’s vital biochemical reactions (Hus- ment, namely fertilizer and pesticide use and its fatal conse-
sain et al. 2015). The additive concentrations impact the quences for the dual ecological–economic (ECO-ECO) bal-
reaction synergy, resulting in changes in soil properties. ance. Furthermore, regulations should be carefully evaluated
There are many sources of uncertainty in future predictions via mandatory measures (technical, engineering, political,
and pollutant estimations, and their impacts on the accuracy institutional, etc.) and voluntary personal measures related
of studies are large. The broad estimation achieved through to innovative adaptation efforts.
a mass balance approach provides an interesting unbiased
contribution that can be realistically considered as an alter- Declarations
native to mitigate climate change and nitrate contamination
effects. Nonetheless, this approach requires reliable analysis Ethical statement The authors consciously assure that for this manu-
script, the following are fulfilled:
and available data to tailor and promote specific small-scale
solutions to environmental issues related to nitrate leaching. 1. This material is the authors' own original work, which has
not been previously published elsewhere.
The results of the field investigation, which were con- 2. The paper is not currently being considered for publication
firmed by the results of the analytical work, highlight that elsewhere.
the environmental impacts and consequently the economic 3. The paper reflects the authors' own research and analysis in
value of agricultural development is principally constrained a truthful and complete manner.
4. The paper properly credits the meaningful contributions of
by the efficiency of the management process and especially co-authors and co-researchers.
by the systematic control of land expansion and natural 5. The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior
resource use. Supervision is required to develop particular and existing research.
scientific-based strategies that are clearly defined and easily 6. All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citations).
Literal copying of text must be indicated as such by using quotation
assessed in terms of impacts and productivity. marks and giving a proper reference.
7. All authors have been personally and actively involved in
substantial work leading to the paper, and will take public responsibil-
ity for its content.
Conclusions

Data on environmental and health risk assessments of high

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