ELECTRICAL MACHINES

I
(EE401)

Online Courseware (OCW)

B.TECH (2nd YEAR – 4th SEM)

(2020-21)

Prepared by: Mr. AMIT DEBNATH

Department of Electrical Engineering

Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

(Affiliated to MAKUT, West Bengal , Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NAAC – ‘A+’ Grade )
157/F Nilgunj road, Panihati, Kolkata-700114, West Bengal
Course Code: EE 401
Contact:3L:0T:0P
Total Contact Hours: 36
Credit: 3

Prerequisites: Knowledge of Physics up to B. Tech. 1st year Physics-I course.

Course Outcome:
CO1. Describe the concept of magnetic circuits.

CO2. Demonstrate the operation of different types of dc machines and its applications.

CO3. Understand the equivalent circuit of Transformers, D.C. Machines, and Three-Phase Induction
Motor.

CO4. Analyse the connections of transformers and its operations.

Course Content

MODULE – I: General Introduction to Electrical Machines (3L)

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, Fleming’s rule and Lenz’s Law. 1L
Concept of Electrical and Mechanical degree. 2L

MODULE – II: D.C. Machine (9L)

EMF generation in armature, Characteristics of D.C. Machines. 1L
Methods of building up of e.m.f., Significance of Critical resistance and Critical speed. 1L
Armature reaction and its effect, Function of Interpole and Compensating winding. 2L
Commutation method, Concept of reactance voltage. 1L
Power flow diagram, Losses and efficiency, Solution of problems.
1L
Testing of D.C. machines – Hopkinson’s, Swinburne’s test, Brake test (Tests specified as per standards).
1L
Starting and Speed Control of D.C. Motors.
2L

MODULE – III: Single-Phase Transformers (5L)

Core construction and different parts of transformer and their function, Materials used for core, winding
and insulation, Transformer oil, Different types of cooling methods (in brief), Name plate rating.
1L
Equivalent circuit and per unit representation and its importance, Regulation, Efficiency and All day
efficiency, Solution of problems. 2L
Single-phase Auto transformer – Comparison of weight, copper loss with 2-winding transformer. 1L
Sumpner Test, Applications of 2-winding transformer and Auto transformer. 1L

MODULE – IV: Three-Phase Transformers (9L)

Types of three-phase transformer. Construction and Different types of windings. 1L
Polarity of transformer, Vector groups for various connections. 1L
Parallel operation and load sharing, Solution of problems.
2L
Effect of unbalanced loading and neutral shifting, Tertiary windings. 1L
Scott-connected transformer and open-delta connection – working principle, connection diagram,
practical application.
1L
Tap-changing methods, Tap changers – Off load and On-load type. 1L
Special Transformer: Pulse transformer, Grounding transformer. 1L
Testing of Three-phase Transformers. 1L

MODULE – V: Three-Phase Induction Motor (10L)

Induction motor as a transformer, Concept of rotating magnetic field, Power stages in 3-phase induction
motor and their relation, power-slip characteristics. 3L
Determination of equivalent circuit parameters, Separation of losses, Efficiency, Solution of problems.
2L
Concept of Deep bar and Double cage rotor.
1L
Starting and speed control of three phase induction motor.
1L
Space harmonics: Crawling and Cogging, Brief idea of braking of induction motor. 2L
Testing and Industrial applications of 3-phase induction motor. 1L

Text Books:
1. Electrical Machinery, P.S. Bhimra, 6th Edition, Khanna Publishers.
2. Electric machines, D.P. Kothari & I.J Nagrath, 3rd Edition, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited.
3. Electrical Machines, P.K. Mukherjee & S. Chakrabarty, Dhanpat Rai Publication.

Reference Books:
1. Electric Machinery & Transformers, Bhag S. Guru and H.R. Hiziroglu, 3 rd Edition, Oxford
University press.
2. Electrical Machines, R.K. Srivastava, Cengage Learning
3. Theory of Alternating Current Machinery, Alexander S Langsdorf, Tata Mc Graw Hill Edition.
4. The performance and Design of Alternating Current Machines, M.G.Say, CBS Publishers &
Distributors.
5. Electric Machinery & transformer, Irving L Koskow, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall India.

CO-PO-PSO Mapping:
POs PSO
CO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO1 3 2 - - - 1 - - - 1 - 3 2 2 1
CO2 3 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 3 1 3 1
CO3 3 2 3 3 1 1 - - 1 1 - 3 2 3 1
CO4 3 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Avg 3 2 2.5 2 1 1 - - 1 1 1 3 1.6 2.6 1
Topic:

• FARADAY’S LAWS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• LENZ'S LAW
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

(referred to as Faraday’s law) is a basic law
of electromagnetism predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force
(EMF). This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor which is exposed to a changing
magnetic field. Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced
current will be such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial
changing magnetic field which produced it. The direction of this current flow can be determined
using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of induction explains the working

principle of transformers, motors, generators, and
inductors. The law is named after Michael Faraday,
who performed an experiment with a magnet and a
coil. During Faraday’s experiment, he discovered
how EMF is induced in a coil when the flux passing
through the coil changes.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law is the basic law of
electromagnetism which helps us to predict how a magnetic field would interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known
as electromagnetic induction.

The law was proposed in the year 1831 by an experimental physicist and chemist named
Michael Faraday. So you can see where the name of the law comes from. That being said, the
Faraday’s law or the law of electromagnetic induction is basically the results or the observations
of the experiments that Faraday conducted. He performed three main experiments to discover
the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction consists of two laws. The first law describes the induction of emf in
a conductor and the second law quantifies the emf produced in the conductor.

Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The discovery and understanding of

electromagnetic induction are based on a long
series of experiments carried out by Faraday and
Henry. From the experimental observations,
Faraday arrived at a conclusion that an emf is
induced in the coil when the magnetic flux across
the coil changes with time. With this in mind,
Faraday formulated his first law of
electromagnetic induction as,

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If

the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced which is called induced current.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.

The flux is the product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux associated with the coil. The
formula of Faraday’s law is given below:
Where,
ε is the electromotive force
Φ is the magnetic flux
N is the number of turns

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and change in the direction of
magnetic fields have opposite signs.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Law Formula
The rate of change of flux linkage is given by
Consider a magnet approaching towards a coil. NΦ/t
Consider two-time instances T1 and T2. Taking the derivative of the above equation, we get
N dΦ/dt
Flux linkage with the coil at the time T1 is given by
T1 = NΦ1 According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic
induction, we know that the induced emf in a coil is equal
Flux linkage with the coil at the time T2 is given by to the rate of change of flux linkage. Therefore,
T1 = NΦ2

Change in the flux linkage is given by

N(Φ2 – Φ1)

Let us consider this change in flux linkage as

Φ = Φ2 – Φ1

Hence, the change in flux linkage is given by

NΦ
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Experiment: Relationship Between Induced EMF and Flux

In the first experiment, he proved that when the strength of the magnetic field is varied, only then-current
is induced. An ammeter was connected to a loop of wire; the ammeter deflected when a magnet was
moved towards the wire.

In the second experiment, he proved that passing a current through an iron rod would make it
electromagnetic. He observed that when a relative motion exists between the magnet and the coil, an
electromotive force will be induced. When the magnet was rotated about its axis, no electromotive
force was observed, but when the magnet was rotated about its own axis then the induced electromotive
force was produced. Thus, there was no deflection in the ammeter when the magnet was held stationary.

While conducting the third experiment, he recorded that Galvanometer did not show any deflection and
no induced current was produced in the coil when the coil was moved in a stationary magnetic field. The
ammeter deflected in the opposite direction when the magnet was moved away from the loop.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Following are the fields where Faraday’s law find applications:

1. Electrical equipment like transformers works on the basis of Faraday’s law.

2. Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction which is the principle of Faraday’s law.

3. By inducing an electromotive force into an electromagnetic flow meter, the velocity of the fluids
is recorded.

4. Electric guitar and electric violin are the musical instruments that find an application of Faraday’s
law.

5. Maxwell’s equation is based on the converse of Faraday’s laws which states that change in the
magnetic field brings a change in the electric field.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 3/ FARADAY'S LAW & LENZ'S LAW

Topic:

• ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY
CONVERSION

• FLEMING’S RIGHT & LEFT HAND

RULE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Electromechanical energy conversion is one device which is convert energy one form to another
form. electromechanical device converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Energy conversation take place through the medium of electric field or magnetic field.

Electromechanical energy conversion devices with magnetic field as the coupling medium
between electrical and mechanical systems are more common in commercial application. the
energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is much greater about 25,000 greater than the electric
field.

electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible process except for the losses in the system.
Here we use word reversible that means the energy can be transfer back and forward between
mechanical and electrical system. during the process of energy conversion, some of the energy is
converted into heat and it lost from the system.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Electromechanical energy conversion devices may categorized in Various parts as under:-

The first category of devices, involving small motion, processes only low-energy signals from
electrical to mechanical or vice versa. These are microphones, gramophone pick-ups, loud
speakers and low-signal transducers.

The second category consists of force or torque-producing devices with limited mechanical
motion. These are electromagnets , relays, moving-iron instruments etc.

The third category includes continuous energy conversion devices like motors and generators
these are used for bulk energy conversion and utilization.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Principal of energy conversion

Its state that the energy cannot be created or destroyed. it can only be converted from one form to
the another form of energy.

If we consider electric Generator then its convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
If we consider electric Motor then its convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Electromechanical energy conversion system has basically divided in three parts,

1. Mechanical system

2. Field coupling system

3. Electrical system
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Principal of energy conversion
Principal of energy conversion is based on below equations.
Energy transfer equation for generator action can be written as,

Mechanical energy input = electrical energy output + losses in field + total energy losses
Energy transfer equation for motoring action can be written as,

Electrical energy input = mechanical energy output + stored energy by filed + total energy
losses
During the energy conversation there are occur some Losses, which are following as,
Core losses or iron losses
Electrical losses or copper losses
Mechanical losses
This all losses are called energy losses
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Principal of energy conversion

Energy losses equation can be written as,

Electrical energy input – copper loss = (mechanical energy output + mechanical

losses) + ( core losses + energy stored in core)

Wie – Wle = ( Wom + Wlm ) + ( Wfd + Wlf )

Where, Wie = input electrical energy

Wle=copper losse
Wom = output mechanical energy
Wlm = mechanical losses
Wfd = stored energy by core
Wlf = core losses.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Relate the thumb with thrust, fore finger with

field and center-finger with current as explained
below.

1. The Thumb represents the direction of Thrust

on the conductor (force on the conductor).

2. The Fore finger represents the direction of

the magnetic Field.

3. The Center finger (middle finger) the

direction of the Current.
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ROTATING MACHINE
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

The thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right

hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other

1. The thumb represents the direction of the

movement of conductor

2. The fore-finger represents direction of the

magnetic field.

3. The middle finger represents direction of the

induced current.
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• CONCEPT OF DC MACHINE

• APPLICATION OF DC MACHINE
• DC GENERATOR
• DC MOTOR

• TYPES OF DC MACHINE

• BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF DC
MACHINE

• NAME PLATE DETAILS OF DC MACHINE

DC MACHINES

 A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device.

 The DC machines are classified into two types such as DC generator as well as DC motor.

 The main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC electrical

power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical power.

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force, which induces
an electromagnetic force (EMF) in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced EMF
depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor.
This EMF will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

 The working principle of a DC machine is when electric current flows through a coil
within a magnetic field, and then the magnetic force generates a torque which rotates the dc
motor.
TYPES OF DC MACHINES
TYPES OF DC MACHINES
APPLICATIONS DC MACHINES

DC MOTOR
SERIES MOTORS
The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required, and variations in speed are possible. For example – the
series motors are used in Traction system, Cranes, air compressors, Vacuum Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.

SHUNT MOTORS
The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not severe. The various applications of
DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine,
Spinning machines, etc.

COMPOUND MOTORS
The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is required. The examples of usage of
compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.

The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control device such in Techno generators
for speed sensing and in Servo motors for positioning and tracking.
APPLICATIONS DC MACHINES

DC GENERATOR
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATORS
Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a wide range of voltage output.
Used as a supply source of DC motors.

SHUNT WOUND GENERATORS

DC shunt wound generators are used for lighting purposes.
Used to charge the battery.
Providing excitation to the alternators.

SERIES WOUND GENERATORS

DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for providing field excitation current.
Used as a booster in distribution networks.
COMPOUND GENERATORS
Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.
Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.
Deferentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.
CONSTUCTIONAL PART OF DC MACHINES

NUMBER SPECIFICATION 13
1 Shaft
2 End-bearings
3 Commutator
4 Brushes
5 Armature
6 Main-pole
7 Main-pole field winding
8 Frame
9 End-shield
10 Ventilator
11 Basement
12 Bearings
13 Eye Bolt
DC MACHINE NAME PLATE DETAILS

S1 duty means we can run the

motor for 365 days X 24 hours

Maker Name
M/C No. Machine Model Number REF: Manufacture Reference KW/HP: Maximum Power
Purpose
FRAME: ASHC 132L RPM: Rated Speed INS CL: Insulation Class
132L means the height
EXTN. Excitation System ARM V: Armature Voltage DUTN: Operating Hours (S1)
of the motor from footer
to shaft center is 132 TYPE: Field Coil Position ARM A: Armature Current MTG: Mounting of the motor (B3)
mm and L means the BRG.CE: Commutator end FIELD V: Field Voltage AMB: Ambient temperature
core size is length BRG.NCE FIELD A: Field Current Wt.
PROTN: IP55 COOLING: IC 0041 G

DC MOTOR CROMPTON GREAVES Ltd.

Made in India
European Conformity
Protection from dirt, dust, oil, and The fan cooled motor
other non-corrosive material
MACHINE CERTIFICATION & MARK
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• Concept of DC Generator

• Function of Different component parts of DC

Generator

• Working Principle of DC generator

DC GENERATOR

Electrical generators are standalone machines that provide electricity when power from the local grid
is unavailable. These generators supply backup power to businesses and homes during power outages.
Generators do not create electrical energy but they convert mechanical or chemical energy into
electrical energy. Based on the output, generators are classified into two types as AC generators and
DC generators.

A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy into
dc electricity. When conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on the
electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a flow of
current when the conductor circuit is closed.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
2. Pole Cores
DC generator consists of the following main parts:
Pole Cores are used as field magnets. These are used to spread out
1. Yoke/Main Cover the flux in the air gap and it is also used to support the exciting
Yoke is the main cover of the DC Generator made up of coils. Pole cores are the solid piece and are made up of cast iron
iron or any other material. It provides a mechanical or cast steel. In modern age pole cores are made up of thin
support for the poles. It acts as a protecting cover for the laminations of enameled steel. The thickness of lamination is
whole machine. It also carries the magnetic from 1 milli meter to 0.25 milli meter. The laminated poles are
flux produced by the poles. These yokes are made up of more secured than the solid piece pole cores.
cast iron and for large machines cast steel or rolled steel
is used.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
4. Armature Core
3. Field Coils Armature core is cylindrical or drum shaped and is built up
of circular steel sheets or laminations. It is set to the shaft. The
Field coils are the coils of a conductor wounded
slots are punched on its outer side. In small machines or motors
across the pole core. When current is passed
the armature slots are set directly to the shaft.
through these coils the poles reacts as
These laminations are used for the cooling purposes for
an electromagnet and magnetic flux is produced in
the armature and to reduce the eddy current losses and voltage
it.
drops. The circular stampings or slots are cut out in one piece.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
6. Commutator
5. Armature Winding The commutator provides a collection of currents from
the armature winding or conductors. It converts the alternating
The armature windings are in a wound form. current which is induced in the armature conductors into direct
These windings are insulated from each other and current (DC). It is a cylindrical shaped and have wedge
normally copper winding are generally used in it. shaped segments. These segments are insulated from each other.
These conductors or winding is placed in The number of segments are equal to the number of armature
the armature slots which are lined with insulation. coils. Each segment is connected to the armature
conductor through riser or strip. These segments have V-grooves
to prevent from centrifugal forces.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
7. Brush Gear
Brush gears holds heavy carbon brushes and are used to transfer huge amount of excitation current from it to the terminal
junction. Normally these are used in Highly Rated DC Generators. The brush gear is used to change its position according to
the requirement either you want small output current or either you want maximum current and the most important use case of
the brush gear is to adjust the carbon brushes in different direction to get maximum DC output from the DC Generator.

8. Terminals
Installed in the main cover or yoke of the DC Generator to connect directly to the load connection.

9. Suppressor Box
A Suppressor box is used to reduce the irrelevant and unwanted noise of a high KV rated DC Generators.

10. Terminal Cover

Terminal cover is a cap which protects the joints of the DC generator terminals and
the load terminals and this cover is also used for safety measures to prevent from
electric shock and fire.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR

11. Carbon Brushes and Bearings

In DC generator, Carbon brushes are used to collect current from the commutator and then provide it to its main contacts.
These brushes are commonly made up of carbon and graphite. These brushes are rectangular shaped. These brushes are
mounted on the brush holders and the brush holder is mounted on a spindle. These brushes remain joined with
the commutator by a spring. A flexible copper pigtail is mounted on the top of the carbon brushes which convey current
from the brushes to the holder.

Bearings are used to rotate shaft very easily. Usually ball bearings are frequently used in heavy machines due to
its flexibility. Ball bearings work very efficiently in heavy machines.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
12. Bearing Support Head
Bearing support head looks like the shape of bearing and it holds the bearing in its case to provide support and alignment
and it is fixed to straight the bearing and it provides the complete support in a required direction to provide uninterruptible
function.

13. Shaft
A Shaft of a DC Generator is a mechanical component. It consists of a mild steel and it provides torque and rotation. It is
prototype and long and it is used for coupling in DC Generator to provide mechanical energy.

14. Shaft Spline

Shaft spline is a small component installed on a shaft sometime it is fixed on a shaft and sometimes it comes in variable
form. A shaft spline consists of teeth and in a circular form and is used for coupling/joining the other shaft to it for
mechanical input for DC Generator.
FUNCTION OF PARTS
OF DC GENERATOR
15. Clamps
Clamps are used to hold the load wires tightly and make the load terminals safe and clean.

16. Window Strap

Window strap is basically a net made up of iron and it is connected to the yoke and it is used to provide air gap to the
DC Generator for the purpose of cooling and it provides a better temperature for cooling.

17. Retaining Cap

Retaining cap are made up of alloy of a non-magnetic steel and is tighten on the shaft to provide support to the shaft
against centrifugal forces during rotation.

18. End Cover

End cover is a part of yoke and it covers from the end of DC Generator with the help
of bolts and it is used to protect the generator from its end.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
OF DC GENERATOR
DC Generator working principle based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that when a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor.
According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced current changes whenever the direction of
motion of the conductor changes. Let us consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left
moving upwards. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of the conductor will
be reversed downward. Hence, the direction of the current in every armature will be alternating. But with a
split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors get reversed when a current reversal occurs.
Therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND &
LEFT HAND RULE
• E.M.F EQUATION OF D.C
MACHINE
• PROBLEM SOLVING
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

The thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right

hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other

1. The thumb represents the direction of the

movement of conductor

2. The fore-finger represents direction of the

magnetic field.

3. The middle finger represents direction of the

induced current.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Relate the thumb with thrust, fore finger with

field and center-finger with current as explained
below.

1. The Thumb represents the direction of Thrust

on the conductor (force on the conductor).

2. The Fore finger represents the direction of

the magnetic Field.

3. The Center finger (middle finger) the

direction of the Current.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEMING’S
LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND RULE

SL.NO. LEFT-HAND RULE RIGHT-HAND RULE

1 It was invented by John Ambrose Fleming It was invented by John Ambrose Fleming
2 It is used for electric motors It is used for electric generators
3 The purpose of the rule is to find the direction of motion in The purpose of the rule is to find the
an electric motor direction of induced current when a
conductor moves in a magnetic field.
4 The thumb represents the direction of the thrust on the The thumb represents the direction of motion of
conductor the conductor.
5 The index finger represents the direction of the The index finger represents the direction of the
Magnetic Field Magnetic Field
6 The middle finger represents the direction of the The middle finger represents the direction of
current the induced current
E.M.F
EQUATION OF
DC MACHINES

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf of rotation
is called the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Eg. In the case of a motor, the emf of
rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Eb. The expression for emf is same
for both the operations. I.e., for Generator as well as for Motor.

The derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:

1. Induced EMF of one conductor
2. Induced EMF of the generator
E.M.F
EQUATION OF
DC MACHINES Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the
armature conductor is denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting
the flux.
Let,
P – Number of poles of the machine
ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
Z – Total number of armature conductors.
N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
conductor is given as
E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Total flux produced by all the poles Induced emf of DC generator is

Time taken to complete one revolution

For a wave wound machine A = 2
E = ФZNP/120 Volt

Lap wound machine A =P

E = ФZN/60 Volt
E.M.F
EQUATION OF
Problem Solving
DC MACHINES
Induced emf of DC generator is
Problem-01: A 4 pole, lap wound, d.c. generator has Solution :
Given that,
a useful flux of 0.07 Wb per pole. Calculate the
P=4
generated emf. when it is rotated at a speed of 900 Z = 440
r.p.m. with the help of prime mover. Armature consists Φ = 0.07 Wb
of 440 number of conductors. Also calculate the and N = 900 r.p.m.
generated emf. if lap wound armature is replaced by
wave wound armature. Lap wound machine A =P=4

For a wave wound machine A = 2

Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• Concept of Residual Magnetism

• Voltage Buildup Process

• Conditions For Voltage Buildup

• How to Restore the Residual Magnetism

• Concept of Critical Field Resistance and

Critical Speed
CONCEPT OF RESIDUAL
MAGNETISM
The amount of magnetization left behind after
removing the external magnetic field from the
circuit.

The value of the flux density retained by the

magnetic material is called Residual Magnetism
and the power of retaining this magnetism is
called Retentivity of the material.

Magnetization occurs by applying the current in

one direction, and the flux density is increased until
the saturation point is reached.

This phenomenon of the residual magnetism is

widely seen in the transformers, generators, and
motors. It is also called as Remanence.
REDUCTION OF RESIDUAL
MAGNETISM
Residual Magnetism can be reduced by the following methods

1. It can be reduced by 45-50 % by the use of hot-rolled steel material.

2. The saturation level of the magnetic material can be decreased by providing higher
exciting current.

3. The magnetization process should be started with constant force and gradually
increasing until the saturation is achieved and then reducing it slowly to demagnetize it
further.

4. In the process of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic material the electric

force, or the applied current should almost be similar.
VOLTAGE BUILD UP PROCESS
Building up is the process by which the output voltage or
induced EMF of a self excited
DC shunt generator gradually builds up from the initial
starting point to its final steady value. For building up of
voltage in a self excited shunt generator, there must be residual
magnetism. If the field circuit is closed after the generator
speed is brought up to its desired value, then a small voltage
would appear across the generator armature terminals. This
small induced EMF, which is proportional to the product of
speed and residual flux present, is approximately 2 to 3
percent of the rated voltage. This small voltage appearing
across the armature terminals will make a small current to
start flowing through the shunt field circuit connected across
the armature.

The field circuit should be so connected that the MMF due to

this initial current strengthens the residual flux. The resultant
flux in the field is thus increased, leading to an increase in the
EMF induced in the armature. This in turn, will cause further
increase in the shunt field current and this process goes on I
cycles until the final steady value of EMF is induced in the
armature.
ESSENTIAL
CONDITIONS OF THE
VOLTAGE BUILD UP

1. Poles should contain some residual flux.

2. Field and armature winding must be correctly connected so that initial mmf
adds residual flux.
3. Open circuit its shunt field resistance should be less then the critical
resistance.
4. If excited on load circuits its shunt field resistance should more then a certain
minimum value of resistive which is given by internal
5. Speed of prime mover of generator must be above critical speed.
6. Generator must be on load.
7. Brushes must have proper contact with commutator.
FACTORS AFFECTING VOLTAGE
BUILDING OF A DC GENERATOR

There are some factors which affect the voltage building of a self-
excited d.c. generator. These factors are:

(i) reversed shunt field connection

(ii) reversed rotation and

(iii) reversed residual magnetism.

RESTORE PROCESS OF
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Residual magnetism in the generator exciter field allows the generator to build up voltage during start-up.
This magnetism is sometimes lost due to shelf time or improper operation, among other reasons. Restoring
this residual magnetism is possible and is sometimes referred to as "flashing the exciter field".

To restore the small amount of residual magnetism necessary to begin voltage buildup, connect a 12 volt
battery to the exciter field while the generator is at rest, as follows:

1. Remove exciter field leads F+ and F- from the voltage regulator. Failure to remove the field
leads from the regulator during flashing procedures may destroy the regulator.
2. Measure the exciter field resistance from the F+ to the F- lead. You should be able to read some resistance
as you are measuring a continuous winding. An infinite resistance reading would indicate an open in the
exciter field. Also check to be sure there is no path to ground.
3. Connect F+ to the positive pole of the battery.
4. Hold the F- lead by the insulated portion of the lead wire, touch F- to the negative pole of the battery for
about 5 to 10 seconds, then remove.
5. Reconnect F+ and F- to the regulator. Repeat the procedure if the generator fails to build voltage.
CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE

Critical resistance as that resistance of the field circuit at a given speed at which generator just
excites and starts voltage building while beyond this value generator fails to excite.

A decrease in the resistance of the field

circuit reduces the slope of the field
resistance line result in higher voltage. If the
speed remain constant , an increase in the
resistance of field circuit increases the slop
of field resistance line, resulting in a lower
voltage. If the field circuit resistance is
increased to Rc which is terminal as the
critical resistance of the field, the field
resistance line becomes a tangent to the
initial part of the magnetization curve. when
the field resistance is higher than this value,
the generator fail to excite.
CRITICAL SPEED

As speed changes, the open circuit characteristics also changes, similarly for different
shunt field resistances, the corresponding lines are also different.

The speed for which the given field resistance acts as critical resistance is called the
critical speed, denoted as NC.

Graphically critical speed can be obtained for given Rsh. The steps are,
1. Drawn O.C.C. for given speed N1.
2. Draw a line tangential to this O.C.C. say OA.
3. Draw a line representing the given Rsh say OP.
4. Select any field current say point R.
5. Draw vertical line from R to intersect OA at S and OP at T.
6. Then the critical speed NC is,
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:

• Types of D.C Generators

• Problem Solving
ARMATURE RESISTANCE 1. Armature Winding Resistance

The resistance offered by the armature Armature Winding resistance is the ohmic resistance of the copper
circuit is known as armature resistance. winding wires.

2. Resistance of Brushes
The armature resistance consists of
1. Resistance of armature winding A brush is used to provide electrical contact between the
2. Resistance of brushes stationary contacts and moving parts like commutator or slip rings.
Brushes are mainly made of carbon material which is
high resistance brushes compared to copper brushes.

The armature resistance depends upon the construction of the

machine. Except for small machines, its value is generally less
than 1 ohm.
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR

The magnetic field in a d.c generator is normally produced by electromagnets rather than permanent magnets.
Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field excitation. On this basis d.c generators are
divided into the following two classes:

1. Separately excited d.c Generators

2. Self-excited d.c Generators

The behavior of a d.c generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation adopted.
TYPES OF DC
GENERATOR
TYPES OF DC
Permanent Magnet DC Generator
GENERATOR

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is created through the

use of permanent magnets, then it is known as a Permanent
magnet DC generator.
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent
magnets situated around the armature. This type of DC
generator generates does not generate much power.

As such they are rarely found in industrial applications. They

are normally used in small applications – like dynamos in
motorcycles.
TYPES OF DC
GENERATOR Separately Excited DC Generator

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some external DC source, such as a battery.

The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current.
The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated emf

Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated EMF
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR

Self-excited DC generators are generators whose field magnets are energized by the current supplied by
themselves. In these type of machines, field coils are internally connected with the armature.
Due to residual magnetism, some flux is always present in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some EMF is
induced. Hence some induced current is produced. This small current flows through the field coil as well as the
load and thereby strengthening the pole flux.

As the pole flux strengthened, it will produce more armature EMF, which cause the further increase of current
through the field. This increased field current further raises armature EMF, and this cumulative phenomenon
continues until the excitation reaches the rated value.

According to the position of the field coils self-excited DC generators may be classified as:

1. Shunt Wound Generators

2. Series Wound Generators
3. Compound Wound Generators
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
Shunt Wound Generators
In these type of DC generators, the field windings are connected in parallel with armature conductors.

Rsh = Shunt winding resistance

Ish = Current flowing through
the shunt field
Ra = Armature resistance
Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated EMF
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
Series Wound Generator

In these type of generators, the field windings are connected in series with armature conductors.

Rsc = Series winding resistance Ia = Armature current

Isc = Current flowing through IL = Load current
the series field V = Terminal voltage
Ra = Armature resistance Eg = Generated EMF
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
Compound Wound DC Generator
Compound wound generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One winding is placed in
series with the armature, and the other is placed in parallel with the armature.

On the other hand, if the series field opposes the shunt field,
In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is the generator is said to be differentially compound wound.
stronger than the series field. When the series field
assists the shunt field, generator is said to be
commutatively compound wound.
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generators are generators where only the shunt field winding is in parallel
with the armature winding
TYPES OF DC GENERATOR
Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator are generators where the shunt field winding is in parallel with
both series field and armature winding
Problem 02: A four-pole generator, having lap-wound armature winding has 51 slot,
each slot containing 20 conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the
machine when driven at 1500 r.p.m assuming the flux per pole to be 7 mWb.?

Solution:
Problem 03: A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230 V and the resistance of the shunt field and
armature are 50 Ω and 0.03 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated emf.

Solution:
Problem 04: An 8-pole D.C shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature conductors and
running at 500 r.p.m . supplies a load of 12.5Ω resistance at terminal voltage of 250 V. The
armature resistance is 0.24Ω and the field resistance is 250Ω. Find the armature current, the
induced emf and the flux per pole.

Solution:
Problem 05: A 4-pole, long-shunt lap-wound compound generator delivers a load current of (50
A) at (500 V). The armature resistance is (0.03 Ω), series field resistance is (0.04 Ω) and shunt
field resistance is (200 Ω). The brush drop may be taken as (1V). Determine the emf. generated.
Calculate also the no. of conductors if the speed is (1200 r.p.m) and flux per poles (0.02 Wb).
Neglect armature reaction.

Solution:
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• Losses of D.C Machines

• Efficiency of D.C Machines

• Condition for Maximum Efficiency

• Power Stages

• Problem Solving
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES

The losses can be divided into three types in a dc machine

(Generator or Motor). They are
1. Copper losses
2. Iron or core losses
3. Mechanical losses.

All these losses seem as heat and therefore increase the

temperature of the machine. Further the efficiency of the
machine will reduce.
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
1. Copper Losses:

This loss generally occurs due to current in the various windings on of the machine. The
different winding losses are;
Armature copper loss = I2a Ra
Shunt field copper loss = I2shRsh
Series field copper loss = I2se Rse

Note: There’s additionally brush contact loss attributable to brush contact resistance (i.e.,
resistance in the middle of the surface of brush and commutator). This loss is mostly
enclosed in armature copper loss.
 LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
2. Iron Losses The formula is
Hysteresis loss Ph= ηB16max f V watts
This loss occurs within the armature of a d.c. machine and are
attributable to the rotation of armature within the magnetic field of the Where,
poles. η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
They’re of 2 types viz., Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature
(i) Hysteresis loss (ii) Eddy current loss. winding
F = Frequency of magnetic reversals
Hysteresis loss: = NP/120 (N is in RPM)
V = Volume of armature in m3
Hysteresis loss happens in the armature winding of the d.c. machine
since any given part of the armature is exposed to magnetic field of If you want to cut back this loss in a d.c. machine,
reverses as it passes underneath sequence poles. The above fig armature core is created of such materials that have
shows the 2 pole DC machine of rotating armature. Consider a tiny an lesser value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
low piece ab of the armature winding. Once the piece ab is e.g., silicon steel.
underneath N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half a
revolution well along, identical piece of iron is underneath S-pole
and magnetic lines pass from b to a in order that magnetism within
the iron is overturned. So as to reverse constantly the molecular
magnets within the armature core, particular quantity of power must
be spent that is named hysteresis loss. It’s given by Steinmetz
formula.
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
Eddy current loss:
In addition to the voltages evoked within the armature conductors, some of other voltages evoked within the armature core. These
voltages turn out current currents within the coil core as shown in Fig. These are referred to as eddy currents and power loss attributable
to their flow is named eddy current loss. This loss seems as heat that increases the temperature of the machine and efficiency will
decrease.
If never-ending cast-iron core is employed, the resistance to eddy current path is tiny attributable to massive cross-sectional space of the
core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and therefore eddy current loss are massive. The magnitudes of eddy current are often
decreased by creating core resistance as high as sensible. The core resistances are often greatly exaggerated by making the core of skinny,
spherical iron sheets referred to as lamination's shown in the fig. The lamination's are insulated from one another with a layer of varnish.
The insulating layer features a high resistance, thus only small amount of current flows from one lamination to the opposite. Also, as a
result of every lamination is extremely skinny, the resistance to current passing over the breadth of a lamination is additionally quite
massive. Therefore laminating a core will increase the core resistance that drops the eddy current and therefore the eddy current loss.

Eddy Current loss Pe=KeB2maxf2t2V Watts

LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES 3. Mechanical Loss
These losses are attributable to friction and windage.
Friction loss occurs due to the friction in bearing, brushes etc.
windage loss occurs due to the air friction of rotating coil.

These losses rely on the speed of the machine. Except for a given speed,
they're much constant.
4. Stray Losses

These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses. The following factors are considered in
stray load losses.
The distortion of flux because of armature reaction.
Short circuit currents in the coil, undergoing commutation.
These losses are very difficult to determine. Therefore, it is necessary to assign the
reasonable value of the stray loss. For most machines, stray losses are taken by convention
to be one percent of the full load output power.
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
Constant and Variable Losses

The losses in a d.c. machine is also further classified into

(i) constant losses (ii) variable losses. Variable losses

Constant losses Those losses in a d.c. generator that differ with load
are referred to as variable losses. The variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator that stay constant at all loads are in a very d.c. generator are:
referred to as constant losses. The constant losses in a very d.c.
generator are:
(a)iron losses Copper loss in armature winding (I2Ra)
(b)mechanical losses Copper loss in series field winding (I2seRse)
(c)shunt field losses Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses.

Generally this copper loss is constant for shunt and compound

generators.
LOSSES IN A
DC MACHINES
EFFICIENCY
IN A DC
MACHINES
CONDITION FOR
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of above equation is minimum
CONDITION
FOR
MAXIMUM
EFFICIENCY
POWER
STAGES INA
DC MACHINES
The Power Flow Diagram is used to determine the efficiency of a generator or motor. In
the below figure of power flow diagram of DC Generator, it is shown that initially the
mechanical power is given as an input which is converted into electrical power, and the
output which is obtained is in the form of electrical power. There are various losses
such as friction, windage, stray losses and core losses.
PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• Armature Reaction

• Effect of Armature Reaction

• Minimize Armature
Reaction
ARMATURE REACTION IN
A DC MACHINES

GNA and MNA

GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as
the axis which is perpendicular to the stator field
axis.
EMF is induced in the armature conductors when
they cut the magnetic field lines. But, there is an axis
along which armature conductors move parallel to
the flux lines. MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be
defined as the axis along which no emf is generated
in the armature conductors as they move parallel to
the flux lines. Brushes are always placed in MNA
because reversal of current in the armature conductor
takes place along this MNA axis.

Leading and Trailing Pole tip

The tip of the pole from where the armature conductors come
into influence is called leading tip and the other tip opposite
in direction to it will be the trailing tip.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

Armature Reaction in a d.c. machine is basically the effect of armature produced flux on the main flux or field flux .

The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature

field on the main field. In other words, the armature reaction
represents the impact of the armature flux on the main field
flux. The armature field is produced by the armature
conductors when current flows through them. And the main
field is produced by the magnetic poles.

To understand this process let us first assume a 2- pole d.c.

machine at no load . At that instant there is no armature current . So
the flux due to mmf produced by field current in the machine at
north pole of the magnet will flow towards the south pole of the
magnet.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES The net / resultant flux of the system can be taken as a straight
horizontal line OA and can be shown in phasor as

Also at that instant the Magnetic Neutral Axis (M.N.A) of the machine
will coincide with the Geometrical Neutral Axis (G.N.A) of the machine
as the M.N.A is always perpendicular to the net flux.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

Now when the dc machine is loaded , current flows in armature

windings . This armature current set up armature flux . With
field windings unexcited , the flux can be shown as vertical lines
across armature conductors .

The conductors on the left side of the M.N.A will have current
flowing in inside direction whereas on right side of MNA , the
current will flow in outside direction. The direction of the flux
thus produced can be determined by using Maxwell‘s Right
hand Screw rule.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES
The resultant flux of the system is a straight
vertical line OB and can be shown in phasor as

Note that the magnitude of OB will always be

less than OA since the cause of armature flux is
field flux and it is known to us that effect is A
always less than cause. Here armature flux is
the effect and field flux is its cause.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

An examination to the above two phasor reveals that the path

of armature flux is perpendicular to the main field flux.

In other words, the path of the armature flux crosses the path of
the main field flux. This can be shown in phasor as

Thus the effect of armature flux on the main field flux is entirely ‘cross-magnetizing’ and it
is for this reason that the flux produced by armature mmf is also called as cross-flux.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

When the current flows in

both the armature and
field windings, the
resultant flux distribution
is obtained by
superimposing theses two
fluxes.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

It is observed that the armature flux aids the main field flux at the
lower end of the N-pole and at the upper end of the S-pole,
therefore at these two poles, the armature flux strengthens the main
field flux.

Likewise, the armature flux weakens the main field flux at Upper
end of the N-pole and at lower end of the S-pole.
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES
Now, if there is no magnetic saturation, then the
amount of strengthening and weakening of the
main field flux are equal and the resultant flux per
pole remains unaltered from its no load value.

Actually, the magnetic saturation does occurs and

as a consequence, the strengthening effect is less as
compared to the weakening effect and the resultant
flux is decreased from its no-load value. This is
called ‘Demagnetizing effect of armature reaction’
ARMATURE
REACTION IN A
DC MACHINES

So when the machine is run loaded , M.N.A will shift from G.N.A of the machine .

The resultant shift is completely dependent on the magnitude of armature current.

Thus, greater the value of armature current , greater is the shift of MNA from GNA .

It may therefore be stated from the above that net effect of armature flux on the main field flux is:

1. To distort the main field flux thereby causing non-uniform distribution of flux under the main poles.
2. To shift the MNA in the direction of the rotation for a generator and against the direction of rotation for a motor.
3. To reduce the main field flux from its no-load value due to magnetic saturation.
EFFECT OF
ARMATURE REACTION
IN A DC MACHINES

The armature reaction produces the following two undesirable effects:

1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux.

2. It cross-magnetizes or distorts the main flux.

Because of the armature reaction the flux density of over one-half of the pole increases and over the other half
decreases. The total flux produces by each pole is slightly less due to which the magnitude of the terminal
voltage reduces. The effect due to which the armature reaction reduces the total flux is known as the
demagnetizing effect.

The armature reaction induces flux in the neutral zone, and this flux generates the
voltage that causes the commutation problem.
EFFECT OF
ARMATURE REACTION
IN A DC MACHINES
METHODS OF REDUCE
ARMATURE REACTION IN
A DC MACHINES
There are various methods of reducing the armature reaction, some of them are:-

1. Compensate Windings

2. Interlopes or copoles

3. By using eccentric poles

4. Using laminated poles

5. Punching rectangular holes in field pole

6. Stronger main field flux as compared to armature flux

COMPENSATING
WINDIGS

The compensating windings consist of a series of coils embedded

in slots in the pole faces.

These coils are connected in series with the armature in such a

way that the current in them flows in opposite direction to that
flowing in armature conductors directly below the pole shoes.

The series-connected compensating windings

produce a magnetic field, which varies directly
with armature current.

As the compensating windings are wound to

produce a field that opposes the magnetic field of
the armature, they tend to cancel the effects of the
armature magnetic field.
INTERPOLES

Another way to reduce the effects of armature reaction is to place small

auxiliary poles called "interlopes" between the main field poles.

Interlopes have a few turns of large wire and are connected in series with the
armature.

Interlopes are wound and placed so that each interlope has the same magnetic
polarity as the main pole ahead of it, in the direction of rotation.

The field generated by the interlopes produces the same effect as the
compensating winding. This field, in effect, cancels the armature reaction for
all values of load current.
BY USING ECCENTRIC POLES
A dc machine fitted with eccentric pole face has short air-gap length at the pole centre
and longer air gap lengths under the pole tips. This increases the reluctance of the pole
tips which reduces the magnitude of armature cross flux and hence armature reaction is
minimized.

USING LAMINATED POLES

If magnetic pole used is assembled as shown, the laminations will sandwich air between them and therefore
reluctance of armature cross flux is increased due to low permeability of air.

PUNCHING RECTANGULAR HOLES IN FIELD POLE

This also increases reluctance of armature
cross flux with main flux remaining almost
unaffected. The constructional techniques
mentioned above reduce the main flux also to
some extent and therefore main field mmf must
be raised accordingly. But the effect is more
pronounced on armature flux and therefore the
methods are used.
Module:2
DC GENERATOR
Topic:
• CONCEPT OF ARMATURE WINDING

• TYPES OF ARMATURE WINDING

• LAP WINDING

• WAVE WINDING
ARMATURE
WINDINGS OF DC
MACHINES

• The armature winding is the main current-carrying winding in which the electromotive force or
counter-emf of rotation is induced.
• The current in the armature winding is known as the armature current.
• The location of the winding depends upon the type of machine.
• The armature windings of dc motors are located on the rotor, since they must operate in union
with the commutator.
• In DC rotating machines other than brushless DC machines, it is usually rotating.
TYPES OF
ARMATURE
WINDINGS OF DC
MACHINES
LAP WINDING

1. Lap winding is the winding in which successive coils overlap

each other. It is named "Lap" winding because it doubles or laps
back with its succeeding coils.

2. In this winding the finishing end of one coil is connected to one

commutator segment and the starting end of the next coil situated
under the same pole and connected with same commutator
segment.
3. It is used for high current and low voltage applications.
 Simplex Lap Winding Duplex Lap Winding

A winding in which the number of parallel path A winding in which the number of parallel
between the brushes is equal to the number of path between the brushes is twice the number
poles is called simplex lap winding. of poles is called Duplex lap winding.
WAVE WINDING

1. Wave winding is one type of armature winding. In this winding

the end of
one coil is connected to the starting of another coil of the same
polarity as that of the first coil.

2. This winding forms a wave with its coil, that’s why it is named
as wave winding. It is also called series winding because its
coils are connected in series.

3. It is used for high voltage and low current applications.

Progressive Wave Winding Retrogressive Wave Winding

If after one round of the armature the coil

If after one round of the armature the coil falls in a slot
falls in a slot left to its starting slot the
right to its starting slot the winging is called Progressive
winging is called Retrogressive wave
wave winding.
winding.
COMPARISON BETWEEN
LAP & WAVE WINDING

SL.NO Basis For Comparison Lap Winding Wave Winding

.
1 Definition The coil is lap back to the succeeding coil. The coil of the winding form the wave shape.
2 Connection The end of the armature coil is connected to an The end of the armature coil is connected to
adjacent segment on the commutator. commutator segments some distance apart.

3 Parallel Path The numbers of parallel path are equal to the total The number of parallel paths is equal to two.
of number poles.
4 Other Name Parallel Winding or Multiple Winding Two-circuit or Series Winding.
5 EMF Less More
6 Number of Brushes Equal to the number of parallel paths. Two
7 Types Simplex and Duplex lap winding. Progressive and Retrogressive wave winding
8 Efficiency Less High
9 Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil
10 Winding Cost High (because more conductor is required) Low
11 Uses In low voltage, high current machines. In high voltage, low current machines.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ARMATURE WINDINGS
1. Pole pitch
Pole pitch is the distance between the two head to head poles in dc generator and it is the division between the
number of conductors of armature winding and poles of DC generator. For example: if there are 60 conductors and
4 poles then 60/4 equals to 15 and this 15 is the pole pitch.

2. Winding Element and Conductor in Armature

There should be two types of windings enrolled on armature of dc generator. These two windings either single
turn coil or a multi turn coil. A single turn coil has two conductors and multi turn coil has so many conductors.
The conductors are placed in the slots of the armature. The side of the coil is known as winding element.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ARMATURE WINDINGS
3. Coil pitch
Coil pitch is the distance between the two sides of a coil. If the coil pitch and the pole pitch are equal to each other
then the coil span will be 180 degrees and the coil sides will be arranged under opposite poles and maximum EMF
will produced in the coil sides and then we will use the term that the winding is full pitched.

4. Pitch of winding
It is the distance between the two turns of a conductor. The pitch of the winding is denoted by Y. The formula to
find the pitch of winding is given below:
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ARMATURE WINDINGS
5. Front Pitch
It is the number of armature conductors covered by a coil on the front of an armature is called the front pitch. It is
the distance between the first conductor of a coil and the second conductor of a next coil which are connected
together at the end of the commutator. For example: element 8 is connected to the element number 3 so the front
pitch YF will be 8 – 3 = 5.

6. Back Pitch
It is the distance between the two conductors of a coil in armature which are connected to each other on the back
side of armature. It is denoted by YB. For example: element 8 is connected to the element 1 on the back side of the
armature so the back pitch will be 8 – 1 = 7.

7. Resultant Pitch
It is the distance between the two coils wounded on the armature. This distance starts
from the starting point of the first coil and ends at the starting point of the other coil
wounded in the armature. It is denoted by YR.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ARMATURE WINDINGS

8. Commutator Pitch
It is the distance between the two conductors from where these two conductors are connected to the commutator
bar/segment. It is denoted by YG.
Module:2

DCGENERATOR
Topic:
• CHARACTERISTICS OF DC
GENERATORS
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

 SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR

 SHUNT GENERATOR

 SERIES GENERATOR

 COMPOUND GENERATOR
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

According to the Excitation D.C generators may be classified as

(i) Separately excited generator
(ii) Self excited generator

Self excited generator may be classified as

(i) Shunt generator
(ii) Series generator
(iii) Compound generator.

In a separately excited generator field winding is energized from a separate voltage source in
order to produce flux in the machine. So long the machine operates in unsaturated condition
the flux produced will be proportional to the field current.

In order to implement shunt connection, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. It will be shown that subject to fulfillment of certain conditions, the machine may
have sufficient field current developed on its own by virtue of its shunt connection.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

In series d.c machine, there is one field winding wound over the main poles with fewer turns and large
cross sectional area. Series winding is meant to be connected in series with the armature and naturally to
be designed for rated armature current. Obviously there will be practically no voltage or very small
voltage due to residual field under no load condition (Ia = 0)

A compound generator has two separate field coils wound over the field poles. The coil having large
number of turns and thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field coil and the other coil having
few number of turns and large cross sectional area is called the series field coil. Series coil is generally
connected in series with the armature while the shunt field coil is connected in parallel with the
armature. If series coil is left alone without any connection, then it becomes a shunt machine with the
other coil connected in parallel.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

The speed of a d.c. machine operated as a generator is fixed by the prime mover. For
general-purpose operation, the prime mover is equipped with a speed governor so that the
speed of the generator is practically constant. Under such condition, the generator
performance deals primarily with the relation between excitation, terminal voltage and load.
These relations can be best exhibited graphically by means of curves known as generator
characteristics. These characteristics show at a glance the behavior of the generator under
different load conditions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

D.C. Generator Characteristics:

The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.):

This curve shows the relation between the generated

emf. at no-load (E0) and the field current (If) at
constant speed. It is also known as magnetic
characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is
practically the same for all generators whether
separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve
are obtained experimentally by operating the
generator at no load and constant speed and
recording the change in terminal voltage as the field
current is varied.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)

This curve shows the relation between the generated emf. on load (E) and the armature
current (Ia). The emf. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The
internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be obtained directly by
experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the emf. generated on load due to the
voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from
external characteristic if winding resistances are known because armature reaction effect is
included in both characteristics.

3. External characteristic (V/IL)

This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). The
terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very
important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be
obtained by making simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load current
(with voltmeter and ammeter) of a loaded generator.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

When the generator is loaded then the voltage drops due to two main reasons-
1. Due to armature reaction,
2. Due to ohmic drop (IaRa).

Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator

In a separately excited DC Generator, a separate source of DC power is connected to the field

winding. This source can be a battery, a diode rectifier, another DC Generator or a controlled
rectifier.

1. No-load Characteristic
The variation of armature generated emf Eg with field current If for constant
speed N. The circuit connection diagram is shown below.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

As armature generated voltage (Eg) = PΦZN / 60A

Therefore, for constant speed N
Eg ∝ Φ ∝ IF Φ = NF IF / reluctance

It is seen that even when field winding is not energized, the voltmeter indicates a small voltage, due to
presence of residual flux in the field poles as shown by OA in the characteristics.
When IF is increased from zero, the curve is found to be a straight line, because the entire field mmf is
almost spent in forcing the flux through the air gap and mmf required by the iron is almost negligible as
its reluctance remains almost constant.
The No-load characteristics of a separately
With larger IF , saturation sets in and mmf required by the iron increases rapidly as its reluctance
excited dc generator is shown below.
increases rapidly.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

2. Load Characteristic
Variation of terminal voltage Vt with field current for constant armature current and
armature speed.

To obtain load characteristic of separately excited dc

generator, run the armature at rated speed and close
the switch S.

Now, adjust IF till Ia is equal to rated armature

current and take instrument readings.

Vary the load and field current such that Ia and N

remain constant, but terminal voltage Vt changes and
keep taking more readings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

3. External Characteristic

variation of terminal voltage Vt with load current IL for constant speed N and constant field
current IF .

Firstly, generator is run at rated speed and its field

winding is excited to give rated terminal voltage at no-
load.
Now, close the switch S , vary load resistance and
note Vt and IL . Keep repeating it for various readings.

The decrease in terminal voltage with increase in load

is due to the voltage drops caused by armature reaction
and armature resistance ( includes brush contact
resistance ).
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Characteristic of Shunt Excited DC Generator

(i) O.C.C
The O.C.C. of a shunt generator is similar in shape to that of a series generator as shown in Fig. The line OP represents the shunt
field circuit resistance. When the generator is run at normal speed, it will build up a voltage OM. At no-load, the terminal voltage
of the generator will be constant (= OM) represented by the horizontal dotted line MR.

(ii) Internal characteristic

The internal characteristic of a shunt Generator is shown in the curve 1. As soon as the generator gets loaded, flux per pole is
decreased because of armature reaction. For that reason, emf. E generated on load is a smaller amount than the emf. generated at
no load. Thus the internal characteristics curve of shunt generator (E/Ia) drops down slightly.
(iii) External characteristic
Curve 2 shows the external characteristic of a shunt generator. It gives the
relation between terminal voltage V and load current IL.
V = E -Ia Ra =E - (IL + Ish) Ra
Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below the internal characteristic
curve by an amount equal to drop in the armature circuit [i.e., (IL + Ish)Ra].
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Characteristic of Series Excited DC Generator

Since there's only one current that that flows through the full machine, the load
current is that the same because the exciting current.

(i) O.C.C
In the below fig the first curve shows that open circuit characteristic curve of a series generator. It will be obtained by
experimentation by cut off the field winding from the machine and exciting it from a separate DC supply as mentioned in
the O.C.C of DC Generator.

(ii) Internal characteristic

The second curve shows the internal characteristic of a series generator. It provides the relation amongst the generated emf. E
on load and armature current. As a result of armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than that the flux at no load.
Hence, emf. E generated underneath load conditions will be less than the emf. E0 generated underneath no load conditions.
Therefore, internal characteristic lies below the O.C.C. curve; the distinction between them representing the impact of
armature reaction.

(iii) External characteristic

The external characteristic of a series generator is shown in curve of above fig. This curve shows the relation between terminal
voltage and load current IL: V=E-Ia(Ra+Rse)
Therefore, external characteristic can lie below internal characteristic by an amount equal to resistance unit drop
[i.e., Ia(Ra + Rse)] within the machine.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Characteristic of Compound Excited DC Generator

There are mainly two types of dc compound generator. These are long shunt and short shunt. For more
information for these two types of dc generator please check the post types of dc generator. Both of these
generators can also be categorized as cumulatively compound and differentially compound dc generator. The
differentially compound and cumulatively compound generators have their own typical characteristics. But the
compound generators mostly affect the external characteristics of compound dc generator.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Characteristic of Compound Excited DC Generator

(i) O.C.C
Like a separately excited dc generator, we use a separate source for the field for drawing OCC of a compound
DC generator. In this case, we first disconnect the field winding from the machine. Then we excite the field
from an external variable dc source. Now we slowly increase the field current from zero to its rated value.
During this experiment, we run the generator with its rated speed without any connected load. Also, we
gradually increase the field current and measure the output voltage at each step. Now we can draw the curve for
open circuit characteristic with the measured voltages along with their corresponding field currents. The no-
load or open circuit characteristic of a dc compound generator is similar to that of a separately excited dc
generator.

(ii) Internal characteristic

The internal characteristics of a dc compound generator can be made flat for the range of field currents.
When the generator is differentially compounded, with the increase in load current, the voltage across the
armature decreases more rapidly than a dc series generator.
Besides a cumulatively compound generator shows more upward internal characteristic than a standard
series generator.

(iii) External characteristic

Here, we measure the load terminal voltages for different load currents. Then we plot the load terminal voltages
and load currents. And we get the external characteristics of the dc compound generator. If the terminal voltage
increases with the increasing load current, we call the machine as over compounded dc generator. Again, if the
terminal voltage of the machine decreases with the increasing load current, we call this as under compounded
dc generator. But by adjusting the field orientation we can make such a machine, which has almost constant
terminal voltage for all the loading conditions. We call this generator as the flat compounded dc generator.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Characteristic of Compound Excited DC Generator

Over compounded: the generator full load terminal

voltage is higher than the no-load terminal voltage.

Flat compounded(Level compounded): The terminal

voltage of generator at full load is equal to the no-load
terminal voltage.

Under compounded: the generator terminal voltage at full

load is less than the no-load terminal voltage.

In differential compounded generators, the terminal voltage drops very quickly with
increasing armature current.
DC GENERATORS PERFORMANCE CURVES

Performance curves of a DC generator is that curves which shows the ability of delivering output voltage of a
DC generator with the change in load current from no load to full load. These are also called characteristic
curves. From the performance curve we can get a clear idea about the voltage regulation of various kind of DC
generators. The lower the voltage regulation will be, the performance of the generator will be better.
In separately excited DC generators, the terminal voltage as
the load increases and the load current started to flow.

In shunt wound DC generators, there is always some no load

voltage due to the existence of shunt field winding. As the
load increases, the terminal voltage of this type of DC
generators decreases very quickly. It has very large
demagnetizing armature reaction and armature resistance
drop.
In series DC generators, the terminal voltage at no load will
be zero because there is no current flowing through the field
winding. When load increases then output voltage also
increases.

At no load, the performance curve of this type of DC generator is same as that of shunt field
generators because at no load, there is no current in the series field winding. When the load increases,
then the terminal voltage drops due to the shunt DC generator, but the voltage rise in the series DC
generator compensates the voltage drop. For these reason the terminal voltage remains constant.
Module:2

DC GENERATOR
Topic:
 FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN DC
GENERATOR

 VOLTAGE REGULATION

 APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR
FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN DC GENERATOR

Armature mmf has definite effects on both the space distribution of the air-gap flux and
the magnitude of the net flux per pole. The effect on flux distribution is important
because the limits of successful commutation are directly influenced; the effect on flux
magnitude is important because both the generated voltage and the torque per unit of
armature current are influenced thereby.

Distribution of armature flux simply shows the effect of armature field on the main
field. In other words, the armature reaction represents the impact of the armature flux
on the main field flux. The armature field is produced by the armature conductors
when current flows through them. And the main field is produced by the magnetic
poles.
FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN DC GENERATOR

The armature flux causes two effects on the main field flux.

The armature flux distorted the main field flux

It reduces the magnitude of the main field flux.

The brushes of the DC machines are always placed in this axis, and
hence this axis is called the axis of commutation.
FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN DC GENERATOR

When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The distortion
increases the density of the flux in the upper pole tip of N-pole and the lower pole tip
of the south pole. Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the lower pole tip of the
north pole and the upper pole tip of the south pole.

The resultant flux induces in the generator are shifted towards the direction of the
rotation of generator. The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to the
axis of the resultant flux. The MNA is continuously shifted with the resultant flux.
 GRAPHICAL PICTURE OF FLUX DENSITY DISTRIBUTION

The armature flux

distribution in a dc
machine is cross-
magnetizing causing
distortion in the flux
density wave shape
and a slight shift in
MNA. It also causes
demagnetization
because a machine is
normally designed
with iron slightly
saturated.
FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN DC GENERATOR
Distortion of flux density distribution resulting in increase of flux density on one side of the
pole and decrease on the other, causes iron-loss in teeth to increase because these depend upon
the square of the flux density (approximately). Distortion of flux distribution also has an
adverse effect on commutation but this is overcome by Interpoles. This distortion, in fact, is an
important factor limiting the short-time overloading capacity of a dc machine.

The cross-magnetizing effect of the armature reaction can be reduced by making the main field
ampere-turns larger compared to the armature ampere-turns such that the main field mmf exerts
predominant control over the air-gap flux. This is achieved by: Introducing saturation in the
teeth and pole-shoe.

By chamfering the pole-shoes which increases the air-gap at the pole tips. This method
increases the reluctance to the path of main flux but its influence on the cross-flux is much
greater.

The best yet the most expensive method is to compensate the armature reaction mmf by a
compensating winding located in the pole-shoes and carrying a suitable current.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

It is clear from the impact of load changes on terminal voltage that a measure of the
variation in terminal voltage with load is required.

The regulation of a generator refers to the VOLTAGE CHANGE that takes place when
the load changes. It is usually expressed as the change in voltage from a no-load
condition to a full-load condition, and is expressed as a percentage of full-load. It is
expressed in the following formula:

where Vnl is the no-load voltage at the terminals of the generator and Vfl is the full-load
voltage. The voltages in the above equation may be either phase of line-line quantities,
as long as they are consistent (i.e. phase no-load and phase full-load)

In the ideal case, VR will equal 0%. In order to achieve this, the excitation voltage
must be adjusted with load conditions, i.e. the field voltage must be controlled.
APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

These types of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited DC

generators because of their requirement of separate excitation source. Because of
that their applications are restricted. They are generally used where the use of
self-excited generators are unsatisfactory.

1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are
generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.

2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation

in field excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC
motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various applications. Example-
Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.
APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR

Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators

The application of shunt generators are very much restricted for its dropping
voltage characteristic. They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated
very close to its position. These type of DC generators generally give constant
terminal voltage for small distance operation with the help of field regulators
from no load to full load.

1. They are used for general lighting.

2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant
output voltage.

3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.

4. They are also used for small power supply.

APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR

Applications of Series Wound DC Generators

These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of their
increasing terminal voltage characteristic with the increase in load current from no
load to full load. We can clearly see this characteristic from the characteristic curve
of series wound generator. They give constant current in the dropping portion of the
characteristic curve. For this property they can be used as constant current source
and employed for various applications.

1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.

2. This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in
the feeder in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.

3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.

APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR

Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators

Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC generators are

most widely used because of its compensating property. We can get desired terminal
voltage by compensating the drop due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in
the line. Such generators have various applications.

1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used lighting, power

supply purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage
property. They are mainly made over compounded.

2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.

3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and
lodges, the flat compounded generators are generally used.

4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large

demagnetization armature reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage
drop and constant current is required.
Module:2

DC GENERATOR
Topic:
 COMMUTATION PROCESS IN DC
GENERATOR

 PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC
GENERATORS

 CONCEPTS OF LOAD SHARING

COMMUTATION PROCESS IN DC
GENERATOR
An electrical generator is one kind of electrical machine, used to convert input mechanical
form energy to electrical energy either AC (or) DC. Depending upon the output it is
classified as an AC generator or a DC generator. The DC generator consists of a Yoke,
armature core, pole core, bearings, brushes, and a commutator. Each component of the DC
generator has its individual role to play in the operation. Among them, the working of a
commutator is very important. As any machine delivers its output as an alternating power.
Here, the commutator converts this alternating power to the required DC power in the case
of a generator. So, the operation of the commutator plays a crucial role in the operation of
these machines.

What is Commutation
It is the process of conversion of alternating
current (AC) to Direct current (DC) and DC to AC. It
can also be defined as the process of conversion of
armature current with the help of commutator
segments and brushes. The figure below represents
the commutator.
A good commutator process takes place when there is no sparking at the
brush contacts. Poor commutator process occurs due to the sparking
between the brushes and commutator segments. Due to this, there is a
possibility of damage when operated continuously.
COMMUTATION IN DC GENERATOR

Each Armature coil contains two commutator attached at its end. For the transformation of
current, the Commutator segments and brushes should maintain a continuously moving contact.
To get larger output values more than one coil is used in DC machines. So, instead of one pair,
we have a number of pairs of Commutator segments.

The coil is short-circuited for a very

short period of time with the help of
brushes. This period is known as
commutation period. Let us consider a
DC motor in which the width of the
Commutator bars is equal to the width
of the brushes. Let the current flowing
through the conductor be Ia. Let a, b, c
be the Commutator segments of the
motor. The current reversal in the coil
.i.e. commutation process can be
understood by the below steps.
COMMUTATION IN DC GENERATOR

Position-1
Let the Armature starts rotating, then the brush
moves over the commutator segments. Let the first
position of the brush commutator contact be at
segment b as shown above. As the width of the
commutator is equal to the width of the brush, in the
above position the total areas of commutator and
brush are in contact with each other. The total current
conducted by the commutator segment into the brush
at this position will be 2Ia.

Position-2
Now the armature rotates towards the right and the
brush comes in contact with the bar a. At this
position, the total conducted current will be 2Ia, but
the current in the coil changes. Here the current
flows through two paths A and B. 3/4th of the 2Ia
comes from the coil B and remaining 1/4th comes
from coil A. When KCL is applied at the segment a
and b, the current through the coil B is reduced to
Ia/2 and the current drawn through segment a is
Ia/2.
COMMUTATION IN DC GENERATOR

Position-3

At this position half of the brush, a surface is in

contact with segment a and the other half is with
segment b. As the total current drawn trough brush is
2Ia, current Ia is drawn through coil A and Ia is
drawn through coil B. Using KCL we can observe
that the current in coil B will be zero.

Position-4

In this position, one-fourth of the brush surface will

be in contact with segment b and three fourth with
segment a. Here the current drawn through coil B is –
Ia/2. Here we can observe that the current in coil B is
reversed.
CAUSES OF POOR COMMUTATION
Mechanical Reasons
1. Unequal commutator surface
There will be arc production continuously due to the uneven surface. Due to the continuous arc
production, the portion of the commutator segments loses its life expectancy.

2. Improper brush pressure

As the brushes are attached to the commutator continuously pressure will be imparted on to the
commutator segments. Due to this overheating takes place inside the commutator which decreases the life
of the commutator.

3. Brushes placed in the holders

Due to improper holding of brushes, vibrations occur which produces noise. This might also decrease the
efficiency and life expectancy.

Electrical Reasons
1. The voltage between adjacent commutator segments Increases
Due to the increase in voltage between adjacent commutator segments, the dielectric strength of Mica
insulation gets damaged. This could also lead to the short-circuit of coils.

2. Current density at the trailing end of the brush increases

Due to the increase in current density, the surrounding air gets conducted which leads to sparking.
Due to the sparking, the efficiency and life expectancy both will be decreased.
METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION

These problems arise mainly due to the circulating currents. If we can able to decrease these
circulating currents. Then, the commutator operation can be improved. There are different methods to
improve commutator operation. They are Using the open type of slots

1. By using Brush shifting

2. By using the resistance method

3. Using EMF method

By the usage of open type slots, the reluctance path is
more such that the strength of leakage flux gets
reduced. As reactance voltage is directly proportional
to the leakage flux. As the leakage flux is reduced, the
reactance voltage also gets reduced.

Due to the armature reaction, there will be a demagnetization effect of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is
distorted due to the armature reaction. This affects the commutator segments and brushes, as they are aligned at
no voltage position. Due to the demagnetization, some voltage flows in the commutator at no-load condition.
This affects the life of commutator segments and brushes. To avoid these problems, the brush axis is shifted.
By replacing the low resistance carbon brushes with the high resistance carbon brushes we can decrease the
circulating currents. Thus, by decreasing the circulating currents we can improve the commutator operation of
a DC generator.
Emf commutator operation is attained by the addition of Interpol’s or commutating poles. The strength of
Interpol’s is about 120% to 130% of cross magnetizing the magnetic field.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF D.C. GENERATORS

In a d.c. power plant, power is usually supplied from several generators of small ratings
connected in parallel instead of from one large generator.

Parallel operation of DC generators is required to meet the extra load demand. It is

always difficult to meet the extra load demand by a single generator, or it is not possible
to give supply when one generator is out of order.

Normally the generators are coupled in parallel at most of the power station through bus-
bars. Bus-bars have positive and negative terminals and they must be dense thick copper
bars. The positive and negative terminals of the bus-bars are connected to the positive and
negative terminal of the generator respectively.
REASON FOR WHY TO CHOOSE
PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC
GENERATOR

1. Continuity of service:

If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of

its breakdown, the whole plant will be shut down. However, if power is
supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of failure
of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.

2. Efficiency:

Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity.

Electric power costs less per kWh when the generator producing it is
efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power plant
decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining
units can be efficiently loaded.
REASON FOR WHY TO CHOOSE
PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC
GENERATOR

3. Maintenance and repair:

Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators
are operated in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by
isolating the affected generator while the load is being supplied by other units. This
leads to both safety and economy.

4. Increasing plant capacity:

In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously

increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled
with the old units. In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not
be available. In that case, a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to
meet the load requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.

5. Non-availability of single large unit:

In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In
that case, a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load
requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.
CONNECTION OF PARALLEL DC GENERATORS

1. The generators in a power plant, connected by heavy thick copper bars, called bus-
bars which act as positive and negative terminals. To connect the generators in parallel,
Positive terminal of the generators are connected to the positive terminal of the bus-bars
and negative terminals of generators are connected to negative terminal of the bus-bars
CONNECTION OF PARALLEL DC GENERATORS

2. To connect the 2 generators with the 1 existing working generators, first we have to bring
the speed of the prime mover of the 2nd generator to the rated speed. At this point switch
S4 is closed.

3. The circuit breaker V2 (voltmeter) connected across the open switch S2 is closed to
complete the circuit. The excitation of the generator 2 is increased with the help of
field rheostat till it generates voltage equal to the voltage of bus-bars.

4. The main switch S2 is then closed and the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with
existing generator. But at this point of time generator 2 is not taking any load as its
induced emf. is equal to bus-bar voltage. The present condition is called floating, that
means ready for supply but not supplying current to the load.

5. In order to deliver current from generator 2, it is necessary that its induced emf. E
should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V. By strengthening the field current, the
induced emf. of generator 2 could be improved and the current supply will get started. To
maintain bus-bar voltage, the field of generator 1 is weakened so that value remains
constant.0
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL
OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
1. The terminal voltage must be the same.

2. The polarities of the generator must be identical.

3. The prime movers driving the armature of the generators must have
similar and stable rotational characteristics.

4. The change of voltage with the change of load must be the same
character.

REQUIREMENT FOR PARALLEL

OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
Paralleling FC generator is required mainly for the following two
types of situations.

1. Paralleling of shunt generators for the same or varying sizes.

2. Paralleling of compound generators of the same and varying sizes.

PRECAUTIONS DURING PARALLEL CONNECTION

1. The specification of each generator is different from one another. When they
are synchronized together, their speed are locked into the overall speed of the
system.

2. The entire load of the system should be distributed in all the generators.

3. There should be a controller for keeping check on parameters of the engine. This
can be done with modern digital controllers which are available in market.

4. Voltage regulation in the whole system plays an important role. In case

of voltage drop in one unit compare with other units, end up bearing the
whole voltage load of the system of parallel generators.

5. While connecting terminals to the bus-bars, extra precaution should be made. If

generator is connected with wrong polarity of the bar, it may result to a short
circuit.
LOAD SHARING OF TWO GENERATORS

The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel can be easily regulated
because of their drooping characteristics. The load may be shifted from one
generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. Let us discuss the
load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load voltages.

Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators

R1, R2 = their armature resistances
V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars voltage)

then I1 = (E1 - V)/R1 and I2= (E2-V)/R2

Thus the current output of the generators depends upon the values of E1 and E3.These
values may be changed by field rheostats. The common terminal voltage (or bus-bars voltage)
will depend upon

1. The e.m.f.s of individual generators and

2. The total load current supplied.

It is generally desired to keep the bus bars voltage constant. This can be achieved by
adjusting the field excitations of the generators operating in parallel.
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
Name of the course : Electrical Machine – I
Course Code : EE/S3/EMI
Semester : Third

3.1 Working principles, Back emf, Speed and Torque equation. (Numerical)
3.2 Characteristics of Series, Shunt & Compound motors.
3.3 Methods of speed control of DC motors. (Numerical)
3.4 Starting methods of DC motor – 3-point & 4-point starter.
3.5 Losses and Efficiency (Numerical).
3.6 Braking methods of DC motor – Regenerative braking, Counter current
braking, Dynamic braking.
3.7 Applications of different types of DC motor.
TOPIC:
• CONCEPT OF DC MOTOR

• APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

• TYPES OF DC MOTOR

• BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

• WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR

INTRODUCTION TO DC MOTOR

Almost every mechanical development that we see around us is accomplished by an electric motor.
Electric machines are a method of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and produce
mechanical energy. Electric motors are utilized to power hundreds of devices we use in everyday
life.

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current power. In an electric motor, the
operation is dependent upon simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a
magnetic field, when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will encounter a force
proportional to the current in the conductor and to the strength of the external magnetic field. It is
a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. It works on the fact that a current-
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force which causes it to rotate with
respect to its original position.
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTOR

SERIES MOTORS

The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required, and variations in speed are possible. For
example – the series motors are used in Traction system, Cranes, air compressors, Vacuum Cleaner, Sewing
machine, etc.

SHUNT MOTORS

The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not severe. The various
applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts,
Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

COMPOUND MOTORS

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is required. The examples
of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners,
etc.

The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control device such in Techno
generators for speed sensing and in Servo motors for positioning and tracking.
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR

An electric motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The basic working principle
of a DC motor is: "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The
direction of this force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where, B = magnetic flux
density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

Fleming's left hand rule: If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular to each
other, and the direction of magnetic field is represented by the first finger, direction of the current is represented by the second
finger, then the thumb represents direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor.

When armature windings are connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets

up in the winding. Magnetic field may be provided by field winding
(electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnets. In this case, current
carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.

Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise,

the direction of force would have reversed every time when the direction of
movement of conductor is reversed in the magnetic field.
 CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

DC motor is an electromagnetic device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. DC power
input is converted into mechanical power at the shaft motor.

There is no difference in the construction of DC Motor and Generator. A DC Motor can also be used as DC
generator without any constructional change. Similarly, a DC generator can also be used as DC Motor.
They are broadly termed as DC machine.

Main parts of dc machine are:

1. Field magnet frame or yoke

2. Pole cores and pole shoes
3. Pole coil or field coils
4. Armature core
5. Armature winding
6. Commutator
7. Brushes
8. Brush holder
9. Bearing
10. Shaft
11. Terminal Box
12. Eye Bolt
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
FIELD MAGNET FRAME OR YOKE
The yoke or outer frame is the covering provided to dc generator and it serves the following purpose It provides a mechanical support
for the poles. It act as a protective cover against mechanical damage It provide a passage for the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
POLE CORE AND POLE SHOES
The pole core itself may be made of solid piece of cast iron or cast steel, but pole shoe is laminated and is screwed to the pole face
by means of counter sunk screw. The pole cores may be made of thin laminations of steel, riveted together. This type of pole is held
in position with the frame by means of bolts. The pole shoe serves the two purpose as under. It support the pole coils. Being of larger
cross section, it spread the flux and also reduces the reluctance of the magnetic path.
FIELD WINDING OR EXCITING WINDING:
The pole is excited by a winding wound around the pole core. This winding is called the Field Winding or Exciting Winding and
made from copper. The number of turns and cross-sectional of filed winding depends on the type of DC machine as below:

 Large number of turns of small cross-sectional area is used for DC Shunt machine.
 For DC Series machine, small number of turns of large cross-sectional area is used.
 Both series and shunt field winding is applied for DC Compound machine.

FIELD WINDINGS: SERIES FIELD WINDINGS

The field winding connected in series with the armature are made with relatively few windings turns of very large wire and have a
very low resistance usually found in large horsepower machines wound with square or rectangular wire. The use of square wire
permits the windings to be laid closer together, which increases the number of turns that can be wound in a particular space Square
and rectangular wire can also be made physically smaller than round wire and still contain the same surface area Square wire
contains more surface than round wire. Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area.
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

FIELD WINDINGS: SHUNT FIELD WINDINGS

It is constructed with relatively many turns of small wire, thus, it has a much higher resistance than the series field is
intended to be connected in parallel with, or shunt, the armature. High resistance is used to limit current flow through
the field.

BOTH SERIES AND SHUNT FIELD WINDINGS ARE CONTAINED IN EACH POLE PIECE

When a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole piece will contain both windings. The windings are
wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that when current flows through the winding it will produce alternate
magnetic polarities. Both series and shunt field windings are contained in each pole piece
S – series field
F – shunt field

ARMATURE

The armature core is cylindrical in shape. It is rotating part of the machine. Its body is made up of soft iron
stamping or laminations to reduce the eddy current losses. The lamination are keyed to the shaft. These are
insulated from each other by varnish. At the outer periphery slots are cut. The armature conductors (winding)are
placed in these slots. The armature core serves the following purpose. It provides a path of low reluctance to the
magnetic flux. It house armature conductors.
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

ARMATURE WINDINGS
The armature coil are usually former wound. The conductor are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough
insulating material. The slot insulation is folded over the armature conductors placed in the slots and is secured firmly
by bamboo or fiber wedges. The armature winding are usually of conductors covered with single cotton cover, double
cotton cover or enameled wire.
On the basis of connection these are of two types:
Lap winding
Wave winding

ARMATURE WINDINGS LAP WOUND ARMATURES

It is used in machines designed for low voltage and high current. Armatures are constructed with large wire because of
high current. Example: The starter motor of almost all automobiles. The windings of a lap wound armature are
connected in parallel. This permits the current capacity of each winding to be added and provides a higher operating
current. No of current path, C=p ; p=no of poles Lap wound armatures.

ARMATURE WINDINGS WAVE WOUND ARMATURE

Wave Wound Armatures are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current their windings connected
in series. When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each winding adds, but the current capacity
remains the same are used is in the small generator. No of current path, C=2Wave wound armatures
CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

COMMUTATOR
The Commutator is cylindrical in structure and is built up of wedge shaped hard drawn copper segments. The
segment are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of high quality mica. To prevent them from flying out under the
action of centrifugal forces, the segments are provided with “v”-grooves, which are insulated by conical mica-nite
ring. The function of the Commutator is to facilitate the collection of current from the armature and to rectify the A.C.
induced in the armature into D.C.
BRUSH HOLDER AND BRUSHES
The function of brushes is to collect current from the Commutator and supply it to the external load circuit. These are
usually made of carbon and are rectangular in shapes. These brushes are housed in brush holders. These are held in
position under spring tension , the pressure of the spring can be adjusted by altering the position of lever in the
notches. Copper brushes are only used for machine delivering large current at low voltages.
BEARING

These are supported in end cover, because of reliability, ball bearing are usually employed .Though for heavy duty,
roller bearing are employed. These are used to reduce friction and have less wear and tear.

COMPENSATING WINDING

Theses windings are placed in the slots cut in the pole faces of DC machine. Compensating winding is
also connected in series with the armature winding.
 CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

INTERPOLES
Interpole are fixed to the Yoke in between the main poles of DC machine. The Interpole winding is made of copper
and consists of few turns of thick wire. This winding is connected in series with the armature winding.

SHAFT

Shaft of DC Motor is coupled to the load to transfer mechanical power. For DC Generator, shaft is
coupled to prime mover to convert mechanical input energy into electrical output. Armature core,
bearing, Commutator etc. are mounted on the Shaft.

MACHINE WINDINGS OVERVIEW

1. Armature field
2. Separately Excited
3. Self excited
4. Series
5. Shunt
6. Compound
Wave Winding C=2
Lap Winding C=2p
BACK EMF

According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is

something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by
magnetic drag, but in case of dc motors there is back emf.
When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic
flux lines and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf
induces in the armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that it
opposes the armature current (Ia). The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of
the back emf and armature current. Magnitude of the Back emf can be given by emf
equation of a DC generator.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK EMF:

Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly
reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current torque. Speed of the motor will start
increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also
increase. With increasing back emf armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature
current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.
On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in
speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased armature current will increase the
torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence, presence of the back emf makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating’.
 RELATION BETWEEN MECHANICAL POWER (PM), SUPPLY VOLTAGE
(VT) AND BACK EMF (EB)

The back emf in the dc motor is expressed as

Where
Eb – Back Emf
Ia – Armature Current
Vt – Terminal Voltage
Ra – Resistance of Armature
The maximum power developed on the motor is expressed by
On differentiating the above equation we get

On substituting the IaRa in the above equation, we get

From the back emf equation, we get

The above equation shows that the maximum power develops in the
motor when the back emf is equal to half of the supply voltage.
ADVANTAGES OF BACK EMF IN DC MOTOR

1. The back emf opposes the supply voltage. The supply voltage induces the current in the coil which rotates
the armature. The electrical work required by the motor for causing the current against the back emf is
converted into the mechanical energy. And that energy is induced in the armature of the motor. Thus, we can
say that energy conversion in DC motor is possible only because of the back emf. The mechanical energy
induced in the motor is the product of the back emf and the armature current, i.e., EbIa.

2. The back emf makes the DC motor self-regulating machine, i.e., the back emf develops the armature
current according to the need of the motor. The armature current of the motor is calculated as,
BACK EMF MAKES MOTOR SELF-REGULATING

1. Consider the motor is running at no load condition. At no load, the DC motor requires small torque for
controlling the friction and windage loss. The motor withdraws less current. As the back emf depends on the
current their value also decreases. The magnitude of the back EMF is nearly equal to the supply voltage.

2. If the sudden load is applied to the motor, the motor becomes slow down. As the speed of the motor decreases,
the magnitude of their back emf also falls down. The small back emf withdraw heavy current from the supply. The
large armature current induces the large torque in the armature, which is the need of the motor. Thus, the motor
moves continuously at the new speed.

3. If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque on the motor is more than the load torque. The
driving torque increases the speed of the motor which also increases their back emf. The high value of back emf
decreases the armature current. The small magnitude of armature current develops less driving torque, which is
equal to the load torque. And the motor will rotate uniformly at the new speed.
FEATURES OF DC MOTORS

1. Encoder/potentiometer determines the accuracy and resolution of the servo motor

2. A servo motor has 5-10 times rated torque for short periods

3. Stays cool because the current draw is proportional to load

4. Maintains usable high speed torque of 90% of NL RPM

3. performs quietly at high speeds silently

4. Has a resonance-free and vibration-free operation

5. High Torque to Inertia Ratio can rapidly accelerate loads

6. The servo motor can approach 90% efficiency at light loads

DISADVANTAGES AND PROBLEMS OF BRUSHED DC MOTOR:

1. The brushes eventually wear out.

2. Because the brushes are making/breaking connections, you get sparking

and electrical noise.

3. The brushes limit the maximum speed of the motor.

4. Having the electromagnet in the center of the motor makes it harder to cool.

5. The use of brushes puts a limit on how many poles the armature can have.
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:
• CONCEPT OF DC MOTOR STARTER

• NECESSITY OF STARTER

• TYPES OF DC MOTOR STARTER

• TWO POINT STARTING METHOD

• THREE POINT STARTING METHOD

• FOUR POINT STARTING METHOD

STARTING OF DC MOTOR

A starter is a device to start and accelerate a motor. A controller is a device to start the motor, control
and reverse the speed of the DC motor and stop the motor. While starting the DC motor, it draws the
heavy current which damages the motor. The starter reduces the heavy current and protects the system
from damage.
The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the starting of all other types of electrical
motors. This difference is credited to the fact that a DC motor unlike other types of motor has a very
high starting current that has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the DC motor if not
restricted to some limited value. This limitation to the starting current of DC motor is brought about by
means of the starter. Thus the distinguishing fact about the starting methods of DC motor is that it is
facilitated by means of a starter. Or rather a device containing a variable resistance connected in series
to the armature winding so as to limit the starting current of DC motor to a desired optimum value
taking into consideration the safety aspect of the motor.
WHY DOES A DC MOTOR HAVE SUCH A HIGH STARTING CURRENT

Let us take into consideration the basic operational voltage equation of the DC motor which is given by,

Where,
E is the supply voltage,
Ia is the armature current,
Ra is the armature resistance.
And the back emf is given by Eb.

Now the back emf, in case of a DC motor, is very similar to the generated emf of a DC generator as it’s produced by
the rotational motion of the current carrying armature conductor in presence of the field. This back emf of DC motor
is given by

It has a major role to play in case of the starting of DC motor.

From this equation we can see that Eb is directly proportional to the speed N of the motor.
 WHY DOES A DC MOTOR HAVE SUCH A HIGH STARTING CURRENT

Now since at starting N = 0, Eb is also zero, and under this circumstance the voltage equation is modified to

For all practical practices to obtain optimum operation of

the motor the armature resistance is kept very small
usually in the order of 0.5 Ω and the bare minimum
supply voltage being 220 volts. Even under these
circumstance the starting current, Ia is as high as 220/0.5
amp = 440 amp.
EFFECT OF HIGH STARTING CURRENT

High starting current of DC motor creates two major problems.

1. Firstly, current of the order of 400 A has the potential of damaging the internal
circuit of the armature winding of DC motor at the very onset.

2. Very high electromagnetic starting torque of DC motor is produced by virtue of

the high starting current, which has the potential of producing huge centrifugal
force capable of flying off the rotor winding from the slots.
 STARTING METHODS OF DC MOTOR

As a direct consequence of the two above mentioned facts i.e high starting current and high starting torque of DC
motor, the entire motoring system can undergo a total disarray and lead towards into an engineering massacre and
non-functionality. To prevent such an incidence from occurring several starting methods of DC motor has been
adopted. The main principal of this being the addition of external electrical resistance Rext to the armature winding,
so as to increase the effective resistance to Ra + Rext, thus limiting the armature current to the rated value. The new
value of starting armature current is desirably low and is given by.

Now as the motor continues to run and gather speed,

the back emf successively develops and increases,
countering the supply voltage, resulting in the
decrease of the net working voltage. Thus now,
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR STARTER

At this moment to maintain the armature current to its rated value, Rext is progressively decreased unless its
made zero, when the back emf produced is at its maximum. This regulation of the external electrical
resistance in case of the starting of DC motor is facilitated by means of the starter.

Starters can be of several types and requires a great deal of explanation and some intricate level
understanding. But on a brief over-view the main types of starters used in the industry today can be
illustrated as:-

Common Four Starting Methods of DC Motor

1. Two Point Starting Method

2. Three Point Starting Method

3. Four Point Starting Method

4. Automatic Starting Method

5. Electronic Starting Method

TYPES OF DC MOTOR STARTER’S
 THREE POINT STARTING METHOD OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

Three Point Starter is a device whose main function is starting

and maintaining the speed of the DC shunt motor. The 3 point
starter connects the resistance in series with the circuit which
reduces the high starting current and hence protects the
machines from damage. Mainly there are three main points or
terminals in 3 point starter of DC motor. They are as follows

L is known as Line terminal, which is connected to the positive

supply.
A is known as the armature terminal and is connected to the
armature windings.
F is known as the field terminal and is connected to the field
terminal windings.
 STARTING METHOD OF DC SHUNT MOTOR WITH THREE POINT STARTER

The starter handle is now moved from stud to stud, and this builds up the speed of
the motor until it reaches the RUN position. The Studs are the contact point of the
resistance. In the RUN position, three main points are considered. They are as
follows.
1. The motor attains the full speed.
2. The supply is direct across both the windings of the motor.
3. The resistance R is completely cut out.

The handle H is held in RUN position by an electromagnet energized by a no volt

trip coil (NVC). This no volt trip coil is connected in series with the field winding of
the motor. In the event of switching OFF, or when the supply voltage falls below a
predetermined value, or the complete failure of supply while the motor is running,
NVC is energized. The handle is released and pulled back to the OFF position by the
action of the spring. The current to the motor is cut off, and the motor is not restarted
without a resistance R in the armature circuit. The no voltage coil also provides
protection against an open circuit in the field windings.

The No Voltage Coil (NVC) is called NO-VOLT or UNDERVOLTAGE protection of

the motor. Without this protection, the supply voltage might be restored with the
handle in the RUN position. The full line voltage is directly applied to the armature.
As a result, a large amount of current is generated.
STARTING METHOD OF DC SHUNT MOTOR WITH THREE POINT STARTER

The other protective device incorporated in the starter is the overload

protection. The Over Load Trip Coil (OLC) and the No Voltage Coil
(NVC) provide the overload protection of the motor. The overload coil
is made up of a small electromagnet, which carries the armature current.
The magnetic pull of the Overload trip coil is insufficient to attract the
strip P, for the normal values of the armature current.

When the motor is overloaded, that is the armature current exceeds the
normal rated value, P is attracted by the electromagnet of the OLC and
closes the contact aa thus, the No Voltage Coil is short-circuited, shown
in the figure of 3 Point Starter. As a result, the handle H is released,
which returns to the OFF position, and the motor supply is cut off.

To stop the motor, the starter handle should never be pulled back as this
would result in burning the starter contacts. Thus, to stop the motor, the
main switch of the motor should be opened.
 DRAWBACKS OF A THREE POINT STARTER

The following drawbacks of a 3 point starter are as follows

1. The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with a
large variation of speed by adjustment of the field rheostat.

2. To increase the speed of the motor, the field resistance should be increased.
Therefore, the current through the shunt field is reduced.

3. The field current may become very low because of the addition of high
resistance to obtain a high speed.

4. A very low field current will make the holding electromagnet too weak to
overcome the force exerted by the spring.

5. The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the normal
operation of the motor and thus, disconnect the motor from the line. This is
not a desirable action.

Hence, to overcome this difficulty, the 4 Point Starter is used.

 TWO POINT STARTING METHOD OF DC SERIES MOTOR

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as

shown in the figure. The start arm is simply moved towards
right to start the motor. Thus, maximum resistance is
connected in series with the armature during starting and then
gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This
starter is sometimes also called as a 2 point starter.

The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position
and leaves it when the voltage is lost.
 FOUR POINT STARTING METHOD OF DC COMPOUND MOTOR

A 4 Point Starter is almost similar in functional characteristics like 3

Point Starter. In the absence of back EMF, the 4 Point Starter acts as a
current limiting device while starting of the DC motor. 4 Point Starter
also acts a protecting device.

The basic difference in 4 Point Starter as compared to 3 Point Starter is

that in this a holding coil is removed from the shunt field circuit. This
coil after removing is connected across the line in series with a current
limiting resistance R. The studs are the contact points of the resistance
represented by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

The above arrangement forms three parallel circuits. They are as

follows:-
1. Armature, starting the resistance and the shunt field winding.

2. A variable resistance and the shunt field winding.

3. Holding coil and the current limiting resistance.

DRAWBACKS OF A FOUR POINT STARTER

The only limitation or the drawback of the 4 point starter is that it cannot limit or control the high current
speed of the motor. If the field winding of the motor gets opened under the running condition, the field
current automatically reduces to zero. But as some of the residual flux is still present in the motor, and we
know that the flux is directly proportional to the speed of the motor. Therefore, the speed of the motor
increases drastically, which is dangerous and thus protection is not possible. This sudden increase in the
speed of the motor is known as High-Speed Action of the Motor.

Nowadays automatic push button starters are also used. In the automatic starters, the ON push button is
pressed to connect the current limiting starting resistors in series with the armature circuit. As soon as
the full line voltage is available to the armature circuit, this resistor is gradually disconnected by an
automatic controlling arrangement.

The circuit is disconnected when the OFF button is pressed. Automatic starter circuits have been
developed using electromagnetic contactors and time delay relays. The main advantage of the automatic
starter is that it enables even the inexperienced operator to start and stop the motor without any
difficulty.
 FOUR POINT STARTING METHOD OF SEPARETELY DC MOTOR

The diagram shows the field connected to the DC source

through a variable resistor. That would be considered to
be a separate source. The starting lever connects the field
to the source through the brass arc at the same time it is
moved to the "1" terminal. If that arrangement is not
suitable for the field, the field could be connected directly
to some other source, but there should be some provision
to assure that the field is energized when the armature is
energized. If the field is not energized when the armature
is energized, the motor could run to a high speed if the
load is light. That could cause the motor to be damaged.
AUTOMATIC STARTING METHOD

The starting methods discussed up till now are the manual starting methods. It becomes inconvenient when the DC motor
is to be started and stopped frequently. In such a case, the automatic starting method is used.

The automatic starter uses the automatic switches called contactors which is a device whose operation depends on the
solenoidal coil controlled electromagnetically. When the main supply is ON, the field winding gets supply as it gets
directly connected across the supply which provides the required working flux.

ELECTRONIC STARTING METHOD

The thyristor's is an electronic device that can work as a switch. It acts as a closed switch when conducts and becomes
open when it is not conducting. Thus, the contactors in the automatic starter can be replaced by the thyristor's due to
which it is called an electronic starter.
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:

•TYPES OF DC MOTOR

•LOSSES OF DC MOTOR
TYPES OF DC MOTOR

The dc motor converts the electrical power into mechanical power is known as dc motor. The construction of the
dc motor and generator are same. But the dc motor has the wide range of speed and good speed regulation which
in electric traction. The working principle of the dc motor is based on the principle that the current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field and a mechanical force experience by it.
The DC motor is generally used in the location where require protective enclosure, for example, drip-proof, the
fireproof, etc. according to the requirements. A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection
of the field winding with the armature.

The types of DC motor include:

 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

 Separately Excited DC Motor
 Self Excited DC Motor
 Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Series Wound DC Motor
 Compound Wound DC Motor
 Short shunt DC Motor
 Long shunt DC Motor
 Differential Compound DC Motor
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

1. Permanent Magnet DC Motors

The permanent magnet motor uses a magnet to supply field flux. Permanent
magnet DC motors have excellent starting torque capability with good speed
regulation. A disadvantage of permanent magnet DC motors is they are limited
to the amount of load they can drive. These motors can be found on low
horsepower applications.

It works on the same principle as that of a normal type. The difference

between the normal type and PMDC is the usage of permanent magnets for
the production of the magnetic field instead of using a field coil in series with
the armature winding. The permanent magnet produces the field flux and the
flux produced by the armature interacts with each other to produce a resultant
magnetic flux. This resultant flux is considered to be as the armature
reaction. This enables the coils to produce a Uni-directional torque.

Another disadvantage is that torque is usually limited to 150% of rated torque to prevent demagnetization of the
permanent magnets.
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

2. Separately excited DC Motor

As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the

supply is given separately to the field and armature windings. The main
distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the armature
current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is
energized from a separate external source of DC current as shown in the
figure beside.

The voltage equation of separately excited type machine is given as

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush

We can neglect brush loss, then we get

V = Eb + Ia Ra

From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can
be varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.
TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

The field winding of the machine does not require any separate source. It feeds the supply on its own by the use of
armature. The supply to the field winding is received from the armature voltage. In case of self excited DC motor, the
field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding.

Based on this, self excited DC Motors can be classified as:

i. Shunt wound DC motor

ii. Series wound DC motor

iii. Compound wound DC motor

 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

i. Shunt wound DC Motor

Here, the field is connected with the armature windings in parallel or also known as a
shunt. The shunt field can be separately excited from the armature windings and that is
the reason it can be used for greater speed regulation and can also offer very simplified
reverse control.

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Vbrush
Il = Ia + If
If = Vs / Rsh

The flux in this type is directly proportional to the field current If a relationship is
expressed as
Φ α If

In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self excited
DC motor, the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they
are connected in parallel to the armature winding
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR
3. Self excited DC Motor
ii. Series wound DC Motor
Here, a large wire carrying the full armature current winds the field with few turns. This kind of
motor generates a large amount of starting torque but the speed cannot be regulated here. If they
are run with no load then it might face damage. These are not the ideal option for variable speed
applications.

The voltage and current equation association is given as

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush

V = Eb + Ia +(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush

The brush losses can be neglected then the equation obtained is as
follows
V = Eb + Ia +(Ra + Rse)
The current in the series type connection is as follows
Ia = Il = Ise

A characteristic of series motors is the motor develops a large amount of starting torque.
However, speed varies widely between no load and full load. Series motors cannot be used
where a constant speed is required under varying loads.
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

iii. Compound wound DC motor

These have a shunt field which is separately excited. They have a good starting torque but
might face problems in variable speed application.

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the

operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound
self excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding.

The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types depending on the
nature of compounding.

Compound motors have a field connected in series with the armature and a separately excited
shunt field. The series field provides better starting torque and the shunt field provides better
speed regulation.
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

iii. Compound wound DC motor

Cumulative Compound DC Motor

Here, the flux produced by the shunt field windings enhances the effect of the main field flux which is produced by series
winding.

Differentially Compound DC Motor

In this type of compound wound DC motor, the flux produced due to the shunt field windings reduces the effect of the
main series windings.
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

iii. Compound wound DC motor

Short Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and
not the series field winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or
more specifically short shunt type compound wound DC motor.

The relationship between and current and voltage is expressed as

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Il Rse + Vbrush

The brush drops can be neglected, then we get

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Il Rse
Ia = Il – Ish
Ish = V – Il Rse / Rsh
 TYPES OF DC MOTOR

3. Self excited DC Motor

iii. Compound wound DC motor

Long Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field
winding then it’s known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long
shunt DC motor.

In here, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with both series field coil and
armature which are again connected with each other in series.

The association between and current and voltage is expressed as

V = Eb + Ia Ra + Ia Rse + Vbrush

The brush drops can be neglected, then we get

V = Eb + Ia +(Ra + Rse)
Ia = Il – Ish
Ish = V / Rsh
LOSSES OF DC MOTOR

The losses can be divided into three types in a dc machine

(Generator or Motor). They are

1. Copper losses

2. Iron or core losses

3. Mechanical losses.

All these losses seem as heat and therefore increase the

temperature of the machine. Further the efficiency of the machine
will reduce.
LOSSES OF DC MOTOR
LOSSES OF DC MOTOR

Copper Losses in DC Machine

These losses are also known as Winding losses as the copper loss occurs because of the resistance of the windings. The ohmic loss is
produced by the current flowing in the windings. The windings that are present in addition to the armature windings are the field windings,
Interpoles and compensating windings.

Armature copper losses = Ia2Ra where Ia is armature current, and Ra is the armature resistance. These losses are about 30 percent of the total
full load losses.

In shunt machine, the Copper loss in the shunt field is I2shRsh, where Ish is the current in the shunt field, and Rsh is the resistance of the
shunt field windings. The shunt regulating resistance is included in Rsh.

In a series machine, the copper loss in the series windings is I2seRse, where, Ise is the current through the series field windings, and Rse is the
resistance of the series field windings.

In a Compound machine, both the shunt and the series field losses occur. These losses are almost 20 percent of the full load losses.

Copper losses in the Interpoles windings are written as Ia2Ri where Ri is the resistance of the Interpoles windings.

Copper loss in the compensating windings if any is Ia2Rc where Rc is the resistance of compensating windings.
 LOSSES OF DC MOTOR
Core Losses or Iron Losses
The core losses are the hysteresis and eddy current losses. These losses are considered almost constant as the machines are usually
operated at constant flux density and constant speed. These losses are about 20 percent of the full load losses.

Mechanical Losses
The losses that take place because of the mechanical effects of the machines are known as mechanical losses. Mechanical losses are
divided into bearing friction loss and windage loss. The losses occurring in the moving parts of the machine and the air present in the
machine is known as Windage losses. These losses are very small.

Brush Losses
Brush losses are the losses taking place between the commutator and the carbon brushes. It is the power loss at the brush contact point.
The brush drop depends upon the brush contact voltage drop and the armature current Ia.

Stray Losses
These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses. The following factors are considered in stray load losses.

 The distortion of flux because of armature reaction.

 Short circuit currents in the coil, undergoing commutation.

These losses are very difficult to determine. Therefore, it is necessary to assign the reasonable value of the stray loss. For most
machines, stray losses are taken by convention to be one percent of the full load output power.
LOSSES OF DC MOTOR
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:
• SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

 SEPARETELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

 SELF EXCITED DC MOTOR

 SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR

 SERIES WOUND DC MOTOR

 COMPOUND WOUND DC MOTOR

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

DC motor speed control is one of the most useful features of the motor. By controlling the speed of the motor, you can
vary the speed of the motor according to the requirements and can get the required operation.

The speed control mechanism is applicable in many cases like controlling the movement of robotic vehicles,
movement of motors in paper mills and the movement of motors in elevators where different types of DC motors are
used.

Often we want to control the speed of a DC motor on demand. This intentional change of drive speed is known as
speed control of a DC motor.

Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or by means of an automatic control device. This
is different to speed regulation – where the speed is trying to be maintained (or ‘regulated’) against the natural change
in speed due to a change in the load on the shaft.

The term speed control is different from the speed regulation. The speed regulation means that, to maintain a speed
of shaft constant against the change in load.
 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

Back emf Eb of a DC motor is nothing but the induced emf in armature conductors due to rotation of the
armature in magnetic field. Thus, the magnitude of Eb can be given by EMF equation of a DC generator.

Eb = PØNZ/60A
where,
P = no. of poles
Ø = flux/pole
N = speed in rpm
Z = no. of armature conductors
A = parallel paths)

Eb can also be given as Eb = V- IaRa

Thus, from the above equations N = Eb 60A/PØZ

But, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constants

Therefore, N ∝ K E b/ Ø (where, K=constant)

This shows the speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf and inversely proportional to the flux per
pole.
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

The relationship given below gives the speed of a D.C. motor

The above equation shows that the speed depends upon the supply voltage V, the armature circuit
resistance Ra, and the field flux Ф, which is produced by the field current. In practice, the variation of
these three factors is used for speed control. Thus, there are three general methods of speed control of D.C.
Motors.

1. Resistance variation in the armature circuit: This method is called

armature resistance control or Rheostat control.

2. Variation of field flux Ф

This method is called field flux control.

3. Variation of the applied voltage.

This method is also called armature voltage control.
 TYPES OF SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

Speed of a DC motor can be varied by varying flux, armature resistance or applied voltage. Different speed control
methods for different DC shunt and series methods are there.

Speed Control of Shunt Motors Speed Control of Series Motors

1. Flux control method

1. Flux control method

2. Armature and Rheostatic control method Field diverter

3. Voltage control method Armature diverter

Multiple voltage control Trapped field control

Ward Leonard system Paralleling field coils

2. Variable Resistance in series with motor

3. Series -parallel control method

 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR

SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTOR

1. Flux control method

It is already explained above that the speed of a dc motor is inversely

proportional to the flux per pole. Thus by decreasing the flux, speed
can be increased and vice versa.

To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding,
as shown in the circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in series with
the field winding will increase the speed as it decreases the flux. In
shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, Ish2R loss is small.
Therefore, this method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased
above the rated value by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit
to maximum speed as weakening of field flux beyond a limit will
adversely affect the commutation.
 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR

SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTOR

1. Flux control method

Advantages of flux control method

(i) This is an easy and convenient method.

(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field rheostat due to a relatively small value of Ish.

(iii) The speed control exercised by this method is independent of the load on the machine.

Disadvantages of flux control method

(i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field circuit resistance cannot be reduced
below Rsh—the shunt field winding resistance.

(ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the flux is too much weakened,
commutation becomes poorer.
 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTOR
2. Armature control method
Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb
Eb = V - IaRa.

That means, when supply voltage V and the armature resistance Ra are kept constant,
then the speed is directly proportional to armature current Ia. Thus, if we add resistance
in series with the armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the speed also decreases. Greater
the resistance in series with the armature, greater the decrease in speed.

Disadvantages of Armature Control Method

(i) A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full armature current Ia.

(ii) The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the controller resistance and
hence on the armature current demanded by the load.

(iii) The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.

(iv) This method results in poor speed regulation.

 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTOR
3.Voltage Control Method
a) Multiple voltage control

In this method, the shunt field is connected to a fixed exciting voltage and armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage
across armature is changed with the help of suitable switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across
the armature.

b) Ward-Leonard System

This Ward –Leonard system is used where very sensitive speed control
of the motor is required (e.g. electric excavators, elevators, etc.).

M2 is the motor, it controls the speed of the generator. M1 may be any

AC motor or DC motor with constant speed. G is the generator directly
coupled to M1. In this method the output from the generator G is fed to
the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled. The
generator output voltage can be connected to the motor M2 and it can be
varied from zero to its maximum value, and hence the armature voltage
of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly. Hence very smooth speed
control of motor can be obtained by this method.
 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT MOTOR

Advantages of Ward Leonard Method Disadvantages of Ward Leonard Method

The advantages of this method are summarized below; The disadvantages of this method are summarized below;

1. The speed of a motor can be controlled over a wide range. 1. It needs two additional machines (motor-generator set) with the
2. The operation of the motor is very smooth. same rating of the main motor. 2.Therefore, the overall cost of this
3. The speed regulation of the motor is good. arrangement is very high.
4. A motor can run with uniform acceleration. 3. It produces more noise.
5. It has an inherent breaking capacity. 4. Frequent maintenance required.
6. Easy to reverse the direction of rotation and speed can be 5. This arrangement needs more space to install.
controlled in both directions. 6. Overall efficiency is low if the motor runs with light load
conditions for a long period of time.

Application of Ward Leonard Method

This method is used where the motor to be controlled over a wide speed range. The application of the motor is very
sensitive to speed, in this condition this method is very useful.

This method is used in the application like; cranes, excavator, elevator, mine hoists, paper machine, steel rolling mills, etc.
 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL OF SERIES MOTOR
1. Flux control method
Field diverter:
A variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig (a). This variable
resistor is called as a diverter, as the desired amount of current can be diverted through this
resistor and, hence, current through field coil can be decreased. Thus, flux can be decreased to
the desired amount and speed can be increased.

Armature diverter:
Diverter is connected across the armature as shown in fig (b).
For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then the flux must increase,
as Ta ∝ ØIa
This will result in an increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will
increase and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.

Tapped field control:

As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select different
value of Ø by selecting different number of turns.

Paralleling field coils:

In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as shown in fig (d).
SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR

SPEED CONTROL OF SERIES MOTOR

2. Variable resistance in series with armature

By introducing resistance in series with the armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced. And,
hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

3. Series-parallel control

This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled series motors
are employed. For low speeds, the motors are connected in series, and for higher speeds, the motors are
connected in parallel.

When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage across each
motor is divided. When in parallel, the voltage across each motor is same although the current gets
divided.
 SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR

SPEED CONTROL OF COMPOUND MOTOR

The motor’s nameplate shows the base speed of the motor.

Armature Control for Starting and for Below Base Speed

Full voltage should be applied to the shunt field when the armature control is used.
Full voltage to the shunt field will give the motor constant torque (from zero to
base speed). The armature control allows enough amperes through the armature to
give it breakaway torque. The resistance is lowered gradually as the motor starts to
accelerate. The motor accelerates to the RPM required by the load. Full voltage is
applied to the armature at base speed.

Shunt Field Control for Starting and for Above Base Speed

The shunt field control applies full voltage to the shunt field when the motor starts.
The motor accelerates until the RPM is stabilized at base speed. At this RPM the
lines of force furnished by the shunt field are at maximum. The amperes flowing
in the armature are limited by counter voltage to a value needed for the load and
the motor’s internal losses.
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:

• ARMATURE CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

SPEED OF A DCMOTOR

Therefore, in a DC Motor speed is directly proportional to back EMF and inversely proportional to flux.
ARMATURE CONTROL METHOD
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:

• FIELD CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

SPEED OF A DCMOTOR

Therefore, in a DC Motor speed is directly proportional to back EMF and inversely proportional to flux.
FIELD CONTROL METHOD
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:
• CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTOR

 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

SHUNT DC MOTOR

SERIES DC MOTOR

COMPOUND DC MOTOR

 CUMULATIVE COMPOUND

 DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

According to the Excitation D.C Motor may be classified as

(i) Separately excited motor
(ii) Self excited motor

Self excited generator may be classified as

(i) Shunt motor
(ii) Series motor
(iii) Compound motor

In a separately excited motor field winding is energized from a separate voltage source in
order to produce flux in the machine. So long the machine operates in unsaturated condition
the flux produced will be proportional to the field current.

In order to implement shunt connection, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. It will be shown that subject to fulfillment of certain conditions, the machine may
have sufficient field current developed on its own by virtue of its shunt connection.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

In series d.c motor, there is one field winding wound over the
main poles with fewer turns and large cross sectional area.
Series winding is meant to be connected in series with the
armature and naturally to be designed for rated armature
current. Obviously there will be practically no voltage or very
small voltage due to residual field under no load condition (Ia
= 0)

A compound motor has two separate field coils wound over

the field poles. The coil having large number of turns and
thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field coil and
the other coil having few number of turns and large cross
sectional area is called the series field coil. Series coil is
generally connected in series with the armature while the
shunt field coil is connected in parallel with the armature. If
series coil is left alone without any connection, then it
becomes a shunt machine with the other coil connected in
parallel.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are,

1. Torque vs. armature current,

2. Speed vs. armature current

3. Speed vs. torque.

These characteristics are determined by keeping the following two relations in mind.

These above equations can be studied at - emf, torque equation and voltage equation of dc machine. For a DC
motor, magnitude of the back emf is given by the same emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb = PɸNZ / 60A.
For a machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N ∝ Eb/ɸ
TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTORS
1. Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)

If the supply voltage is kept constant, the field flux remains constant.

Ta α ΦIa
Therefore, Ta α Ia

The characteristic of torque – armature current is straight line from the origin.
The shaft torque is always less than the gross torque because of stray losses.
It should be noted that the heavy starting load requires heavy starting current therefore the DC shunt motor never
starts against heavy load.
The shunt flux does not remain constant at any load condition but it decreases slight at heavy load due to effect
of armature reaction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTORS
2. Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the speed
should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb decreases
slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of
full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed vs. armature current
characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal characteristic and the actual
characteristic is shown by the dotted line.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTORS
3. Speed vs. torque (N-Ta)

This curve is drawn between the speed of the motor and armature current with various amps as shown in
the fig. From the curve it is understood that the speed reduces when the load torque increases.

With the above three characteristic it is clearly understood that when the shunt motor runs from no load to
full load there is slight change in speed. Thus, it is essentially a constant speed motor. Since the armature
torque is directly proportional to the armature current, the starting torque is not high.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES MOTORS
1. Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)

This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is

directly proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In
DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If.
Therefore, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to
Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2.

Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.

After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature

current Ia. Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ Ia. Therefore,
after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.

The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence,
the curve Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.
In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of
armature current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES MOTORS
2. Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in
back emf Eb is small and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents
speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly
proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when
armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high.
That is why a series motor should never be started without some
mechanical load.

But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is

low which results in decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more
armature current is allowed.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES MOTORS
3. Speed vs. torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic.

From the above two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is
low and vice versa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND MOTORS

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series and
shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the
motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of the
shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these
compound motors are explained below.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND MOTORS
Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely to be removed completely. Series winding
takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly
removed. These motors have generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.

1. Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)

The series flux is in the same direction as that of shunt flux therefore the net flux increases as
the load current increases in the compound motor.

As the load current increases, the flux due to series field winding also increases result in
greater torque obtained that of DC Shunt motor for same load current.

2. Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

As the load current increases, the flux due to series field winding also increases.

This will result in fall in speed which is more than that of DC Shunt motor for a given
armature current.

However the speed does not become dangerous high due to presence of shunt field winding
flux.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND MOTORS
Differential Compound Motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains
almost constant or even it may increase slightly with increase in load (N ∝ Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but
they find limited applications in experimental and research work.

1. Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)

The series flux opposes the shunt flux in the DC Differential compound motor therefore the
net flux decreases as the load current increases.
The armature torque increases less than that of DC Shunt motor for a given armature current.

2. Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

As the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, resultant flux decreases with increase in
load current.

The back emf decreases as the load current increases but it decrease slightly less than that of
flux.
N α Eb / Ф

Therefore the speed of the DC Differential compound motor is slightly higher than the DC Shunt motor for a given armature current. The
DC Differential compound motor is useful for constant speed application.
It should be noted any suitable characteristic can be obtained by suitable designing of number of shunt field turns and / or number of
series field turns in the DC compound motor.
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:
• TORQUE EQUATION OF DC MOTOR

• EFFICIENCY OF DC MOTOR

• POWER FLOW IN DC MOTOR

• APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

• PROBLEM SOLVING
TORQUE EQUATION OF DC MOTOR

Torque equation of DC Motor gives the amount and nature of electrical torque Te developed whenever it is taken
into service. Basically the performance of DC machine centers around two equations. One is EMF
equation and another is Torque Equation. Therefore, understanding of torque equation is a must for
performance analysis. In motor operation mode, electrical torque is utilized to drive the load coupled to motor
shaft.

Torque in DC Motor depends upon the constructional as well as operational parameters. Constructional
parameters include number of poles P, number of conductors Z and number of parallel paths ‘a’ in armature.
Operational parameters include armature current Ia and field excitation.

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply

voltage, Eb is the back emf produced and Ia, Ra are the armature
current and armature resistance respectively then the voltage
equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque

equation of DC motor we multiply both sides of above equation by
Ia.
TORQUE EQUATION OF DC MOTOR
Now Ia2.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective mechanical power that is
required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where, ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating above equation, we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and subtracting the mechanical
and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
EFFICIENCY OF DC MOTOR

Electric motor efficiency is the ratio between power output (mechanical) and power input (electrical).
Mechanical power output is calculated based on the torque and speed required (i.e. power required to move
the object attached to the motor), and electrical power input is calculated based on voltage and current
supplied to the motor. Mechanical power output is always lower than the electrical power input, as energy is
lost during conversion (electrical to mechanical) in various forms, such as heat and friction. Design of an
electric motor aims to minimize these losses to improve efficiency.
EFFICIENCY OF DC MOTOR
Consider V is the supply voltage to the dc motor. The motor draws current I from its supply mains during its
operation. So the input power to the motor is

After copper losses, the armature develops mechanical power,

After friction and windage loss the mechanical power appearing at the shaft of the motor for doing the work is

Where Wc is the constant iron loss in the machine. So, the approximate power equation of the motor is
Overall Efficiency of DC Motor
The overall efficiency of the dc motor is the ratio of output power to the input power. We also call it as
commercial efficiency.

Electrical Efficiency of DC Motor

This is the ratio of armature power to the input electrical power.

Mechanical Efficiency of DC Motor

This efficiency determines, how efficiently a motor delivers the armature power to the shaft for doing desired
mechanical work by the machine. This is the ratio of output mechanical power to armature power.
CONDITION OF MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF DC MOTOR

The overall efficiency of dc motor as

Now the efficiency is maximum when the term under brackets in the above expression is minimum. Again,
this condition is satisfied when

The just above expression shows that the efficiency of a dc motor is maximum when

Copper Loss = Core Loss

POWER FLOW IN DC MOTOR

The motor converts electrical power into the mechanical power. During these power conversions electrical to
mechanical, some power losses occur that decrease the quantity of power conversion. Due to these power
losses heating produces that affect the operation of dc machines. Due to these power losses the efficiency of
machines also decreases. In today’s post, we will have a detailed look at these power losses and their effects
on machines. Also, discuss how we can reduce these power losses.
 APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR
Advantages of DC motors in industrial applications
1. Higher Starting Torque
DC motors have higher starting torque than their AC counterparts, making it easier to get things moving. The only problem with these
motors is that you can't start them unless they're already under a load. Without a load to slow them down, DC motors can burn out
quickly. For applications that need constant low-speed or variable-speed torque, DC motors are ideal.

2. Linear Speed-Torque Curve

The torque equation of an induction motor — or the curve plotted between the torque and speed of said motor — explains the relationship
between how fast the motor spins and how much torque it can generate. DC motors generate a speed-torque curve that's much more linear
than AC motors.

3. No Harmonic Effect
AC motors are susceptible to harmonic effects that can damage the equipment or cause the iron or copper components to heat
dangerously. In addition to causing excessive noise, harmonic problems can cause the motors to fail prematurely or misfire during use,
damaging other equipment or upsetting the manufacturing process. DC motors don't have this problem, effectively eliminating the issue.

4. Improved Speed Control

DC motors are ideal for any job that needs constant low-speed torque or adjustable torque.

5. Easier Installation and Maintenance

DC motors are easier to install than AC motors, require less maintenance and are easier to repair than their AC counterparts. Many
industrial systems may already be set up to use DC motors.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

Applications of Dc series motor

DC series motor is the best of Dc motors because it is suitable for both high and low power drives, for fixed and
variable speed electric drives, it has a simple construction, it’s easy to design and maintenance, and it also has a
high starting torque we find it in cheap toys and automotive applications like:

1. Electric traction.
2. Electric footing.
3. Cranes.
4. lifts.
5. Air compressor.
6. Elevators.
7. Winching systems.
8. Versatile electric equipment.
9. Hair drier.
10. Vacuum cleaner, and so on where we also need a
variation in speed.
11. Sewing machines and power tools.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

Applications of DC shunt motor

We know that DC shunt motor is a constant speed motor so we use it where we need almost constant speed from
no load to full load like in:

1. Automotive windscreen.
2. Wipers.
3. Lathes machines.
4. Drills.
5. Lifts.
6. Fans.
7. Boring mills.
8. Shapers.
9. Blowers.
10. Centrifugal pumps.
11. Conveyors.
12. Spinning and weaving machines.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

Applications of DC Compound motor

We have two types of the compound motor the first is differential compound and we rarely use it because it has poor
torque characteristics and the other is the cumulative compound which has a high starting torque and good speed
regulation at high speed so it’s the most used in:

1. Presses.
2. Electric shovels.
3. Reciprocating machine.
4. Conveyors.
5. Stamping machine.
6. Elevators.
7. Compressors.
8. Hoist.
9. Rolling mills.
10. Heavy planners, and so on.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR

Applications of separately excited Dc motor

Separately excited Dc motor or as you remember permanent magnet Dc motor is a special type where we use a
permanent magnet to create the required magnetic field and we also know that it doesn’t need to control the speed so
it’s usually used in:

1. Windshield wipers.
2. Washer.
3. Automobiles as a starter motor.
4. Blowers in heaters and air conditioners.
5. Personal computer disc drives.
6. Wheelchairs.
7. Toys.
And also in small fractional and sub-fractional KW motors.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR
Applications of brushless DC motor

As we said brushless Dc motor is a special motor because it doesn’t contain brushes, has high efficiency, high speed,
and electronic control so we use it in many applications like:

1. In computer peripherals (disk drives, printers).

2. Hand-held power tools.
3. Consumer electronics.
4. Transport.
5. Heating and ventilation.
6. Vehicles ranging from aircraft to automobiles.
7. For Small cooling fans.
8. And for gramophone records in direct-drive turntables.
APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR
PROBLEM SOLVING

A 500-V D.C. shunt motor draws a line-current of 5 A on light-load. If armature resistance is 0.15 ohm
and field resistance is 200 ohms, determine the efficiency of the machine running as a generator
delivering a load current of 40 Amps.

Solution.
No Load, running as a motor :
Input Power = 500 × 5 = 2500 watts
Field copper-loss = 500 × 2.5 = 1250 watts
Neglecting armature copper-loss at no load (since it comes out to be 2.52 × 0.15 =
1 watt), the balance of 1250 watts of power goes towards no load losses of the
machine running at rated speed.
These losses are mainly the no load mechanical losses and the core-loss.

As a Generator, delivering 40 A to load :

Output delivered = 500 × 40 = 20 kW
Losses : (a) Field copper-loss = 1250 watts
(b) Armature copper-loss = 42.52 × 0.15 = 271 watts
(c) No load losses = 1250 watts
Total losses = 2.771 kW
Generator Efficiency = (20/22.771) × 100 % = 87.83 %
MODULE:3

DC MOTOR
TOPIC:

• SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR BY USING WARD- LEONARD

METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL
WARD- LEONARD METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL

In the ward-leonard method, the speed control of D.C. motor can be obtained by varying the applied voltage to the
armature. In this method M is the main D.C. motor whose speed is to be controlled, and G is a separately excited
D.C. generator which is driven by a 3-phase induction motor. The combination of ac driving motor and the dc
generator is called the motor-generator set.

The speed of a D.C. motor is directly proportional to the back e.m.f and inversely to the net flux per pole Ф,If brush
contact drop is neglected i.e
N = (V-IaRa)/kФ
WARD- LEONARD METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL

Ward-Leonard System :

This system is used where unusually wide and very sensitive speed control is required as for colliery winders, electric excavators,
elevators and the main drives in steel mills and blooming and paper mills. M1 is the main motor whose speed control is required.
The field of this motor is permanently connected across the dc supply lines. A dc or an ac motor M2 directly coupled to generator
G. The motor M2 runs at an approximately constant speed. The output voltage of G is directly fed to the main motor M1.

In this method the variable voltage to be applied to the motor armature is obtained from an additional separately excited d.c
generator, and the motor under control is also run as a separately excited motor. The above equation shows that if the motor
excitation is constant and the applied voltage V is varied the speed will be almost directly proportional to the armature voltage.
The system can more be adapted for forward as well as reverse operation of the motor by changing the polarity of the voltage
applied to its armature. This condition can be achieved by reversing the direction of the field current of the separately excited
variable voltage generator.
The variable voltage generator in Ward Leonard system is driven by a constant speed 3- phase induction motor.

If the constant voltage d.c power for excitation is not available otherwise, the same may be obtained from a constant voltage
exciter coupled with the auxiliary motor-generator set. The direction of the field current of the variable voltage generator may be
reversed by anyone of the following two methods.

1. By providing a reversing switch in the field circuit

2. By connecting two potentiometer rheostats across generator field across the movable terminals.
WARD- LEONARD METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL

Advantages of Ward Leonard Method Disadvantages of Ward Leonard Method

The advantages of this method are summarized below; The disadvantages of this method are summarized below;

1. The speed of a motor can be controlled over a wide range. 1. It needs two additional machines (motor-generator set) with the
2. The operation of the motor is very smooth. same rating of the main motor. 2.Therefore, the overall cost of this
3. The speed regulation of the motor is good. arrangement is very high.
4. A motor can run with uniform acceleration. 3. It produces more noise.
5. It has an inherent breaking capacity. 4. Frequent maintenance required.
6. Easy to reverse the direction of rotation and speed can be 5. This arrangement needs more space to install.
controlled in both directions. 6. Overall efficiency is low if the motor runs with light load
conditions for a long period of time.

Application of Ward Leonard Method

This method is used where the motor to be controlled over a wide speed range. The application of the motor is very
sensitive to speed, in this condition this method is very useful.

This method is used in the application like; cranes, excavator, elevator, mine hoists, paper machine, steel rolling mills, etc.

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MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• BASIC CONCEPTS OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• OPERATING PRICIPLE

• IDEAL TRANSFORMER

• CONSTRUCTIONAL PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

• DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A single-phase transformer is an electrical device that accepts single-phase AC power and

outputs single-phase AC. This is used in the distribution of power in non-urban areas as the
overall demand and costs involved are lower than the 3-phase distribution transformer. They
are used as a step-down transformer to decrease the home voltage to a suitable value without a
change in frequency.

A transformer is a device which converts magnetic energy into electrical energy. It consists of
two electrical coils called as a primary winding and secondary winding. The
primary winding of a transformer receives power, while the secondary winding delivers power.
A magnetic iron circuit called “core” is commonly used to wrap around these coils. Though
these two coils are electrically isolated, they are magnetically linked.

An electric current when passed through the primary of a transformer then a magnetic field is
created, which induces a voltage across the secondary of a transformer. Based on the type of
application, the single-phase transformer is used to either step-up or step-down the voltage at
the output. This transformer is typically a power transformer with high-efficiency and low
losses.
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes and
workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed (hence
the name transformer) into much higher voltages and then distributed around the country using a
national grid of pylons and cables over very long distances.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the

voltage and current levels of their supply, without modifying its
frequency, or the amount of electrical power being transferred
from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but
are instead wrapped together around a common closed magnetic
iron circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core is not solid but
made up of individual laminations connected together to help
reduce the core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically linked through
the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other. When an
electric current passed through the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a
voltage into the secondary winding.
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER ACTION
A transformer is a static device that transfers electric power in one circuit to another circuit of the same frequency. It
consists of primary and secondary windings. This transformer operates on the principle of mutual inductance.

When the primary of a transformer is connected to an AC supply, the current flows in the coil and the magnetic field
build-up. This condition is known as mutual inductance and the flow of current is as per the Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction. As the current increases from zero to its maximum value, the magnetic field strengthens and is
given by dɸ/dt.
This electromagnet forms the magnetic lines of force and expands
outward from the coil forming a path of magnetic flux. The turns
of both windings get linked by this magnetic flux. The strength of
a magnetic field generated in the core depends on the number of
turns in the winding and the amount of current. The magnetic flux
and current are directly proportional to each other.

As the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, it passes through the secondary winding, inducing voltage across it.
The Faraday’s Law is used to determine the voltage induced across the secondary coil and it is given by:
N. dɸ/dt
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CAN DC SUPPLY BE USED FOR TRANSFORMER

The DC Supply can not be used for the Transformer.

Now connect the same transformer to the DC voltage and lets see what happens.
We know that there is no frequency in DC i.e. f = 0. Therefore, the inductive reactance X L would be
zero if we put f = 0 in the XL = 2πfL.
Thus, current in the primary of a transformer in case of DC source.
I=V/R
I = 230V / 10Ω
I = 23A
The Primary current in case of DC = 23A

If the primary of a transformer is connected to the DC supply, the primary will draw a steady current and
hence produce a constant flux. Consequently, no back EMF will be produced. They primary winding will
draw excessive current due to low resistance of the primary because we know that inductive reactance (XL) is
zero due to the inductive reactance formula (XL = 2πfL) where frequency of the DC source is zero. Thus
result is that the primary winding will overheat and burn out or the fuse and circuit breaker will blow. Care
must be taken not to the connect the primary of a transformer across the DC Supply.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER SYMBOLS – SINGLE LINE TRANSFORMER SYMBOLS
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a fixed electrical device, used to transfer the electrical energy in between two circuits
while maintaining stable frequency and also increasing/decreasing the current or voltage. The working
principle of a transformer is “Faraday’s law of induction”. When the current in the main winding is
changed, then the magnetic flux will be changed, so that an induced EMF can occur within the secondary
coil. A practical transformer includes some losses like core losses & copper losses. The copper loss can be
defined as, transformer windings which include resistance as well as reactance to cause some loss is called
a copper loss. The core loss in the transformer occurs when the transformer is energized; the core loss
does not change with load. These losses are caused by two factors like eddy & hysteresis. Because of
these losses, the transformer’s output power is less than the input power.

A transformer that doesn’t have any losses like copper and core is known as an ideal transformer. In this
transformer, the output power is equivalent to the input power. The efficiency of this transformer is
100%, which means there is no loss of power within the transformer.
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

The properties of an ideal transformer include the following.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes
zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The

infinite permeable means less magnetizing current requires for
magnetizing their core.

3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of
the flux induces in the core of the transformer links with their primary
and secondary winding.

4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the

transformer is free from hysteresis and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal transformer,
there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

Depending on requirement in the prevailing power system network, a transformer can be single phase or three phase type.
Such transformers that are used as components of the power transmission and distribution network are called power
transformers and distribution transformers. While such transformers are used for stepping up the voltage or stepping down the
voltage as per requirement.

Major construction parts of a transformer can be categorized as:

1. Magnetic parts

2. Electrical parts

3. Insulating parts

4. Mechanical parts & accessories

 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER 1. Magnetic parts
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to
flow around, which is necessary for induction of the voltage between the two windings.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by bringing the two windings within close contact with
each other thereby improving the magnetic coupling. Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may
improve the magnetic coupling between the two windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the magnetic losses of the
transformer core.
Transformer Construction of the Core:
Generally, the name associated with the construction of a
transformer is dependant upon how the primary and secondary
windings are wound around the central laminated steel core. The
two most common and basic designs of transformer construction
are the Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-core
Transformer.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER 2. Electrical Parts

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction, because they are the main current-
carrying conductors wound around the laminated sections of the core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two
windings would be present. The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates the magnetic flux called the
primary winding, and the second winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as a result of mutual
induction.

If the secondary output voltage is less than that of the primary input voltage the transformer is known as a “Step-
down Transformer”. If the secondary output voltage is greater then the primary input voltage it is called a “Step-up
Transformer”.

The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a transformer winding is either copper or
aluminum. While aluminum wire is lighter and generally less expensive than copper wire, a larger cross sectional
area of conductor must be used to carry the same amount of current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger
power transformer applications.
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER 3. Insulating parts

Insulation is essential to isolate the energized parts inside a transformer from other energized parts at different potential
or from the grounded parts. The desirable properties of an insulation material are:

1. High resistivity
2. High breakdown voltage
3. High dielectric constant
4. Low dissipation factor
5. Thermal stability
6. Chemical stability
7. Mechanical stability

According to the design of transformer insulating materials the allowable temperature rise , there are
several insulation class uses such as Y, A, E, B, F, H & C with respect to temperature rise 90, 105,v120,
130, 155, 180 & above 180 degree C
Respectively.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER 4. Mechanical parts & accessories

TANK

The entire core and coil assembly of oil filled transformer is enclosed by metal tank made mostly of
Welded mild steel or sometimes aluminum. Purpose of the tank is to hold the oil and to provide a
protective casing around the internal parts.

BUSHINGS

Bushings are meant to insulate the overhead lines from the earthed tank as these conductors have to
pass through the top of the tank to get connected to the winding terminals inside. Bushings are made of
porcelain or china clay.

BREATHER

Main function of the breather is to absorb moisture from the air during in breathing process of the transformer
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

1 Oil filter valve 17 Oil drain valve

2 Conservator 18 Jacking boss

3 Buchholz relay 19 Stopper

4 Oil filter valve 20 Foundation bolt

5 Pressure-relief vent 21 Grounding terminal

6 High-voltage bushing 22 Skid base

7 Low-voltage bushing 23 Coil

8 Suspension lug 24 Coil pressure plate

9 B C T Terminal 25 Core

10 Tank 26 Terminal box for protective devices

11 De-energized tap changer 27 Rating plate

12 Tap changer handle 28 Dial thermometer

13 Fastener for core and coil 29 Radiator

14 Lifting hook for core and coil 30 Manhole

15 End frame 31 Lifting hook

16 Coil pressure bolt 32 Dial type oil level gauge

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
There are different types of transformer based on their usage, design, construction as follow.

A. Types of Transformers based on its Phases

1. Single Phase Transformer
2. Three Phase Transformer
B. Types of Transformers based on its Core Design
1. Core Type Transformer
2. Shell Type Transformer
3. Berry Type Transformer

C. Types of Transformers based on its Core

1. Air core Transformer
2. Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Transformer

D. Types of Transformers based on Voltage level

1. Step Up Transformer
2. Step Down Transformer
3. Isolation Transformer
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
E. Types of Transformer based on its uses G. Types of Transformer based on Insulation & Cooling
1. Large Power Transformer 1. Self Air Cooled or Dry Type Transformer
2. Distribution Transformer 2. Air Blast-Cooled Dry Type
3. Small Power Transformer 3. Oil Immersed, Self Cooled (OISC) or ONAN (Oil natural, Air natural)
4. Sign Lighting Transformer 4. Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Air blast (ONAN)
5. Control & Signaling Transformer 5. Oil Immersed, Water Cooled (OW)
6. Gaseous Discharge Lamp Transformer 6. Oil Immersed, Forced Oil Cooled
7. Bell Ringing Transformer 7. Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Water Cooled
8. Instrument Transformer (ONAN+OW)
9. Constant Current Transformer 8. Oil Forced, Air forced Cooled (OFAC)
10. Series Transformer for Street Lighting 9. Forced Oil, Water Cooled (FOWC)
10. Forced Oil, Self Cooled (OFAN)
F. Types of Instrument Transformer

1. Current Transformer
2. Potential Transformer
3. Constant Current Transformer
4. Rotating Core Transformer or Induction regulator
5. Autotransformer
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:
• EMF EQUATION

• TRANSFORMATION RATIO

• RATING OF TRANSFORMER

• DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOLING METHODS

• APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER

• PROBLEM SOLVING
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of Maximum valve of emf
a transformer, alternating flux ϕm sets up in the iron core of the
transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and
secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function.

The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.

But w = 2πf
ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber
f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding Root mean square RMS value is
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

By Faraday’s Law
Let E1 be the emf induced in the
primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER RATIO
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of turns of the primary coil
divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and the
corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding compared to the secondary
winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such
as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the
secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output,
and the turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer:
“turns ratio = voltage ratio”.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER RATIO

Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the voltage and the number of turns. This means that with a
transformer loading on the secondary winding, in order to maintain a balanced power level across the transformers
windings, if the voltage is stepped up, the current must be stepped down and vice versa. In other words, “higher
voltage — lower current” or “lower voltage — higher current”.

As a transformers ratio is the relationships between the number of turns in the primary and secondary, the voltage
across each winding, and the current through the windings, we can rearrange the above transformer ratio equation to
find the value of any unknown voltage, ( V ) current, ( I ) or number of turns, ( N )
 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER RATING

Transformer nameplates contain several standard items of information and other optional information.
Transformer nameplate must specify the following parameters:

1. Volt-Ampere (VA) or kilovolt-amperes (kVA) rating Serial number Number of phases

Frequency Voltage rating

2. The voltage rating of both the primary and secondary circuits
kVA Rating Temperature Rise

3. The impedance rating of the transformer (normally restricted to 25 Polarity Percentage Impedance
kVA or larger) Connection Diagram Name of Manufacturer

Type of insulating liquid Conductor Material for each Winding

4. The required clearances for transformers with ventilated openings
Basic Insulation Level (BIL) Total Weight (kg)
5. The amount and kind of insulating liquid where used.

6. On dry-type transformers (no liquid coolant or insulation), the

nameplate listing must also include the class temperature rating of
the winding insulation.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Basis for Comparison Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

Definition The winding surround the core. The core surround the winding.
Lamination Shape The lamination is cut in the form of the L strips. Lamination are cut in the form of the long strips of E
and L.
Cross Section Cross-section may be square, cruciform and three stepped The cross section is rectangular in shape.
Copper Require More Less
Other Name Concentric Winding or Cylindrical Winding. Sandwich or Disc Winding
Limb Two Three
Insulation More Less
Flux The flux is equally distributed on the side limbs of the Central limb carry the whole flux and side limbs carries
core. the half of the flux.
Winding The primary and secondary winding are placed on the side Primary and secondary windings are placed on the
limbs. central limb
Magnetic Circuit Two One
Losses More Less
Maintenance Easy Difficult
Mechanical Strength Low High
Output Less High

Natural Cooling Does not Exist Exist

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOLING METHODS

No transformer is truly an ideal transformer and hence each will incur some losses, most of which get converted
into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in transformer may cause serious problems
like insulation failure. It is obvious that transformer needs a cooling system. Transformers can be divided in two
types as

(i) Dry type transformers

(ii) Oil immersed transformers.

Cooling of Transformer is the process by which heat generated in the transformer is dissipated or treated to the safe
value. This is achieved by various cooling methods of transformer available.

The major factor for the generation of heat in the transformer is the various losses like hysteresis, eddy current,
iron, and copper loss. Among all the various losses the major contributor of the heat generation is the copper
loss or I2R loss.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COOLING METHODS

Different cooling methods of transformers are -

 SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER
1. Transformer is used to get the required voltage level. Step-up
transformer is used to increase the voltage and step down transformer is
used to decrease the voltage level.

2. Transformer can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or

resistance in an AC circuit. Thus it acts as an impedance transferring device.

3. The transformer is also used for isolate two circuits electrically.

4. The transformer is used in impendence matching.

5. Transformer is used in the construction of electrical measuring device such as

voltmeter, ammeter, relay etc.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER

6. It is used for rectification. Rectification is the process of converting A.C to D.C. Rectification is
important for high voltage transmission. The best example of rectifier is a mobile charger.
7. It is used in the voltage regulator and voltage stabilizer.
8. it is widely used in power transmission and distribution process.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMER

Application of Isolation transformer

An isolation transformer is a transformer which is used to transfer electrical power from a source of alternating
current (AC) power to some equipment or device while isolating the powered device from the power source,
usually for safety reasons.

Application of instrument transformer

The main purpose of an instrument transformer is to provide voltage or current at a usable level which is used for
measurement of electrical quantities. These instrument transformers are very high accuracy electrical device
because it is going to be used in the measurement.

Application of Auto-transformer

Autotransformer is a transformer with single winding only. Generally, as we seen the transformer has two
windings, primary and secondary winding. But here in autotransformer same single winding is act as a primary
and secondary winding both. Autotransformer has many applications including starting of an induction motor, for
variable output etc.
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Problem 1. A transformer has 500 primary turns and 3000 secondary turns. If the primary
voltage is 240V, determine the secondary voltage, assuming an ideal transformer.

Solution:
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Problem 2. A 5 kVA single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 10:1 and is fed from a 2.5 kV supply.
Neglecting losses, determine (a) the full load secondary current, (b) the minimum load resistance which can
be connected across the secondary winding to give full load kVA, (c) the primary current at full load kVA.

Solution:
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Problem 3. A 100 kVA, 4000V/200V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100 secondary turns.
Determine: (a) the primary and secondary current, (b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the
maximum value of the flux.
Solution:
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:
• EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SINGLE
PHASE TRANSFORMER

• SECONDARY TRANSFERRED TO PRIMARY

• PRIMARY TRANSFERRED TO SECONDARY

• OPEN CIRCUIT TEST AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

OF A TRANSFORMER
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in the pre-determination of the behavior of the
device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit representation of the equation describing the
performance of the device.

The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of the transformer
either on the secondary side or on the primary side.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In a practical transformer -

(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to leakage reactance's at
both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.

(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and R2 respectively. These resistances
causes voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1 and I22R2.

(c) Permeability of the core can not be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed. Mutual flux also
causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power transformer is an
electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of the electrical power system which may be
required to calculate the total internal impedance of an electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or
secondary side as per requirement.

This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to the primary or equivalent circuit of
transformer referred to secondary sides respectively.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer is basically a diagram which can be resolved into an equivalent circuit
in which the resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external to the winding.

Where,

R1 = Primary Winding Resistance.

R2= Secondary winding Resistance.

I0= No-load current.

Iµ = Magnetizing Component,

Iw = Working Component,

This Iµ & Iw are connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The value of E1 ( Primary e.m.f ) is obtained by
subtracting vector ally I1 Z1 from V1 .

The value of X0 = E1 / I0 and R0 = E1 /Iw. We know that the relation of E1 and E2 is E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K , (
transformation Ratio ) From the equivalent circuit , we can easily calculate the total impedance of to transfer
voltage, current, and impedance either to the primary or the secondary.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The secondary circuit is shown in fig-1. and its equivalent primary value is shown in fig- 2,

The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is obtained by adding in the primary impedance as shown in – Fig-3 .
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WHEN ALL THE QUANTITIES ARE REFERRED TO PRIMARY SIDE

1. Secondary resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

2. Secondary reactance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent reactance referred to the primary side is given as:

 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WHEN ALL THE QUANTITIES ARE REFERRED TO SECONDARY SIDE

1. Primary resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

2. Primary reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

No-load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel branch consisting of resistance
R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the behavior of the transformer
under the loaded condition.
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF A TRANSFORMER

Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to determine the:

1. Equivalent circuit of transformer

2. Voltage regulation of transformer

3. Efficiency of transformer

The power required for open circuit tests and short circuit tests on a transformer is equal to the power
loss occurring in the transformer.

The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining the parameter of the transformer like
their efficiency, voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are performed without the actual loading
and because of this reason the very less power is required for the test. The open circuit and the short circuit
test gives a very accurate result as compared to the full load test.
 OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OF A TRANSFORMER

The purpose of the open-circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the transformer because of
which their no-load parameters are determined. This test is performed on the primary winding of the transformer.
The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are connected to their primary winding. The nominal rated voltage is
supplied to their primary winding with the help of the ac source.

The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open,

and the voltmeter is connected to their terminal. This
voltmeter measures the secondary induced voltage. As
the secondary of the transformer is open, thus no-load
current flows through the primary winding.

The value of no-load current is very small as compared to

the full rated current. The copper loss occurs only on the
primary winding of the transformer because the secondary
winding is open. The reading of the wattmeter only
represents the core and iron losses. The core loss of the
transformer is the same for all types of loads.
 OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OF A TRANSFORMER
CALCULATION OF OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST
Let, 5. Equivalent exciting resistance is
W0 – wattmeter reading
V1 – voltmeter reading
I0 – ammeter reading 6. Equivalent exciting reactance is
1. Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

2. The no-load power factor is

3. Working component Iw is

4. Magnetizing component is
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF A TRANSFORMER
The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the transformer.

It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known by the short circuit test.

The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer. The measuring
instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the high voltage winding of the transformer. Their
primary winding is short-circuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter which is connected to its terminal.

The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full load current flows from
both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load current is measured by the ammeter
connected across their secondary winding.
 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF A TRANSFORMER

CALCULATION OF SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST

Let,
Wc – Wattmeter reading The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by
V2sc – voltmeter reading
I2sc – ammeter reading

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is

Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor after knowing the
values of Zes and Res.

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses, including core loss but the value of core loss are
very small as compared to copper loss so the core loss can be neglected.
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

• PERFORM OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT

TEST OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER IN
VIRTUAL LABS
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

There are various types of losses in the transformer such as iron loss, copper loss, hysteresis loss, eddy current loss,
stray loss, and dielectric loss. The hysteresis losses occur because of the variation of the magnetization in the core of
the transformer and the copper loss occurs because of the transformer winding resistance.

Losses of transformer are divided mainly into two types:

1. Iron Loss

2. Copper Losses
TYPES OF LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
 LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

1. Copper Losses (Winding Resistance)

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and
proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.
Total copper losses. = I12. R1+ I22R2 = I12. R 01+ I22R 02
2. Core or Iron Losses
a) Hysteresis Losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material,
the transformer losses are proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
Wh = ηB1.6maxf.v watt
b) Eddy Current Losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited
turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible
for resistive heating of the core material.
We = PB2max.f2t2 Watt
3. Stray losses (leakage Flux)

However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer’s support structure will give rise to
eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radioactive losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually
small and negligible.
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

4. Dielectric Loss

In the solid insulation or transformer oil i.e. insulation material of the transformer, dielectric loss occurs when
the solid insulation get damaged or the oil gets deteriorated or its quality decreases over the time. Hence,
the overall efficiency of transformer may be affected due to this loss.

5. Magnetostriction Losses

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract
slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing
sound commonly associated with transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating.
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CONNECTION DIAGRAM
LABORATORY SET UP FOR OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF A
TRANSFORMER

http://www.vlab.co.in/
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

• ALL DAY EFFICIENCY

• VOLTAGE REGULATION

• PROBLEM SOLVING
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers form the most important link between supply systems and load. Transformer’s efficiency directly affects its
performance and aging. The transformer’s efficiency, in general, is in the range of 95 – 99 %. For large power transformers
with very low losses, the efficiency can be as high as 99.7%. The input and output measurements of a transformer are not
done under loaded conditions as the wattmeter readings inevitably suffer errors of 1 – 2%. So for the purpose of efficiency
calculations, OC and SC tests are used to calculate rated core and winding losses in the transformer. The core losses depend
on the transformer rated voltage, and the copper losses depend on the currents through the transformer primary and
secondary windings. Hence transformer efficiency is of prime importance to operate it under constant voltage and
frequency conditions. The rise in the temperature of the transformer due to heat generated affects the life of transformer oil
properties and decides the type of cooling method adopted. The temperature rise limits the rating of the equipment. The
efficiency of transformer is simply given as:

Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.
Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called
“volt-amps”, VA to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the
efficiency equation above can be modified to:
 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

The output power is the product of the fraction of the rated loading (volt-ampere), and power factor of the load.

The losses are the sum of copper losses in the windings + the iron loss + dielectric loss + stray load loss.

The iron losses include the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the transformer. These losses depend on the flux
density inside the core. Mathematically,

Hysteresis Loss : Eddy Current Loss

Where kh and ke are constants, Bmax is the peak magnetic field density, f is the source
frequency, and t is the thickness of the core. The power ‘n’ in the hysteresis loss is
known as Steinmetz constant whose value can be nearly 2

The dielectric losses take place inside the transformer oil. For low voltage transformers, it can be neglected.
The leakage flux links to the metal frame, tank,etc. to produce eddy currents and are present all around
the transformer hence called stray loss, and it depends on the load current and so named as ‘stray load loss.’ It
can be represented by resistance in series to the leakage reactance.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input power. The input and
output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts (W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted
by Ƞ.

Where,
V2 – Secondary terminal voltage
I2 – Full load secondary current
Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses
Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res
Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the
transformer regarding x is expressed as
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

Copper loss = Iron loss = Wi

Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum

when copper loss and iron losses are equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.
 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
ALL DAY EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

As we have seen above, ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer can be given as

But in some types of transformers, their performance can not be judged by this efficiency. For example, distribution
transformers have their primaries energized all the time. But, their secondary's supply little load all no-load most of the time
during day (as residential use of electricity is observed mostly during evening till midnight).

That is, when secondary's of transformer are not supplying any load (or supplying only little load), then only core losses of
transformer are considerable and copper losses are absent (or very little). Copper losses are considerable only when
transformers are loaded. Thus, for such transformers copper losses are relatively less important. The performance of such
transformers is compared on the basis of energy consumed in one day.

All day efficiency of a transformer is always less than ordinary efficiency of it.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

WHAT IS THE NEED FOR ALL DAY EFFICIENCY

Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial efficiency as the load on certain transformer
fluctuate throughout the day.

For example, the distribution transformers are energized for 24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for the
major portion of the day, and they do not supply rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution
transformer has 50 to 75% load on it.

As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes place at
the core of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the whole day in the distribution transformer.
The second type of loss known as a copper loss and it takes place in the windings of the transformer and is also
known as the variable loss. It occurs only when the transformers are in the loaded condition.

Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the
efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy
efficiency which is computed by the energy consumed for 24 hours.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

The term voltage regulation identifies the characteristic of the voltage change in the transformer with loading.

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in the secondary terminal voltage between no
load and full load at a specified power factor expressed as a percentage of the full load terminal voltage.

Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the terminal voltage of a transformer between No load and
Full load. A good transformer has least value of the regulation of the order of ±5%

The voltage regulation of the transformer is defined as the arithmetical difference in the secondary terminal
voltage between no-load (I2=0) and full rated load (I2 = I2fl) at a given power factor with the same value of
primary voltage for both rated load and no-load.

The numerical difference between no-load and full-load voltage is called inherent voltage regulation.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

voltage regulation

Where V2fl = rated secondary terminal voltage at rated load.

V2nl = no load secondary terminal voltage with the same value of primary voltage for both rated load and no load.

Per unit voltage regulation at full load is

Percent voltage regulation at full load

We can say that voltage regulation is an important measure for the performance of the transformer. We can
specify the limits of the transformer in terms of voltage regulation.
 VOLTAGE REGULATION

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER FOR LAGGING POWER FACTOR

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,

 VOLTAGE REGULATION

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER FOR LEADING POWER FACTOR

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor

 PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-01: Calculate the values of equivalent circuit parameters referred to the LV side of a single-phase
3kVA, 220/440V, 50 Hz transformer with the following test results:

Open circuit test (HV open): 220 V, 1 A, 100 W

Short circuit test (LV short): 20 V, 9 A, 75 W

Solution:
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-02: A single-phase 10 kVA 2000/200 V, 50 Hz transformer has the following test results:
Open circuit test: 200 V, 0.8 A, 60 W
Short circuit test: 40 V, 4 A, 70 W
i) Find efficiency of the transformer at full load and 0.8 power factor lagging
ii) Find efficiency of the transformer at half load and 0.8 power factor lagging
Solution:
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• POLATITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER

• PARALLEL OPERATIONON OF
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• AUTO TRANSFORMER
POLATITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER

The term polarity refers to the conductors in a DC circuit like positive or else negative conductors. In an electrical
circuit, the flow of current direction is called as electrical polarity. The flow of current will be from positive
terminal to negative terminal, whereas electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. In a DC
circuit, the flow of current will be in one direction only where the one terminal is positive and other terminal is
negative always. In an AC circuit, the two terminals change among positive and negative and the direction of electron
flow sometimes turns around. A Polarity Test is used in the situation of electricity fixing to verify the exact line
connection as well as neutral conductors. For instance, for an Edison screw light holder, it is significant that the
connection of line conductor should be to the center terminal as well as the neutral conductor is allied to the external
conductor. Likewise, it is significant to verify that switches are situated within the line conductor, not the neutral
conductor.

What is Polarity Test

The polarity can be defined as the induced voltage

direction in the two windings of the transformer namely
primary as well as secondary. If the connection of two
transformers can be done in parallel, then the polarity must
be identified for the good connection of the transformer.
POLATITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding of the transformer. If
the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should be known for the proper connection of the
transformer. There are two types of polarity one is Additive, and another is Subtractive.

Additive Polarity: In additive polarity, the same terminals of the primary and the secondary windings of the
transformer are connected

Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity, different terminals of the primary and secondary side of the
transformer is connected.
 POLATITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER
CONNECTION DIAGRAM

Each of the terminals of the primary, as well as the secondary winding of a

transformer, is alternatively positive and negative with respect to each other
as shown in the figure below. Let A1 and A2 be the positive and negative
terminal, respectively of the primary side of the transformer and a1, a2 are the
positive and negative terminal of the secondary side of the transformer.

If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means similar terminals

of the transformer are connected, then the polarity is said to be additive. If
A1 is connected to a2 and A2 to a1, that means the opposite terminals are
connected to each other, and thus the voltmeter will read
the subtractive polarity.

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the primary and the secondary terminals for making the
correct connections if the transformers are to be connected in parallel or they are used in a three-phase circuit.

In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and from the secondary side, the terminals are named as
a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding, and a voltmeter is connected between
A2 and the other end of the secondary winding.

When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 – V2), the transformer is said to be connected with opposite polarity
know as subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads (V1 + V2), the transformer is said to have additive polarity.
 POLATITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER
PROCEDURE OF POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER

1. Connect the circuit as shown above with a voltmeter (Va) across

primary winding and another voltmeter (Vb) across the secondary
winding.
2. If available, take down the ratings of the transformer and the turn
ratio.
3. We connect a voltmeter (Vc) between primary and secondary
windings.
4. We apply some voltage to the primary side.
5. By checking the value in the voltmeter (Vc), we can find whether it is
additive or subtractive polarity.

If additive polarity – Vc should be showing the sum of Va and Vb.

If subtractive polarity – Vc should be showing the difference between Va and Vb.

Caution: Be careful that the max. measuring the voltage of voltmeter Vc should be greater than the
sum of Va (Primary winding) and Vb (Secondary winding) otherwise during the additive polarity,
the sum of Va and Vb comes across it.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, two or more transformers may be connected in
parallel with the existing transformer. The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers
is more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to have single larger unit. The cost
associated with maintaining the spares is less when two transformers are connected in parallel.

It is usually economical to install another transformer in parallel instead of replacing the existing transformer by a
single larger unit. The cost of a spare unit in the case of two parallel transformers (of equal rating) is also lower than
that of a single large transformer. In addition, it is preferable to have a parallel transformer for the reason of
reliability. With this at least half the load can be supplied with one transformer out of service.

Parallel operation of two or more Transformers means that all the Transformers Primary is connected with the
common supply and their Secondary are feeding to a common bus through which load is connected. Parallel
operation of Transformers requires that their Primaries as well as Secondary's are connected in parallel.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

WHY PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS IS REQUIRED

It is economical to installed numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than installing a bigger rated electrical
power transformers. This has mainly the following advantages

1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:

Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers
in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full
load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch none by one other transformer connected in parallel to
fulfill the total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

2. To maximize electrical power system availability:

If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose.
Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of power.

3. To maximize power system reliability:

If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system
will share the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers
over loaded.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

WHY PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS IS REQUIRED

4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:

There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it is predicted that power
demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill
the extra demand because, it is not economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer
by forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again if future demand is
decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system to balance the capital investment and its return.

5. When the load power is greater than the power handled by single transformer.

6. When expansion of the plant or additional load necessary, it is better to connect second transformer of suitable
rating is in parallel with first transformer rather than using single transformer of higher capacity in the future.

7. Although the parallel operation is expansive but single transformer supply load when other transformer is in fault
condition or take out of maintenance.
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

NECESSARY CONDITIONS:

1. The transformers must have the same polarities.

2. The transformers should have equal turn ratios.

DESIRABLE CONDITIONS:

1. The voltages at full load across transformers internal impedance should be equal.

2. The ratios of their winding resistances to reactance's should be equal for both transformers. This
condition ensures that both transformers operate at the same power factor, thus sharing active
power and reactive volt-amperes according to their ratings.
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

1. THE POLARITY OF BOTH TRANSFORMERS MUST BE SAME

If the voltmeter indicates zero, it is "Correct'' polarity.

If the voltmeter indicates double voltage that of

secondary rated voltage of a transformer, it
is "Incorrect'' polarity.

2. THE TURNS - RATIO OF BOTH TRANSFORMERS ARE THE SAME

If the voltage ratio of the both transformer is not identical the secondary emf will induce resulting circulating
current flow in the secondary circuit.
Therefore the primaries of the transformer will draw reflected secondary circulating current, in addition to the
magnetizing current.
This additional current cause copper losses on both winding of the transformers.
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSFORMER PARALLEL OPERATION

1. Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker capacity.

2. The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another transformer. Circulating currents
that diminish load capability and increased losses.

3. The bus ratings could be too high.

4. Paralleling transformers reduce the transformer impedance significantly, i.e. the parallel transformers may
have very low impedance, which creates the high short circuit currents.
Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g. reactors, fuses, high impedance buses, etc

5. The control and protection of three units in parallel is more complex.

6. It is not a common practice in this industry.

AUTO TRANSFORMER

A transformer that has a single winding is known as an Auto Transformer. The term ‘auto’ is taken from a Greek word
and the meaning of this is single coil works alone. The working principle of the autotransformer is similar to a 2-
winding transformer but the only difference is, the portions of the single winding in this transformer will work at both
sides of the windings like primary & secondary. In a normal transformer, it includes two separate windings that are
not allied with each other.

Autotransformers are lighter, smaller, cheaper comparing with other transformers, but they will not provide
electrical isolation between two windings.
AUTOTRANSFORMER DESIGN

When the primary current IP is flowing through the

single winding in the direction of the arrow as shown,
the secondary current, IS, flows in the opposite
direction. Therefore, in the portion of the winding that
generates the secondary voltage, VS the current
flowing out of the winding is the difference
of IP and IS.

The Autotransformer can also be constructed with

more than one single tapping point. Auto-transformers
can be used to provide different voltage points along
its winding or increase its supply voltage with respect
to its supply voltage VP
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

Advantages of Auto Transformer Disadvantages of Auto Transformer

1. It uses single winding, so these are smaller & 1. In this transformer, the secondary winding cannot be
cost-effective. insulated from the primary.
2. These transformers are more efficient 2. It is applicable in restricted areas where a small difference in
the o/p voltage from i/p voltage is necessary.
3. It needs lesser excitation currents to compare with
the conventional type transformers. 3. This transformer is not used for interconnecting systems like
high voltage & low voltage.
4. In these transformers, the voltage can be changed
easily and smoothly 4. The leakage flux is small among the two windings so the
impedance will below.
5. Enhanced regulation
5. If the winding in the transformer breaks, the transformer will
6. Fewer losses
not work then the full primary voltage comes into view across
7. It needs less copper the o/p.

8. Efficiency is high due to low losses in ohmic and 6. It can be dangerous to the load while we are utilizing an
core. These losses will be occurred because of the autotransformer like a step-down transformer. So this
reduction in transformer material. transformer is used only to make small changes within the o/p
voltage.
AUTO TRANSFORMER

APPLICATIONS OF AUTO TRANSFORMER

1. It increases the voltage drop for the distribution cable

2. It is used as a voltage regulator
3. It is used in audio, distribution, power transmission and railways
4. Autotransformer with several tapping's is used to start the motors like induction as well as synchronous.
5. It is used in laboratories to obtain a varying voltage continuously.
6. It is used like regulating transformers in voltage stabilizers.
7. It increases the voltage in AC feeders
8. It is applicable in electronics testing centers wherever frequently changing voltages are required.
9. It is used where high voltages are necessary like boosters or amplifiers
10. It is used in audio devices like speakers to match the impedance as well as to adjust the device for nonstop
voltage supply.
11. It is used in power stations where the voltage needs to step down and step up to equal the voltage at the
receiving end which is necessary for the device.
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:
• COPPER USED IN A AUTOTRANSFORMER
AND A TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER

• TRANSFORMER TAP CHANGING

• TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER
• AUTOTRANSFORMER

• PROBLEM SOLVING
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
COMPARISON BETWEEN COPPER USED IN AN AUTOTRANSFORMER AND A TWO-WINDING
TRANSFORMER OF THE SAME RATING
In two winding transformer, whole power is transferred from primary to secondary side by means of induction
ONLY While, in the case of Auto transformer, part of the whole power is transferred by induction and rest of the
power is transferred through conduction.
In two-winding transformers, primary
and secondary windings are wounded on
separate limbs or interleaved means one
winding over the other one concentrically
and insulation is retained in between). So,
fundamentally both the windings are
isolated from each other electrically and
connected ONLY magnetically by means
of flux. So whatever power is transferred
to secondary side is through induction
ONLY (induced emf in secondary
winding).

In the case of Autotransformer, there exists ONLY one winding, part of which is common between primary and
secondary. That means by this mutual winding both primary and secondary windings are linked electrically and hence
the power transferred because of this common winding, is essentially by conduction. The power transferred, because of
winding which is not mutual (common) between primary and secondary, is by induction.
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
COMPARISON BETWEEN COPPER USED IN AN AUTOTRANSFORMER AND A TWO-WINDING
TRANSFORMER OF THE SAME RATING
In autotransformer, the copper savings compared to conventional two winding transformers can be discussed. In the
above winding, the weight of copper mainly depends on its length as well as the cross-sectional area.

Again conductor’s length within the winding can be proportional to the no. of turns as well as cross-sectional area
changes with the rated current. So copper weight within the winding can be directly proportional to the product of no. of
turns & rated current of the winding.
In this aspect let us compare the two types of transformers in equal terms. Let,
Input voltage = V1
Output voltage required across the load = V2
Rated current to be supplied to the load = I2
Current drawn from the supply at rated condition = I1
KVA to be handled by both types of transformers = V1I1 = V2I2
Primary number of turns = N1
Secondary number of turns = N2
For the autotransformer:

Number of turns between A & C = N1

Number of turns between E & C = N2
Therefore, number of turns between A & E = N1 – N2
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
COMPARISON BETWEEN COPPER USED IN AN AUTOTRANSFORMER AND A TWO-WINDING
TRANSFORMER OF THE SAME RATING

Let us now right down the mmf balance equation of the transformers.
For the two winding transformer:
MMF balance equation is N1I1 = N2I2
For the autotransformer: MMF balance equation is (N1 – N2)I1 = N2(I2 – I1)
or, N1I1 = N2I2

Volume of copper ∝ length of the wire × cross sectional area of copper wire ∝ N × I
AUTO TRANSFORMER
COMPARISON BETWEEN COPPER USED IN AN AUTOTRANSFORMER AND A TWO-WINDING
TRANSFORMER OF THE SAME RATING

Here we have assumed that N1 is greater than N2 i.e., a is greater than 1. The savings will of course be appreciable if the value of a
is close to unity. For example if a = 1.2, copper required for autotransformer will be only 17% compared to a two winding
transformer, i.e, saving will be about 83%. On the other hand, if a = 2, savings will be only 50%. Therefore, it is always economical
to employ autotransformer where the voltage ratio change is close to unity. In fact autotransformers could be used with advantage,
to connect two power systems of voltages say 11 kV and 15 kV.

If, for example, the ratio of the primary to secondary voltage of an autotransformer is 100: 50, then the above ratio
would be (2-1)/2=1/2. Thus the saving in copper by using an autotransformer would be 50%
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer provided with taps. For
sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage windings of the transformer.
There are two types of tap-changing transformers

The transformer voltage at the load side desired to be constant or as close

to the design value. But the load voltage may vary according to current
drawn by the load or supply voltage.

Secondary voltage = (supply voltage or primary voltage) / Turns ratio.

Based on the above equation to maintain constant secondary voltage/load

voltage or as close to the desired value it is needed to change the turn’s
ratio. The tap changer of the transformer performs this task to change the
turn’s ratio. The tap changer basic function is that it removes or connects
some portion of the winding to the load side or source side. Tap changer
can be located on primary side or secondary side. However it will be placed
on high voltage winding side.
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
Need for system voltage control
System voltage control is essential for:
1. Adjusting the terminal voltage of consumer within the prescribed limits.
2. Adjustment of voltage based on change in load.
3. In order to control the real and reactive power.
4. For varying the secondary voltage based on the requirement.

Types of taps
Taps may be principal, positive or negative. Principal tap is one at which rated secondary voltage can be obtained for
the rated primary voltage. As the name states positive and negative taps are those at which secondary voltage is more
or less than the principle tap.
Taps are provided at the HV windings of the transformer because of the following reasons.
Taps are provided at the HV windings of the transformer because of the following reasons.
1. The number of turns in the High voltage winging is large and hence a fine voltage variation can be obtained.
2. The current on the low voltage winding of large transformers are high. Therefore interruption of high currents is a
difficult task.
3. LV winding is placed nearer to the core and HV winding is placed outside. Therefore providing taps on the HV
winding is comparatively easier than that of the LV winding.
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

Location of Taps

The taps can be provided at the phase ends, at the neutral point, or in the middle of the winding. The number of
bushing insulators can be reduced by providing taps at the phase ends. When the taps are provided at the neutral
point the insulation between various parts will be reduced. This arrangement is economical particularly important
for the large transformer.

Tap changing methods

Tap changing causes change in leakage reactance, core loss, copper loss and perhaps some problems in the
parallel operation of dissimilar transformer. There are two methods of tap changing.

1. Off load tap changing

2. On load tap changing

 TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

1. OFF LOAD (NO LOAD OR OFF CIRCUIT) TAP CHANGING

As the name indicates, in this method tap changing is done after disconnecting the
load from the transformer. Off load tap changing is normally provided in low
power, low voltage transformers. It is the cheapest method of tap changing. The
tap changing is done manually though hand wheel provided in the cover. In some
transformers arrangements to change the taps by simply operating the mechanical
switches are also provided.

The winding is tapped at various points. Since the taps

are provided at various points in the winding single tap
must be connected at a time otherwise it will lead to
short circuit. Hence the selector switch is operated
after disconnecting the load. To prevent unauthorized
operation of an off load tap changer, mechanical lock
is provided. To prevent inadvertent operation,
electromechanical latching devices are provided to
operate the circuit breakers and de-energize the
transformer as soon as the tap changer handle is
moved.
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

2. ON LOAD TAP CHANGING

On load tap changers are used to change the turns ratio without disconnecting the load from it. Tap changing can be
done even when the transformer is delivering load. On load tap changers considerable increases the efficiency of the
system. Nowadays almost all the large power transformers are provided with on load tap changers. The reason for
providing On load tap changer in power transformers are1. During the operation of on load tap changers the main
circuit remains unaffected.2. Dangerous sparking is prevented. The taps on the windings are brought to a separate
oil filled compartment in which the on load tap changer switch is housed. The tap changer is a form of mechanical
selector switch which is operated by a motor by local or remote control.

A handle fitted for manual operation in case of emergency. The

selector switch is a form of make before break switch and during
the transition of the tap changers from one tap to another,
momentary connection must be made between the adjacent taps.
This results in short circuit between the adjacent taps. The short
circuit current must be limited by including resistor or reactor.
Hence all forms of on load tap changer are provided with an
impedance to limit short circuit current during tap changing
operation. The impedance may be resistance or a center tapped
reactance. In modern designs it is invariably carried out by a pair
of resistors.
 TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

Consider a high speed resistor type on load tap changers provided at neutral end of
each phase as shown. The load is now supplied from the tap 1. The selector switches 1
and 2 are in contact with the taps 1 and 2. Now to switch over to the tap 2, the selector
switch follows the following steps:

1. Contacts a and b are closed. The load current flows from tap 1 through contact b.
2. The external mechanism moves the diverter switch S3 from b, now load is supplied
from contact a through resistor R1.
3. When diverter switch moves further it closes the contact d and both R1 and R2 are
connected across taps 1 and 2 and the load current flows through these resistances to its
mid point.
4. When S3 moves further to the left, contact a is opened and the load current flows
from tap 2 through resistor R2 and d.
5. Finally the contact reaches the contact c and resistor R2 is short circuited. The load
current flows from tap 2 through contact c.
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

AUTOTRANSFORMER WITH MULTIPLE TAPPING POINTS

The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one single tapping point. Auto-transformers can be
used to provide different voltage points along its winding or increase its supply voltage with respect to its supply
voltage VP as shown.

The standard method for marking an auto-transformer windings is to label it with capital (upper case) letters.
So for example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the common neutral connection is marked
as N or n. For the secondary tapping’s, suffix numbers are used for all tapping points along the auto-
transformers primary winding. These numbers generally start at number “1” and continue in ascending order
for all tapping points
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
AUTOTRANSFORMER TERMINAL MARKINGS
An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages to either change its value or to keep it
constant. If the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up or down, then the transformer ratio is small
as VP and VS are nearly equal. Currents IP and IS are also nearly equal.

Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference between the two currents can be made from a
much smaller conductor size, since the currents are much smaller saving on the cost of an equivalent double wound
transformer.

However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since there is no second winding) of an
autotransformer for a given VA or KVA rating are less than for a double wound transformer.
PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM:01 A 100 kVA distribution transformer supplying light and fan loads has full-load
copper-loss and core-loss of 1.5 and 2 kW respectively. During 24 h in a day the transformer is
loaded as follows:
6 AM to 10 AM (4h) Half-load
10 AM to 06 PM (8h) One-fourth load
6 PM to 10 PM (4h) Full-load
10 PM to 6 AM (8h) Negligible load
Calculate the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
SOLUTION:
PROBLEM SOLVING

PROBLEM:02 The primary and secondary voltages of an autotransformer are 230V and 75V
respectively. Calculate the currents in different parts of the winding when the load current is 200 A.
Also calculate the saving In the use of copper.
SOLUTION:
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• COMPARISON BETWEEN AUTO-

TRANSFORMER & TWO WINDING
TRANSFORMER

• TRANSFORMER TESTING

• TRANSFORMER NAME PLATE DETAILS

COMPARE AUTO TRANSFORMER WITH TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER
There are several differences between the autotransformer and the conventional transformer. One of the major
difference between them is that the autotransformer has only one winding whereas the conventional transformer has
two separate windings. The other differences between them are explained below

A transformer, having only one winding a part of which acts as a primary winding and the other as secondary is
called an autotransformer. The windings of the autotransformer are connected magnetically and electrically.
When the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage, then the transformer is called step down
autotransformer, and when the primary voltage is smaller than secondary, then it is called step-up auto-transformer.

The autotransformer has a low cost, better

regulation and low losses. The disadvantage
of the autotransformer is that the primary
winding of the auto-transformer is not
insulated from the secondary. Thus, if the
low voltage is supplied from the high
voltage, then the full voltage came across
the secondary terminal which is dangerous
for the load and operator.

The auto-transformer is not used for interconnecting the high voltage and low voltage system. It is used in the places
where slight variation is required
COMPARE AUTO TRANSFORMER WITH TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER

A conventional transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another at the
same frequency but different voltage. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, i.e., the electromotive
force is induced in the closed circuit due to the variable magnetic field around it. The windings of the conventional
transformer are electrically insulated, but magnetically connected.

The conventional transformer has two windings. i.e., the primary winding and the secondary winding. The primary
winding takes the input from the supply, and the secondary winding is connected to a load and supply energy to the
load.

When the output voltage of the transformer is greater than the input voltage, then such type of transformers is called
step up transformer, and when the output voltage is less than the input voltage, then it is called a step-down
transformer. A transformer in which receiving voltage and the sending voltage is same, then such type of transformer
is called one to one transformer.
BASIS FOR DIFFERENCES AUTOTRANSFORMER CONVENTIONAL TRANSFORMER
Definition A transformer, having only one winding a part of which acts as a It is a static machine which transfers electrical energy
primary and the other as a secondary. from one end to another without changing frequency.
Number of Windings Auto-transformer has only one winding wound on a laminated core It has two separate winding, i.e., primary and secondary
winding.
Insulation The primary and secondary winding are not electrically insulated. The primary and secondary winding are electrically
insulated from each other.
Induction Self Induction Mutual Induction
Size Small Large
Power Transfer Partly by transformation and partly by direct electrical connection. Through transformation

Voltage Regulation Better Good

Winding Material Less requires More requires
Circuit The primary and secondary winding circuits are connected The primary and secondary winding circuits are connected
magnetically. both electrically and magnetically.

Connection Depends upon the tapping Connect directly to the load.

Starting current Decreases Decreases by 1/3 times.
Excitation current Small Large
Economical More Less
Cost Less costly More costly
Efficient More Less
Leakage flux and resistance Low High
Impedance Less High
Cost Cheap Very costly
Losses Low High
Output voltage Variable Constant.
Applications Use as a starter in an induction motor, as a voltage regulator, in Use in power system for step up and step down the
railways, in a laboratory. voltage.
TRANSFORMER TESTING

For confirming the specifications and performances of an electrical power transformer it has to go through a
number of testing procedures. Some tests are done at a transformer manufacturer premises before delivering the
transformer.

Transformer manufacturers perform two main types of transformer testing – type test of transformer and
routine test of transformer.

Type of Transformer Testing

1. Tests done at factory

a. Type tests
b. Routine tests
c. Special tests

2. Tests done at site

a. Pre-commissioning tests
b. Periodic/condition monitoring tests
c. Emergency tests
TRANSFORMER TESTING
Type Test of Transformer
To prove that the transformer meets customer’s specifications and design expectations, the transformer has to go
through different testing procedures in manufacturer premises. Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming
the basic design expectation of that transformer. These tests are done mainly in a prototype unit not in all manufactured
units in a lot. Type test of transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.

1. Routine Tests of Transformer

Routine tests of transformer is mainly for confirming the operational performance of the individual unit in a
production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit manufactured.

2. Special Tests of Transformer

Special tests of transformer is done as per customer requirement to obtain information useful to the user during
operation or maintenance of the transformer.

3. Pre Commissioning Test of Transformer

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests, performed on it, before actual commissioning
of the transformer at the site. The transformer testing performed before commissioning the transformer at the site is
called the pre-commissioning test of transformer. These tests are done to assess the condition of transformer after
installation and compare the test results of all the low voltage tests with the factory test reports.
TRANSFORMER TESTING

Type tests of transformer include:

1. Winding resistance test of transformer

2. Transformer ratio test
3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance
(principal tap) and load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no-load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer
8. Temperature rise test of transformer
9. Tests on on-load tap-changer
10. Vacuum tests on tank and radiators
TRANSFORMER TESTING
Routine tests of transformer include

1. Winding resistance test of transformer

2. Transformer ratio test
3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap) and
load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and gaskets

That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except temperature rise and vacuum tests. The oil
pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and gaskets is included.
TRANSFORMER TESTING

Special Tests of transformer include

1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase transformers
3. Short-circuit test
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchholz relay,
temperature indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation system etc.
TRANSFORMER TESTING

Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement

Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate the I2R losses and to calculate winding
temperature at the end of a temperature rise test. It is carried out as a type test as well as routine test. It is also
done at site to ensure healthiness of a transformer that is to check loose connections, broken strands of conductor,
high contact resistance in tap changers, high voltage leads and bushings etc.

There are different methods for measuring of the transformer winding, likewise:

1. Current-voltage method of measurement of winding resistance.

2. Bridge method of measurement of winding resistance.

3. Kelvin bridge method of Measuring Winding Resistance.

4. Measuring winding resistance by Automatic Winding Resistance Measurement Kit.

TRANSFORMER TESTING

Transformer Ratio Test

The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of specific turns or voltage ratio of transformer.
So transformer ratio test is an essential type test of transformer. This test also performed as a routine test of
transformer. So for ensuring proper performance of electrical power transformer, voltage and turn ratio test of
transformer one of the important tests.

The procedure of the transformer ratio test is simple. We just apply three phase 415 V supply to HV winding, with
keeping LV winding open. We measure the induced voltages at HV and LV terminals of the transformer to find out
actual voltage ratio of the transformer. We repeat the test for all tap position separately.

Magnetizing Current Test of Transformer

Magnetizing current test of transformer is performed to locate defects in the magnetic core structure, shifting
of windings, failure in between turn insulation or problem in tap changers. These conditions change the effective
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, thus affecting the current required to establish flux in the core.
TRANSFORMER TESTING
Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer
Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried out to ensure the healthiness of the
overall insulation system of an electrical power transformer.
1. Disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer
2. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure insulation resistance IR value in between the
LV and HV windings
3. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to measure insulation
resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth
4. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to measure insulation
resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth

Dielectric Tests of Transformer

Dielectric test of a transformer is one kind of insulation test. This test is performed to ensure the expected overall
insulation strength of the transformer. There are several tests performed to ensure the required quality of transformer
insulation; the dielectric test is one of them. Dielectric test of the transformer is performed in two different steps.

First one is called Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test of transformer, where a single phase power frequency
voltage of prescribed level, is applied on transformer winding under test for 60 seconds while the other windings and
tank are connected to the earth, and it is observed that whether any failure of insulation occurs or not during the test.

The second one is the induced voltage test of Transformer where, three-phase voltage, twice of rated secondary
voltage is applied to the secondary winding for 60 seconds by keeping the primary of the transformer open circuited.
 TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE

Transformer nameplates contain several standard items of information and other optional information. Transformer
nameplate must specify the following parameters:

1. Name of manufacturer 11. Rated temperature in °C

2. Serial number 12. Polarity (for Single Phase
3. year of manufacture Transformers)
4. Number of phases 13. % impedance.
5. kVA or MVA rating 14. Approximate mass or weight of the
6. Frequency transformer
7. Voltage ratings. 15. Type of insulating liquid.
8. Tap voltages. 16. Conductor material of each winding.
9. Connection diagram. 17. Oil volume (of each transformer
10. Cooling class Container/Compartment)
18. Instruction for Installation and
Operation
TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE
PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM:01 A 100 kVA distribution transformer supplying light and fan loads has full-load
copper-loss and core-loss of 1.5 and 2 kW respectively. During 24 h in a day the transformer is
loaded as follows:
6 AM to 10 AM (4h) Half-load
10 AM to 06 PM (8h) One-fourth load
6 PM to 10 PM (4h) Full-load
10 PM to 6 AM (8h) Negligible load
Calculate the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
SOLUTION:
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:
• PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
• NO-LOAD CONDITION
• ON-LOAD CONDITION
• INDUCTIVE LOAD
• CAPACITIVE LOAD
• RESISTIVE LOAD
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

we have assumed that the transformer is ideal, that is one in which there are no core losses or copper losses in the
transformers windings. However, in real world transformers there will always be losses associated with the
transformers loading as the transformer is put “on-load”

According to the transformer loading, single phase transformer associated with:

1. Single phase transformer NO-LOAD Condition.

1. Single phase transformer ON-LOAD Condition.

A transformer when it is in this “no-load” condition, that is with no electrical load connected
to its secondary winding and therefore no secondary current flowing. A transformer is said
to be on “no-load” when its secondary side winding is open circuited, in other words,
nothing is attached and the transformer loading is zero.

When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is
connected to load. The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows
through the secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary
current depends on the terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance. The phase angle
between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited, which means there is no load
on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero. While primary winding
carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current.

With the secondary circuit open, nothing connected, a back EMF along with the primary winding resistance acts to
limit the flow of this primary current. Obviously, this no-load primary current ( Io ) must be sufficient to maintain
enough magnetic field to produce the required back emf.

This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very
small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer.
The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

No load Transformer means a transformer which has no load connection at secondary winding only normal voltage is
applied at the primary winding. Let V1 is applied at the primary winding. After applying A.C voltage V1, it is seen that
small amount of current I0 flows through the primary winding. In case of Ideal Transformer, no load primary current
(I0) will be equal to magnetizing current (Iµ) of the transformer. We assumed there is no core losses and copper loss,
So I0 =Iµ . But, in case of actual transformer, there is two losses, i.e i) Iron Losses in the core i.e hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss , ii) and a very small amount copper loss in the primary winding.

So, the primary current I0 has two components:

1. Iw = Iron loss component which is same ph of applied voltage V1.

2. Iµ = magnetizing component which is 90⁰ behind V1.

MAGNETIZING COMPONENT (IΜ) :

This component is known as magnetizing component, because it is actually use to magnetize the core of the
transformer. We can also say that, Iµ is used to set up flux(ɸM) in the core. Now, as the flux ɸM is developed by
the Iµ, so they both will be in phase to each other as shown in the phasor diagram below.

This current Iµ is also called reactive or wattles component of no-load current, because this component does not
consume active power. It is not responsible for any losses in the circuit.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

WORKING COMPONENT (IW) :

This current IW is basically responsible for the losses in the transformer. Mainly, it is responsible for
the hysteresis and eddy current losses but it is also responsible for the negligible I2R losses.

Note:- I2R losses are take place due to winding resistances, hence, they are negligible in No-load condition.

As we know that this component is responsible for the losses in the transformer, and it actually does some work in the
transformer, hence it is called working component or active component or wattful component of no-load current.

IW is in phase with the applied voltage V1.

Note:-The no-load current Io is small of the order of 3 to 5 percent of rated current of the Primary.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:

1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase with the
flux.

2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.

3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as
I2 = 0.

4. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load power factor angle .

5. The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E 1 because the difference between the two, at
no load, is negligible.

6. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.

The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load current I0.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “NO-LOAD” CONDITION

From the phasor diagram drawn above, the

following conclusions are made
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “ON-LOAD” CONDITION

When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer and the transformer loading is therefore
greater than zero, a current flows in the secondary winding and out to the load. This secondary current is due to the
induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux created in the core from the primary current.

The load can

be resistive,
inductive or
capacitive.

The secondary current, IS which is determined by the characteristics of the load, creates a self-induced secondary
magnetic field, ΦS in the transformer core which flows in the exact opposite direction to the main primary field, ΦP.
These two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of less magnetic strength than the
single field produced by the primary winding alone when the secondary circuit was open circuited.

This combined magnetic field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding causing the primary current, IP to
increase slightly. The primary current continues to increase until the cores magnetic field is back at its original
strength, and for a transformer to operate correctly, a balanced condition must always exist between the primary and
secondary magnetic fields. This results in the power to be balanced and the same on both the primary and secondary
sides.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “ON-LOAD” CONDITION

OPERATION OF THE TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION
The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below:

When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I2 current flows through their secondary winding. The
secondary current induces the magneto motive force N2I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up
the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law.

As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux reduces the induced EMF
E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary current I’1 drawn from the main supply.
The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that V1 = E1.
The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2. Thus, it is called the primary counter-
balancing current.

The additional current I’1 induces the magneto motive force N1I’1. And this force set up the flux φ’1. The direction of the
flux is the same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the MMF N2I2
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “ON-LOAD” CONDITION

OPERATION OF THE TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION

The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.

The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.

If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is
capacitive, the power factor will be leading. The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’.
i.e
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER “ON-INDUCTIVE LOAD” CONDITION

1. Take flux ϕ, a reference
2. Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
3. The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced
emf in the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
4. Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
5. The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an
angle ϕ2.
6. The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and
hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phase difference of E2 and voltage drop. V2 =
E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in Quadrature with I2

7. The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
8. Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the
primary winding.
9. Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in Quadrature with I1.
10. The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the
primary side of the transformer.
11. The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to
the transformer.
12. If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will
be lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where
I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER “ON-CAPACITIVE LOAD” CONDITION
1. Take flux ϕ a reference
2. Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
3. The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to
induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
4. Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
5. The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading
E2
6. The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage
drop, and hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of
E2 and voltage drop. V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in Quadrature with I2.
7. Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
8. The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum
of I1’ and I0.
9. Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage
drop in the primary winding.
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
10. I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in Quadrature with I1.
11. The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor
angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
12. The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of
load connected to the transformer.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER “ON-RESISTIVE LOAD” CONDITION
If the load is resistive or power factor is unity, the voltage V2 and I2 are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor diagram are

1. Consider flux Φ as reference

2. E1 lags Φ by 90 degree. Reverse E1 to get -E1.
3. E1 and E2 are in phase
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I2'.
8. Add Io and I2' to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and to -E1 to get V1.

Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1 and cosΦ1 is primary power factor. Remember that I1X1 leads I1 direction by
90 degree and I2 X2 leads I2 by 90 o as current through inductance lags voltage across inductance by 90
degree.
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

• PUR UNIT REPRESENTATION

• SUMPNER’S TEST ON TRANSFORMER

• PROBLEM SOLVING
•
PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The quantities involved in power system are kVA, voltage, current and impedance of the equivalent
circuits of the various system components. The equivalent circuits are at different voltages and are
connected together in the system by means of transformers and interconnections.

Each apparatus is rated in kVA and its impedance in actual ohms or in percentage value referred to
its rated kVA and rated voltage. In power system analysis, it is usual to express voltage, current,
kVA and impedance in per unit of base or reference values of these quantities. Such a method
simplifies the calculations.
PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Another approach to solve circuits containing transformers is the per-unit system. Impedance and
voltage-level conversions are avoided. Also, machine and transformer impedances fall within fairly
narrow ranges for each type and construction of device while the per-unit system is employed.

The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are measured as fractions
of some base level instead of conventional units.

Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often, such quantities are
voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:

Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can be computed from the
equations
PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the specific point in the system.
Note that a transformer has no effect on the apparent power of the system, since the apparent power
into a transformer equals the apparent power out of a transformer. As a result, the base apparent
power remains constant everywhere in the power system.

On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it goes through a
transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process of referring quantities to a common
voltage level is done automatically in the per unit system.

If the actual impedance is Z (ohms), its Per Unit System Definition value is given by
PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A simple power system is given by the circuit: The generator is rated at 480 V and 10 kVA.

Find the base voltage,

current, impedance, and
apparent power at every
points in the power
system:

The turns ratio of the transformer T1 is a1 = 0.1; therefore, the

voltage in the transmission line region is
PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

The other base quantities are

The turns ratio of the transformer T 2 is a 2 = 20; therefore, the voltage in the load region is

The other base quantities are

PER-UNIT SYSTEM FOR SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF PER-UNIT (PU) METHOD

Advantages:
1. Calculations are simplified.
2. The characteristics of machines (generators, transformers, motors etc.) when described in per-unit system are
specified by almost the same number, regardless of the rating of the machines. In other words, the characteristics
(or parameters) tend to fall in relatively narrow range, making erroneous values conspicuous. Thus per-unit system
provides a method of comparison.
3. For circuits connected by transformers, per-unit system is particularly suitable. By choosing suitable base kV’s
for the circuits the per unit reactance remains the same, referred to either sides of the transformer. Therefore, the
various circuits can be connected in the reactance diagram.
4. This method is useful to eliminate ideal transformers as circuit components since the typical power system
contains hundreds, if not thousands of transformers, and this is a non- trivial savings.

Drawbacks:
1. Some equations that hold in the unsealed cases are modified when scaled into per-unit. Factors such as √3 and 3
are removed or added by this method.
2. Equivalent circuits of the components are modified, making them somewhat more abstract. Sometimes phase
shifts that are clearly present in the unsealed circuit vanish in the per-unit circuit.
BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER

The full load test on a small transformer is very convenient, but on the large transformer, it is very
difficult. The maximum temperature rise in a large transformer is determined by the full load test.
This test is called, back-to-back test, regenerative test or Sumpner’s test

The suitable load which absorbs the full load power of a large transformer will not easily be
available. Hence a large amount of energy will be wasted. The back-to-back test determines the
maximum temperature rise in a transformer, and hence the load is chosen according to the capability
of the transformer.

The Sumpner's test is carried out on two identical transformers to compute the efficiency of each
transformer.

Two identical transformers are connected back to back, such that their primaries are in parallel
across the same voltage source and the secondary's in series so that one transformer is loaded on the
other.
BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER

BACK TO BACK TEST CIRCUIT

The two identical transformer is used for the back to back

test. Consider the Tr1 and Tr2 are the primary windings of the
transformer connects parallel to each other. The nominal
rated voltage and frequency is supplied to their primary
winding. The voltmeter and ammeter are connected on their
primary side for the measurement of the input voltage and
current.

The secondary winding of the transformer is connected in

series with the each other but with opposite polarity. The
voltmeter V2 is connected to the terminal of the secondary
winding for the measurement of the voltage.

The series opposition of the secondary winding is

determined by connecting there any two terminal; the
voltmeter is connected across their remaining terminals. If it
is connected in series opposition, the voltmeter gives the
zero reading. The open terminal is used for measuring the
parameter of the transformer.
BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER

DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE RISE

The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by measuring the temperature of their oil after every particular
interval of time. The transformer is operating back to back for the long time which increases their oil temperature. By
measuring the temperature of their oil the withstand capacity of the transformer under high temperature is
determined.

DETERMINATION OF IRON LOSS

The wattmeter W1 measures the power loss which is equal to the iron loss of the transformer. For determining the
iron loss, the primary circuit of the transformer is kept closed. Because of the primary closed circuit, no current
flows through the secondary windings of the transformer. The secondary winding behaves like an open circuit. The
wattmeter is connected to their secondary terminal for the measurement of iron loss.

DETERMINATION OF COPPER LOSS

The copper loss of the transformer is determined when the full load current flows through their primary and
secondary windings. The additional regulating transformer is used for exciting the secondary windings. The full
load current flows from the secondary to the primary winding. The wattmeter W2 measures the full load copper
loss of the two transformers.

Efficiency(%) = Output (kW)/ [ W1/2 + W2/2 + Output]

BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER

DURING THIS TEST THE FOLLOWING POINT MAY BE NOTED:

1. The wattmeter’s W1 & W2 gives the core losses and copper losses at full load of the two
transformers respectively. Hence the total losses of two transformers are equal to the power
required to conduct this test.

2. The total iron losses and copper losses at full load are occurring even though the
transformers are not supplying any load.

3. There are two voltage supply; one is transformer regulating voltage and the other is supply
voltage and in between these voltages no interference. The source voltage provides 2I0 while
the transformer regulating voltage provides I2 and thus I1=KI2.
BACK-TO-BACK TEST (SUMPNER’S TEST) ON TRANSFORMER

ADVANTAGES OF THIS TEST:

1. Little much of power is required to conduct this test.

2. Under full load conditions transformers can be test using this test.

3. Simultaneously full load copper losses and iron losses are measured.

4. The secondary current I2 can be varied at any value of the current. Hence we can
determine the copper losses at full load condition or at any load.

5. The transformer temperature increase can be noted.

PROBLEM SOLVING

PROBLEM:02 The primary and secondary voltages of an autotransformer are 230V and 75V
respectively. Calculate the currents in different parts of the winding when the load current is 200 A.
Also calculate the saving In the use of copper.
SOLUTION:
MODULE:4
SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER
TOPIC:

DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS
USING VIRTUAL LAB
DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

Two simple tests are used to determine the values for the parameters of the transformer
equivalent circuit. The two tests are the short-circuit and open-circuit tests
DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

TRANSFORMER OPEN-CIRCUIT TEST

DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

TRANSFORMER SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST

 DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

CALCULATIONS:

S.C TEST
O.C TEST

http://www.vlab.co.in/broad-area-electrical-engineering
Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:
 INTRODUCTION TO THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

 DIFFERENT
CONNECTION OF THREE PHASE
TRANSFORMER

 APPLICATION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

As known, a single-phase transformer is a device that is capable of

transferring electrical energy from one circuit to one or more circuits
based on the concept of mutual induction. It comprises two coils – a
primary and a secondary coil, which helps to transform the energy. The
primary coil is connected to a single-phase supply, while the secondary
is connected to a load.

Similarly, a three-phase transformer consists of three primary coils and

three secondary coils and is represented as 3-phase or 3ɸ. A three-phase
system can be constructed using three individual identical single-phase
transformers, and such a 3-phase transformer is known as the bank of
three transformers. On the other hand, the three-phase transformer can
be built on a single core. The windings of a transformer can be
connected in either delta or wye configurations. The working of the 3-
phase system is similar to a single-phase transformer, and they are
normally employed in power generation plants.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the high voltages in various stages of power transmission
system. The power generated at various generating stations is in three phase nature and the voltages are in the range of
13.2KV or 22KV. In order to reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the power is transmitted at somewhat higher
voltages like 132 or 400KV. Hence, for transmission of the power at higher voltages, three phase step-up transformer is
used to increase the voltage. Also at the end of the transmission or distribution, these high voltages are step-down to levels
of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For this, a three phase step down transformer is used.

Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three

phase bank can be constructed with a single three phase
transformer consisting of six windings on a common multi-
legged core. Due to this single unit, weight as well as the cost
is reduced as compared to three units of the same rating and
also windings, the amount of iron in the core and insulation
materials are saved. Space required to install a single unit is
less compared with three unit bank. But the only
disadvantage with single unit three phase transformer is if the
fault occurs in any one of the phase, then entire unit must be
removed from the service.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

The two most commonly used three-phase winding configurations are delta and Star. In a delta configuration, the three
windings are connected end-to-end to form a closed path. A phase is connected to each corner of the delta.
In any of these configurations, there will be a phase difference of 120° between any two phases.

Although delta windings are often operated ungrounded, a leg of the delta can be center tapped and grounded, or a corner of
the delta can be grounded. In a wye configuration, one end of each of the three windings is connected to form a neutral. A
phase is connected to the other end of the three windings. The neutral is usually grounded.

Delta Configuration
Star/wye Configuration
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as:

(i) Delta- Delta

(ii) Delta-Star

(iii) Star-delta

(iv) Star-Star

(v) Open delta Connection

(vi) Scott connection

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

1. DELTA-DELTA (Δ-Δ) CONNECTION:

1. This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage
transformers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater
than that for star-star connection.

2. The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is
equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.

3. This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.

4. Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one

transformer is disabled, system can continue to operate in open delta
connection but with reduced available capacity.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

2. DELTA-STAR OR DELTA-WYE (Δ-Y) CONNECTION:

1. The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding

is connected in star with neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to
provide 3-phase 4-wire service.

2. This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the

beginning of transmission line.

3.The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the

transformation ratio.

4. There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

3. STAR-DELTA OR WYE-DELTA (Y-Δ) CONNECTION:

1. The primary winding is star (Y) connected with grounded neutral

and the secondary winding is delta connected.

2. This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the

substation end of the transmission line.

3. The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the

transformation ratio.

4. There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

4. STAR-STAR (Y-Y) CONNECTION:

1. Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage

transformers. Because of star connection, number of required
turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3
times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required
is also reduced.

2. The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side
is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.

3. Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.

4. This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

5. OPEN DELTA (V-V) CONNECTION:

Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as shown in the figure below. Open delta
connection can be used when one of the transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the
faulty transformer is repaired or replaced. It can also be used for small three phase loads where installation of full three
transformer bank is un-necessary. The total load carrying capacity of open delta connection is 57.7% than that would be for
delta-delta connection.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

EASY UNDERSTANDING OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

6. SCOTT (T-T) CONNECTION:

Two transformers are used in this type of connection. One of the transformers has centre taps on both primary and secondary
windings (which is called as main transformer). The other transformer is called as teaser transformer. Scott connection can
also be used for three phase to two phase conversion. The connection is made as shown in the figure below.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER WINDING IDENTIFICATION

We now know that there are four different ways in which three single-phase transformers may be connected together
between their primary and secondary three-phase circuits. These four standard configurations are given as: Delta-Delta (Dd),
Star-Star (Yy), Star-Delta (Yd), and Delta-Star (Dy).

Transformers for high voltage operation with the star connections has
the advantage of reducing the voltage on an individual transformer,
reducing the number of turns required and an increase in the size of the
conductors, making the coil windings easier and cheaper to insulate
than delta transformers.

The delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta configuration, in that if one transformer of
a group of three should become faulty or disabled, the two remaining ones will continue to deliver three-phase power with a
capacity equal to approximately two thirds of the original output from the transformer unit.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF A THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER

The advantages and disadvantages of a three-phase transformer are discussed below.

Advantages of a three-phase transformer Disadvantages of a three-phase transformer

1. Needs less space to install and it is easier to install 1. The entire unit shuts down in case of fault or loss occurs
in any one unit of a transformer as a common core is
2. Less weight and reduced size shared by all three units.

3. Higher efficiency 2. Repair costs are higher

4. Low cost 3. Cost of spare units are high

5. Transportation cost is low

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER APPLICATION
Three Phase transformers are widely used as Power transformers, Distribution transformers and in Electrical Grids.
1. When we generate the Power using an alternator(AC), the voltage at which it is generated is of mostly 11KV(
Sometimes a bit more than that but not too high due to insulation constraints). For transmitting purpose we install a
transformer just after the generator so that it can step up/down the voltage). Moreover, it is better to generate in 3
phase rather than 1 phase due to many advantages. Therefore, the transformer you have to use should be a 3 phase
one.
2. Some loads such as industrial, and commercial require 3 phase transformers to meet their demand.
3. The transmission voltage such as 132/220 KV, we need step up/down in the both ends of Transmission lines. There are
lots of applications of 3 phase transformers, I am just giving an idea of its major application. Hope it'll help you.
Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:
 TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

 DIFFERENT
CONSTRUCTIONAL PARTS OF THREE
PHASE TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

There are different types of transformer based on their usage, design, construction as follow.

A. Types of Transformers based on its Phases

1. Single Phase Transformer
2. Three Phase Transformer
B. Types of Transformers based on its Core Design
1. Core Type Transformer
2. Shell Type Transformer
3. Berry Type Transformer

C. Types of Transformers based on its Core

1. Air core Transformer
2. Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Transformer
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

D. Types of Transformers based on Voltage level
1. Step Up Transformer
2. Step Down Transformer
3. Isolation Transformer
E. Types of Transformer based on its uses
1. Large Power Transformer
2. Distribution Transformer
3. Small Power Transformer
4. Sign Lighting Transformer
5. Control & Signaling Transformer
6. Gaseous Discharge Lamp Transformer
7. Bell Ringing Transformer
8. Instrument Transformer
9. Constant Current Transformer
10. Series Transformer for Street Lighting
 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

F. Types of Instrument Transformer G. Types of Transformer based on Insulation & Cooling

1. Current Transformer 1. Self Air Cooled or Dry Type Transformer
2. Potential Transformer 2. Air Blast-Cooled Dry Type
3. Constant Current Transformer 3. Oil Immersed, Self Cooled (OISC) or ONAN (Oil natural, Air natural)
4. Rotating Core Transformer or 4. Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Air blast (ONAN)
Induction regulator 5. Oil Immersed, Water Cooled (OW)
5. Autotransformer 6. Oil Immersed, Forced Oil Cooled
7. Oil Immersed, Combination of Self Cooled and Water Cooled
(ONAN+OW)
8. Oil Forced, Air forced Cooled (OFAC)
9. Forced Oil, Water Cooled (FOWC)
10. Forced Oil, Self Cooled (OFAN)
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

H. According to the winding connection

Windings of a three phase transformer can be

connected in various configurations as:

(i) Delta- Delta

(ii) Delta-Star
(iii) Star-delta
(iv) Star-Star
(v) Open delta Connection
(vi) Scott connection
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

A three phase transformer is used to transfer a large amount of power. The three phase transformer is required to step-up and
step-down the voltages at various stages of a power system network. The three phase transformer is constructed in two
ways.

1. Three separate single phase transformer is suitably connected for three

phase operation.

2. A single three-phase transformer in which the cores and windings

for all the three phases are merged into a single structure.

The three single-phase transformer can be used as a three-phase transformer

when their primary and secondary winding are connected to each other. The
three phase transformer supply has many advantages as compared to three
single phase units like it requires very less space and also very lighter smaller
and cheaper in size. The three phase transformer is mainly classified into two
types, i.e., the core type transformer and the shell type transformer.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

The transformer mainly consists of the Magnetic circuit, electric circuit, dielectric circuit, tanks, and accessories. The main
elements of the transformer are the primary and secondary windings and the steel core. The core of the transformer is made
up of silicon steel in order to provide a continuous magnetic path. Usually, the core of the transformer is laminated for
minimizing the eddy current loss.

1. Magnetic circuit

2. Electric circuit

3. Core Type Transformer

4. Shell Type Transformer

5. Dielectric Circuit

6. Tanks and Accessories

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

1. Magnetic Circuit
The magnetic circuit of a transformer consists of core and yoke. The circuit provides the path to the flow of magnetic flux.
The transformer consists of a laminated steel core and the two coils. The two coils are insulated from each other and also
from the core. The vertical position on which the coil is wound is called the limb while the horizontal position is known as
the yoke.

2. Electric circuit
Construction of the electric circuit of the transformer consists of
primary and secondary windings usually made of copper. The
Conductors of the rectangular cross-section are generally used for low
voltages winding and also for the high voltage winding for large
transformers. Conductors of the circular cross-sectional area are used
for high voltage winding in the small transformer.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

3. Core Type Three Phase Transformer
The core of the three phase transformer is usually made up of three
limbs in the same plane. This can be built using stack lamination. The
each leg of this core carries the low voltage and high voltage winding.
The low voltage windings are insulated from the core than the high
voltage windings.

The low windings are placed next to the core with suitable insulation
between the core and the low voltage windings. The high voltage
windings are placed over the low voltage windings with suitable
insulation between them. The magnetic paths of the leg a and c are
greater than that of leg b, the construction is not symmetrical, and there
is a resultant imbalance in the magnetizing current.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

The LV windings are positioned near the core with appropriate insulation and oil ducts in between them whereas, the HV
windings are placed above the LV windings with appropriate insulation and oil ducts between them.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

4. Shell Type Transformer
The three-phase shell type transformer is generally constructed by stacking three individual single-phase transformers. Three
phases of a shell-type transformer are independent than the core-type transformer, while each phase has an individual magnetic
circuit. These magnetic circuits are parallel to each other and flux induced by each winding is in phase. Shell type transformer
is highly preferred as the voltage waveforms are less distorted.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

In shell type, three phases are more independent because each phase has independent
magnetic circuit compared with core type transformer. The magnetic circuits of this type
of transformer are in parallel. Due to this, the saturation effects in common magnetic
paths are neglected. However, shell type constructed transformers are rarely used in
practice.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

5. Accessories of Transformers:

The various accessories used in the transformer are :

1. Conservator Tank

2. High voltage and Low voltage bushings

3. Breather

4. Buchholz relay

5. Tap changers
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

1. Conservator Tank
 It is a large size cylindrical tank which is connected by pipe to the transformer.
 The conservator tank is filled with transformer oil up to a certain level.
 The remaining portion of the tank is filled with air.
 Conservator oil is in communication with tank oil.

2. High voltage bushings

 The function of high voltage bushings is to provide insulating support
to a conductor passing through earthen tank.
 Porcelain bushing can be used up to 20 kV. Such a bushing consists of
a single porcelain bushing, through which a single conductor is taken
out.
 Oil filled bushing is used for 33 kV applications. For 132 kV and
above, oil impregnated paper condenser bushings are used.

3. Breather
The breather is filled with silica gel. the function of silica gel is to absorb
moisture.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

4. Buchholz relay

 These relays are used for the protection of oil immersed transformers
against all kinds of internal faults having rating more than 750 kVA.
 It is a gas operated relay which is installed in the pipe connecting the
conservator with the main tank.
 Whenever any minor fault occurs, current leaks and heat is produced.
Due to this heat some oil evaporates in the transformer tank(about
70%hydrogen).
 Since hydrogen gas is light, it tries to go into the conservator tank via
relay. During the process, some gas and oil vapors are collected in the
top chamber while passing to the conservator and the oil level in the
tank falls.
 The mercury type switch attached to the float is tilted, thereby
closing the alarm circuit and the bell rings in the control room.
 This gives a warning to the attendant that some serious fault is going
to occur inside the transformer.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

5. Tap Changers

 Tap changer is fitted with the transformer for adjusting the secondary
voltage. The adjustments in secondary voltage can be made by OFF
circuit tap changer. Such adjustments are for seasonal load variations.
 The tap is changed only after opening the circuit breaker on the
supply side. Daily or short time voltage adjustment is made by means of
ON load tap changer.
 The tapping of ON-load tap changer can be changed without
interruption in load current.
 The modern practice is to install the tap changer within the
transformer tank.
Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:
 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

 COMPARISON BETWEEN A SINGLE THREE-PHASE

UNIT AND A BANK OF THREE SINGLE-PHASE UNITS

 NAME PLATE DETAILS OF THREE PHASE

TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Consider the below figure in which the primary of the transformer is
connected in star fashion on the cores. For simplicity, only primary
winding is shown in the figure which is connected across the three
phase AC supply. The three cores are arranged at an angle of 120
degrees to each other. The empty leg of each core is combined in such
that they form center leg as shown in figure.

When the primary is excited with the three phase supply source, the
currents IR, IY and IB are starts flowing through individual phase
windings. These currents produce the magnetic fluxes ΦR, ΦY and ΦB
in the respective cores. Since the center leg is common for all the cores,
the sum of all three fluxes are carried by it. In three phase system, at
any instant the vector sum of all the currents is zero. In turn, at the
instant the sum of all the fluxes is same. Hence, the center leg doesn’t
carry any flux at any instant. So even if the center leg is removed it
makes no difference in other conditions of the transformer.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Where again, VL is the line-to-

line voltage, and VP is the phase-
to-neutral voltage on either the
primary or the secondary side.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three-phase Transformer Line Voltage and Current

Primary-Secondary Line Voltage Line Current

Configuration Primary or Secondary Primary or Secondary

Delta – Delta VL= n Vp IL= Ip/n

Delta – Star VL= √3 n Vp IL= Ip/√3 n

Star – Delta VL= n Vp/√3 IL= √3 Ip/n

Star – Star VL= n Vp IL= Ip/n

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three Phase Transformer Example

The primary winding of a delta-star ( Dy ) connected 50VA transformer is supplied with a 100 volt, 50Hz three-phase
supply. If the transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the secondary winding, calculate the secondary side
voltages and currents.
Solution:

Given Data: transformer

rating, 50VA, supply
voltage, 100v, primary turns 500,
secondary turns, 100.

Then the secondary side of the

transformer supplies a line
voltage, VL of about 35v giving a
phase voltage, VP of 20v at 0.834
amperes.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

COMPARISON BETWEEN A SINGLE THREE-PHASE UNIT AND A

BANK OF THREE SINGLE-PHASE UNITS

It is found that generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power are more economical in three phase system than
a single phase system. Three phase transformation can be done in two ways, by using a single three-phase transformer or by
using a bank of three single phase transformers.

We know that the very basic purpose of Transformer is to transmit power at two different voltage levels. For example, if a
generating station is generating electrical power at 11 kV and evacuates it power at 440 kV then a three phase transformer of
voltage rating 11 kV / 440 kV is used.

Well, mostly you might have seen a single three phase transformer due to economy. But this does not mean that bank of
three single phase transformer is never used. If ever you get a chance to visit 700 MW or 1000 MW power plant, you will
see the use of bank of three single phase transformer instead of a single three phase transformer.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

COMPARISON BETWEEN A SINGLE THREE-PHASE UNIT AND A

BANK OF THREE SINGLE-PHASE UNITS

A single 3 phase
transformer costs around 15
% less than a bank of three
single phase transformers.
Again former occupies less
space than later. For a very
big transformer, it is
impossible to transport a
large three-phase
transformer to the site and is
instead easier to transport
three single-phase
transformers, which are
erected separately to form a
three-phase unit.
 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
COMPARISON BETWEEN A SINGLE THREE-PHASE UNIT AND A BANK OF THREE SINGLE-
PHASE UNITS

Bank of 3 Single Phase Transformer Single Three Phase Transformer

It is more expensive due to requirement of 3 single phase transformer. 3 single It is quite economic due to the use of less iron core, less volume of tank and
phase transformer means requirement of more iron for core, oil and accessories. hence less volume of Transformer Oil.

In such case star or delta connection on HV side requires six different HV This only requires three / four HV Bushings as the delta / star connection is
Bushings to bring out the HV terminals of 3 single phase transformers. done inside the tank of transformer.

Space requirement is more for installation. Less space requirement for installation.

It offers greater flexibility in erection and installation. Due to single unit, it doesn’t have any flexibility in erection and installation.

The spare inventory cost is less. Only one single phase transformer is required
as spare which is less costly. Suppose a generating station has 2 generating The cost of single three phase transformer as spare is quite high when compared
units. For both the generating units (2xbank of three single phase transformer), with a single unit of single phase transformer.
only one single phase transformer is required as spare.

The maintenance becomes easier due to separate units. Replacement of single

It is quite difficult to repair and replace.
unit is also easy.

This is less efficient due to losses in the three units. The losses are more due to
It is more efficient and losses are less due to lesser requirement of iron core.
use of more iron core.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE DETAILS
Transformer nameplates contain several standard items of information and
other optional information. Transformer nameplate must specify the
following parameters:
1. Name of manufacturer 11. Rated temperature in °C
2. Serial number 12. Polarity (for Single Phase Transformers)
3. year of manufacture 13. % impedance.
4. Number of phases 14. Approximate mass or weight of the
5. kVA or MVA rating transformer
6. Frequency 15. Type of insulating liquid.
7. Voltage ratings. 16. Conductor material of each winding.
8. Tap voltages. 17. Oil volume (of each transformer
9. Connection diagram. Container/Compartment)
10. Cooling class 18. Instruction for Installation and Operation
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER
NAMEPLATE
DETAILS
Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:

 VECTOR GROUP OF 3-PHASE

TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common configurations are the delta, in which the polarity
end of one winding is connected to the non-polarity end of the next, and the star, in which all three non-polarities (or polarity) ends are
connected together. The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3-phase transformer can have its primary and
secondary windings connected the same (delta-delta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or star-delta).

It’s important to remember that the secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary waveforms when the primary and
secondary windings are connected the same way. This condition is called “no phase shift.” But when the primary and secondary
windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary voltage waveforms by
30 electrical degrees. This is called a 30 degree phase shift. When two transformers are connected in parallel, their phase shifts must be
identical; if not, a short circuit will occur when the transformers are energized.”
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
Vector Grouping is a theoretical approach to identify or understand the nature of the connection between three phases of the primary
and secondary winding along with the phase shift between the primary and secondary winding voltage of a three-phase transformer.

For example, 'Dyn11' implies that,

'D' indicates the high voltage winding of the transformer is Delta connected.

'y' indicates the low voltage winding of the transformer is Star connected.

Here, 'n' indicates that a terminal is brought out from the Star point of the star
connection or in simple word it has a neutral terminal.

'11' indicates that the phase shift between the high voltage and low voltage
winding is 30 degree leading.
A vector group is the International Electro technical Commission (IEC) method of categorizing the high voltage (HV) windings and low
voltage (LV) winding configurations of three-phase transformers.
The vector group designation indicates the windings configurations and the difference in phase angle between them.
Example: a wye HV winding and delta LV winding with a 30-degree lead is denoted as "Yd11".
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS

NEED OF VECTOR GROUPING IN THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

1. The vector group of a transformer indicates what type of connection is made between the windings of that
transformer. It also indicates what is the phase difference between the primary and secondary winding voltage of that
transformer.

2. So we must know the vector group when connecting two or more transformers in parallel. Because if we connect
two transformers of different vector groups in parallel, a large amount of circulating current will flow between those
two transformers which will affect the transformers and their working.

3. If we do not know the vector group of a transformer, then we cannot find out the no-load current, iron loss
properly.

4. If we do not know the vector group of the transformer, then we also cannot draw the proper input, output voltage,
and current waveforms.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
As we know that the secondary voltages of a 3-phase transformer
may undergo a phase shift of either +30° leading or -30° lagging or
0° i.e. no phase shift or 180° reversal with respective line or phase to
neutral voltages.

On the name plate of a three phase transformer, the vector group is

written as Yd11, Dyn11 etc. Typical representation of the vector
group could be Yd1 or Dy11 etc

The minute hand is used to represent the primary phase to

neutral voltage and always shown to occupy the position 12. The
hour hand represents the secondary phase to neutral voltage and may,
depending upon phase shift, occupy position other than 12.

The angle between two consecutive numbers on the clock is 30°.

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
BASIC IDEA ABOUT TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUP
Based on this, it is theoretically possible to connect any pair of windings in a 3 phase transformer in the following pairs of
combinations: Dd, Dy, Dz, Yd, Yy, Yz, Zd, Zyand Zz; of this, the first six, are the most commonly encountered ones in
practice.
Y => Primary star connection

y => Secondary star connection

D => Delta winding on Primary side

d => Secondary delta winding connection

Z => Primary Zig-Zag connection

z => Secondary Zig-Zag connection

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
NUMERICAL IDENTITY

Here the numerical identity indicates the clock position

of the phase displacement. It’s may be clock wise or anti
clockwise. i.e
1. Here the hour indicates phase displacement in
angle. Because there are 12 hours on a clock,
and a circle consists out of 360°, each hour (I
Example:
mean one hour) represents 30°.Thus 1 = 30°, 2
= 60°, 3 = 90°, 6 = 180° and 12 = 0° or 360°
Digit 0 =0° that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor
and so on.
Digit 1 =30° lagging (LV lags HV with 30°) because the
rotation is anti-clockwise.
2. The minute hand is set on 12 o’clock and
Digit 11 = 330° lagging or 30° leading (LV leads HV with 30°)
replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes
Digit 5 = 150° lagging (LV lags HV with 150°)
imaginary) of the HV winding. This position is
Digit 6 = 180° lagging (LV lags HV with 180°)
always the reference point.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
The phase-bushings on a three-phase transformer are marked either ABC, UVW or 123 (HV-side capital, LV-side small
letters). Two winding, three-phase transformers can be divided into four main categories

Group O’clock TC
Group I 0 o’clock, 0° delta/delta, star/star
Group II 6 o’clock, 180° delta/delta, star/star
Group III 1 o’clock, -30° star/delta, delta/star
Group IV 11 o’clock, +30° star/delta, delta/star
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
Phase Shift Connection
(Deg)
0 Yy0 Dd0 Dz0
When transformers are operated in parallel
it is important that any phase shift is the
30 lag Yd1 Dy1 Yz1
same through each. Paralleling typically 60 lag Dd2 Dz2
occurs when transformers are located at one 120 lag Dd4 Dz4
site and connected to a common bus bar
(banked) or located at different sites with 150 lag Yd5 Dy5 Yz5
the secondary terminals connected via 180 lag Yy6 Dd6 Dz6
distribution or transmission circuits 150 lead Yd7 Dy7 Yz7
consisting of cables and overhead lines.
120 lead Dd8 Dz8
60 lead Dd10 Dz10
30 lead Yd11 Dy11 Yz11
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS

VECTOR GROUP OF TRANSFORMER Dyn1

Y or y – star winding
D or d – delta
winding
N or n – neutral

0 to 12 – phase
displacement in
terms of clock
position in multiples
of 30°
 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS
USE OF A TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUP

Basically transformer vector group is used to find the high voltage and low voltage windings arrangement of three-phase
transformers. The three-phase transformer can be connected in various ways and the transformer’s connection is determined
using its vector group.

The transformer’s vector group is depending on the following factor:

1. Removing harmonics: The star winding of the three-phase transformer is used to reduce third harmonics.

2. Parallel operations: To perform parallel operation All the transformer’s vector group and polarity should be same.
Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:

 PARALLEL OPERATION OF
TRANSFORMER
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
The Transformer is said to be in Parallel Operation when its primary winding is connected to a common voltage
supply, and the secondary winding is connected to a common load.

Three phase transformers are the heart of an

electrical power distribution system which is used
to set voltage up or down. It consists of primary
and secondary windings. When it comes to three-
phase power generation, transmission and
distribution, the parallel operation of three phase
transformers are common. Using two or more
transformer units in parallel is more beneficial
than using a single large unit due to its
adjustability in maintenance and operation.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, two or more transformers may be connected in
parallel with the existing transformer. The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers is
more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to have single larger unit. The cost
associated with maintaining the spares is less when two transformers are connected in parallel.

It is usually economical to install another transformer in parallel

instead of replacing the existing transformer by a single larger
unit. The cost of a spare unit in the case of two parallel
transformers (of equal rating) is also lower than that of a single
large transformer. In addition, it is preferable to have a parallel
transformer for the reason of reliability. With this at least half the
load can be supplied with one transformer out of service.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Reasons For Parallel Operation
Parallel operation of a transformer is necessary because of the following reasons are given below:
1. It is impractical and uneconomical to have a single large transformer for heavy and large loads. Hence, it will be a wise decision to
connect a number of transformers in parallel.
2. In substations, the total load required may be supplied by an appropriate number
of the transformer of standard size. As a result, this reduces the spare capacity of
the substation.
3. If the transformers are connected in parallel, so there will be scope in future, for
expansion of a substation to supply a load beyond the capacity of the transformer
already installed.
4. If there will be any breakdown of a transformer in a system of transformers
connected in parallel, there will be no interruption of power supply, for essential
services.
5. If any of the transformer from the system is taken out of service for its
maintenance and inspection, the continuity of the supply will not get disturbed.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

Conditions For Parallel Operation

For parallel connection of transformers, primary windings of the
transformers are connected to source bus-bars and secondary windings
are connected to the load bus-bars. Various conditions that must be
fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of transformers are:

1. Same voltage ratio and turns ratio (both primary and secondary
voltage rating is same)
2. Same percentage impedance and X/R ratio.
3. Identical position of tap changer
4. Same KVA ratings
5. Same phase angle shift (vector group are same)
6. Same frequency rating
7. Same polarity
8. Same phase sequence.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Advantages of Transformer Parallel Operation

1. Maximize electrical system efficiency

Generally, electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load.
If one runs numbers of transformers in parallel, one can switch on only those
transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load
rating for that time.

When load increases, one can switch no one by one other transformer connected in
parallel to fulfill the total demand. In this way one can run the system with
maximum efficiency.

2. Maximize electrical system availability

If numbers of transformers run in parallel, one can take shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in
system will serve the load without total interruption of power.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Advantages of Transformer Parallel Operation

3. Maximize power system reliability

If nay one of the transformers run in parallel is tripped due to fault, other parallel
transformers in the system will share the load hence power supply may not be
interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.

4. Maximize electrical system flexibility

There is a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it

is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a
provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra
demand, because it is not economical from business point of view to install a
bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the increased future demand as it is
unnecessary investment of money.

Again, in future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system to balance the capital investment and its
return.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

Disadvantages of Transformer Parallel Operation

1. Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker capacity.

2. The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another transformer. Circulating currents that
diminish load capability and increased losses.

3. The bus ratings could be too high.

4. Paralleling transformers reduce the transformer impedance significantly, i.e. the parallel transformers may have very
low impedance, which creates the high short circuit currents. Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g. reactors,
fuses, high impedance buses, etc

5. The control and protection of three units in parallel is more complex.

6. It is not a common practice in this industry.

Module:5
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Topic:
 TERTIARY WINDING OF TRANSFORMER

 OPEN DELTA CONNECTION

 SCOTT-T TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TERTIARY WINDING OF TRANSFORMER

In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary winding is used. This additional
winding, apart from primary and secondary windings, is known as Tertiary winding of transformer. Because of this third
winding, the transformer is called three winding transformer or 3 winding transformer.

The voltage ratings of all the three windings of the

transformer are usually un-equal. The primary winding
has the highest voltage rating; the tertiary has the
lowest voltage rating, and the secondary has the
intermediate voltage rating. The chief advantages of
the three winding transformers is an economy of
construction and their great efficiency.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TERTIARY WINDING OF TRANSFORMER

Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in Transformer

Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or more of the following
requirements-

1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.

2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.

3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in addition to its main
secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary winding of three winding transformer.

4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer, it assists in limitation of
fault current in the event of a short circuit from line to neutral.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

TERTIARY WINDING OF TRANSFORMER

Rating & Equivalent of Tertiary Winding of Transformer

Rating of tertiary winding of transformer depends upon

its use. If it has to supply additional load, its winding
cross – section and design philosophy is decided as per
load, and three phase dead short circuit on its terminal
with power flow from both sides of HV and MV.

In case it is to be provided for stabilizing purpose only, its

cross-section and design has to be decided from thermal
and mechanical consideration for the short duration fault
currents during various fault conditions single line to
ground fault being the most onerous.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OPEN DELTA OR V-CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER

As we know, a three phase Transformer bank

connected in Delta-Delta when supplies a three
phases balanced load then individual Transformers
share 1/3 of the total load. But if there is some fault
in any one of the Transformer and due this one
Transformer is taken out of service, then also three
phase power can be supplied though at a reduced
power level. The resulting connection obtained after
the removal of one of the Transformer from a three
phase Transformer bank connected in Delta-Delta is
known as an Open Delta or V-connection of
Transformer. Figure below depicts this open Delta
or V-connection.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OPEN DELTA OR V-CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER

VA Delivered by Open Delta Case2: Open Delta Connection

Case1: When all the three transformers of three phase As in Open Delta connection, only two Transformers are there in
Transformer bank are in service. service so,
VA Rating of Open Delta
Line Voltage VL = Vph (because of Delta connection)
= 1.732xVLxIL
Line Current IL = 1.732Iph
= 1.732 VphIph
Thus,
VA Rating of Bank of three Transformers in Delta
= 1.732VLIL Line Current in Open Delta IL= Iph as there is no path to bifurcate the line
current. Same current is flowing in line as well as in phases.
= 1.732xVphx1.732xIph

= 3VphIph
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

OPEN DELTA OR V-CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER

VA Delivered by Open Delta

The Ratio of actual available kVA rating to the sum of the kVA rating of
installed Transformer is called Utilization Factor and given by
VA Rating of Open Delta / VA Rating of Close Delta
U.F = Ratio of actual available kVA / Sum of the kVA rating of installed
= 1.732VphIph/ 3VphIph Transformer

=1 / 1.732 For Open Delta connection,

=0.577 U.F = 1.732VphIph/ 2VphIph

= 0.866
Thus the VA delivering capacity of Open Delta becomes
57% of that of the full capacity when all the three Thus it is beneficial to operate the bank of Transformer in Open Delta at
Transformers are in service. It shall also be noted that, 86% of rated capacity while the faulty Transformer is under maintenance.
though the total capacity of Transformers in Open Delta is
2VphIphbut still Open Delta can only deliver 1.732VphIph.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

SCOTT-T TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

The Scott-T Connection is the method of connecting two

single phase transformer to perform the 3-phase to 2-phase
conversion and vice-versa. The two transformers are
connected electrically but not magnetically. One of the
transformers is called the main transformer, and the other
is called the auxiliary or teaser transformer.

The main transformer is centre tapped at D and is

connected to the line B and C of the 3-phase side. It has
primary BC and secondary a1a2. The teaser transformer is
connected to the line terminal A and the centre tapping D.
It has primary AD and the secondary b1b2

The identical, interchangeable transformers are used for Scott-T connection in which each transformer has a primary winding of Tp turns
and is provided with tapping at 0.289Tp , 0.5Tpand 0.866 Tp.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

SCOTT-T TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

Applications of Scott Connection

1. The Scott-T connection is used in an electric furnace installation where it is desired to operate two single-phase
together and draw the balanced load from the three-phase supply.

2. It is used to supply the single phase loads such as electric train which are so scheduled as to keep the load on the
three phase system as nearly as possible.

3. The Scott-T connection is used to link a 3-phase system with a two–phase system with the flow of power in
either direction.

4. The Scott-T connection permits conversions of a 3-phase system to a two-phase system and vice versa. But since
2-phase generators are not available, the converters from two phases to three phases are not used in practice.