Computer System

- Astha Solanki
What is a computer?

● A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It

has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
● It is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate and
provide various functionalities to the user.
● It can also be defined as a general purpose machine that processes data
according to a set of instructions that are stored in it.
Advantages of a Computer

● High Speed
● Automatic
● Accuracy
● Diligence
● Versatility
● Storage Capability
● Reduction in paperwork
● Reduction in Cost
Disadvantages of a Computer

● No Intelligence Quotient
● No Emotional Quotient
● Dependency
● Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO) - Incorrect input leads to incorrect output.
Characteristics of a Computer

● High Speed
● Accuracy
● Diligence
● Versatility
● Automation
● Storage Capacity
● No IQ
● No EQ
Components of a computer System

● Components of a computer system are the primary elements which make the functioning of an
electronic device smooth and faster.
● There are five basic components which include:
○ Input Unit
○ Output Unit
○ Memory Unit
○ Control Unit
○ Arithmetical and Logical Unit
Input Unit

● An input unit is responsible for accepting data and instructions from the user. The type of data entered
in the computer depends upon the device used by the user. It is generally an electromechanical device
that accesses the data from the outside world.
● It performs the following functions:
○ It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world.
○ It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. Units called input
interfaces accomplish this task.
○ It supplies the converted instructions and data to the storage unit for storage and further
processing.
● For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer processes the
entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.
● The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the information using
an input device, the processing units convert it into computer understandable languages and then the
final output is received by a human-understandable language.
Output Unit

● The output unit gets the processed data from computer and sends it to output devices to make
them available to the users of computer.
● Output Unit performs the following functions:
○ It accepts the produced results, which are in coded form. We cannot understand the
coded results easily.
○ It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form. Units called
output interfaces accomplish this task.
○ It supplies the converted results to outside world.
Storage Unit

●
● The storage unit stores:-
○ The data and instructions required for processing (received from input unit)
○ Intermediate results of processing.
○ Final results of processing, before the system releases them to an output unit.
● There are two types of storage:
○ Primary Storage
○ Secondary Storage
Primary Storage

● Primary Storage of a Computer System, also known as main memory, stores program
instructions and data on which computer system is currently working.
● The CPU can access this information directly at a very fast speed because they are
represented electronically in the main memory chip.
● Primary memory is volatile, as it loses the information in it as soon as the computer system
switches off or resets.
● Primary storage normally has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive.
● Primary storage of modern computer systems is made up of semiconductor devices.
● Primary Memory is characterized into two main types:
○ Random Access Memory (RAM)
○ Read Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory

● RAM is used for the temporary storage of input unit data, output data and intermediate results.
The input data entered into the computer using the input device, is stored in RAM for
processing. After processing, the output data is stored in RAM before being sent to the output
device. Any intermediate results generated during the processing of program are also stored in
RAM.
● RAM is a volatile memory. When the system shuts down, all data is erased from it and when it
is rebooted, data is again loaded from hard disk to RAM.
● RAM provides random access to the stored bytes, words, or larger data units. This means that
it requires same amount of time to access information from RAM, irrespective of where it is
located in it.
● The size of RAM is limited due to its high cost. The size of RAM is measured in MB or GB.
● RAM can be read from and written to with the same speed.
● Types of RAM:
○ Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
○ Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM

● DRAM is the most common type of memory chip. DRAM is mostly used as main memory since
it is small and cheap. It uses transistors and capacitors. The transistor and capacitor are paired
to make a memory cell.
● DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information. For this, a memory controller is
used. DRAM gets its name from the refresh operation that it requires to store the information.
● The refresh operation occurs automatically thousands of times per second. DRAM is slow
because the refreshing takes time.
● Access speed of DRAM ranges from 50 to 150 ns.
Static RAM

● SRAM chip is usually used in cache memory due to its high speed.
● SRAM uses multiple transistors (four to six), for each memory cell. A SRAM memory cell has
more parts so it takes more space on a chip than DRAM cell.
● It does not need constant refreshing and therefore is faster than DRAM.
● SRAM is more expensive than DRAM, and it takes up more space.
● It stores information as long as it is supplied with power.
● The access speed of SRAM ranges from 2-10 nanoseconds.
Read Only Memory

● ROM is a non-volatile memory chip in which data is stored permanently. Usual programs cannot alter
this data. We can only read and use data stored in a ROM chip.
● Storing data permanently into this kind of memory is called “burning in of data” because data in such
memory is stored by fuse-links.
● Since ROM chips are non-volatile, a ROM chip does not lose its stored data in case of power off or
interruption of power.
● Computer manufacturers store micro-programs in ROMs so that users cannot modify.
● A good example of micro-program is the “system boot program”, which contains a set of start-up
instructions that are executed when a system is powered on to check if the system hardware (like
memory, I/O devices etc.) is functioning properly. It looks for an operating system and loads its core
part in the volatile RAM of the system to produce the initial display screen prompt.
● Types of ROM;
○ User programmed ROM
○ Manufacturer programmed ROM
Manufacturer Programmed ROM

● A manufacturer programmed ROM is one in which data is burnt in by the manufacturer of the
electronic equipment in which it is used.
● For e.g. a personal computer manufacturer may store the system boot program permanently in
a ROM chip located on the motherboard of each PC manufactured by it.
● Similarly a printer manufacturer may store the printer controller software in a ROM chip located
on the circuit board of each printer manufactured by it.
● It is not possible for users of such equipment to modify the programs or data stored in the
ROM chips.
User Programmed ROM

● A User programmed ROM is one in which a user can load and store “read-only” programs and
data.
● That is, it is possible for a user to “customize” a system by converting his/her programs to
micro-programs and storing them in a user-programmed ROM chip. Such a ROM is known as
Programmable Read Only Memory(PROM) because a user can program it.
● PROM can be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer.
Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links within
the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.
● EPROM (Erasable PROM) can be programmed in a similar way as PROM, but it can be
erased by exposing it to ultra violet light and re-programmed. EPROM chips have to be
removed from the computer for re-writing. At time of erasing entire EPROM is erased.
User Programmed ROM (Contd.)

● EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) memories can be erased by electric charge and
re-programmed.
● EEPROM chips do not have to be removed from the computer for re-writing.
● It is easier to alter information stored in an EEPROM chip as compared to an UVEPROM chip.
● EEPROM is also known as flash memory because of the ease with which a user can alter
programs stored in it.
● Many new I/O and storage devices like USB (Universal Serial Bus) pen drive and MP3 music
player use flash memory.
Secondary Storage

● Secondary Storage of a computer system also known as Auxiliary Storage, takes care of the
limitations of primary storage.
● It supplements the limited storage capacity of primary storage.
● It is non-volatile in nature, it can retain information even when the computer system switches
off or resets.
● A computer system uses secondary storage to store program instructions, data and
information of those jobs on which the computer system is currently not working but needs to
hold them for processing later.
Central Processing Unit

● Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system are together known as
the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
● CPU or the processor is often called the brain of a computer system.
● The CPU performs all major calculations and comparisons and also activates and controls the
operations of other units of the computer system.
● CPU executes the stored program instructions i.e, instructions and data are stored in memory
before execution. For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from the memory. It
interprets the program instructions and performs the arithmetic and logic operations required
for the processing of data. Then it sends the processed data or result to the memory. CPU also
acts as an administrator and is responsible for supervising operations of other parts of the
computer.
● Additionally CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of calculation.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

● A computer performs all calculations and comparisons (decision making).

● ALU performs all the basic arithmetic (add, subtract, multiply, divide), logical (True, False) and
relational operations (less than, equal to or greater than)
● ALU uses registers to hold the data that is being processed.
Control Unit (CU)

● A computer’s control unit does not perform any actual processing of jobs, but acts as the
central nervous system for other components of the computer system.
● It manages and co-ordinates the operations of all other components.
● Control Unit coordinates the input and output devices. It directs the computer to carry out
stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers. Control Unit
uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit needs to be
executed next.
● Control Unit tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results,
the sequencing of events during processing etc.
● Control Unit also holds the CPU’s Instruction set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU
can perform.
Hardware

● Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.
● Hardware components can be internal (located inside the system unit) or external (located
outside of the system unit).
● External hardware components typically plug into connections called ports located on the
exterior of the system unit.
● The computer hardware components are as follows:
○ Input Devices - Computer input devices are the physical components of the computer
which are used to give the data given by the user to the computer. These are the parts
through which a user can give the data to the computer. For eg. , Mouse, Scanner,
Digital Camera, Joystick.
Hardware (Contd.)

● Hardware components (contd.):

○ Output Devices - Computer output devices are the physical components of the
computer which are used to give the computer result to the User. Using output devices,
the user can see the computer-generated result. For eg. Printer, Monitor, Speakers,
Head phones, Projector.
○ Storage Devices - These are the physical components of a computer in which the data
can be stored. For eg. Hard disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive, RAM etc.
○ Devices Drives - Computer Device drives are the physical components of the computer
which are used to read and write data on the storage devices.Using drives, user can
read and write data on to the storage devices. For eg. CD Drive, floppy Drive etc.
○ Cables - In a Computer, various cables are used to make connections among the
various hardware components of the computer. For eg. LAN Cable, SATA Cable, USB
Cable etc.
○ Other Devices - Other than the above hardware components, a computer also contains
components like Motherboard, CPU (Processor), SMPS, Fans, etc.,
Software

● Software is also known as ‘Computer Programs’.

● Collection of programs and other associated documents that help to control, manage and
integrate the components of a computer system to accomplish a specific task.
● It is the basic step by step instructions which are given to the processing unit to tell it what to
do next. The software is needed to make the computer work.
● Types of software:
○ System Software
○ Application Software
System Software

● System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation and
extend the processing capability of a computer system.
● It acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware and application program, it also
provides interface between user and computer.
● System software are generally prepared by computer manufactures.
● These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages which interact
with the hardware at a very basic level.
● System software allows application packages to run on the computer with less time and effort.
● Without system software, application packages could not run on the computer system. System
software is an indispensable part of a total computer system.
Application Software

● Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific problem or
do a specific task.
● Application software, also known as an application or an "apps", is computer software
designed to help the user to perform specific tasks.
● The programs included in an application software package are called application programs and
the programmers who prepare application software are referred to as application
programmers.
● Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment.
● Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
● Application Software cannot run on itself but is dependent on system software to execute.
Examples of Application Software

● General Purpose AS
○ Microsoft Office Suite
○ MS Word
○ MS Excel
○ MS Powerpoint
● Specific Purpose AS
○ Payroll Software
○ Student Record Software
○ Income Tax Software
○ Railways Reservation Software
Computing Environments

● Computing Environment is a collection of computers which are used to process and exchange
information to solve various types of computing problems.
● The arrangement of computer devices to solve a problem is said to be a computing
environment.
● Types of Computing Environments:
○ Personal Computing
○ Time-sharing Computing
○ Client-Server Computing
○ Distributed Computing
○ Grid Computing
○ Cluster Computing
Computing Environments (Contd.)

● Personal Computing
○ Personal computing is a stand-alone machine.
○ In a personal computing environment, the complete program resides on the stand-alone
machine and executed from the same machine.
○ Laptops, mobile devices, printers, scanners and the computer systems we use at home,
office are the examples for the personal computing environment.
● Time-sharing Computing
○ The time-sharing computing environment is a stand-alone computer in which a single
user can perform multiple operations at a time by using a multitasking operating system.
○ Here the processor time is divided among different tasks and this is called
“Time-sharing”.
○ For example, a user can listen to music while writing something in a text editor.
Windows 95 and later versions of Windows OS, iOS and Linux operating systems are
the examples for this computing environment.
Computing Environments (Contd.)

● Client-Server Computing
○ The client-server environment contains two machines (Client machine and Server
machine) which exchange information through an application.
○ Here Client is a normal computer like PC, Tablet, etc., and Server is a powerful
computer which stores huge data and manages the huge amount of file and emails, etc.
○ In this environment, client requests for data and server provides data to the client. In the
client-server environment, the communication between client and server is performed
using HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol).
● Grid Computing
○ Grid computing is a collection of computers from different locations.
○ All these computers work for a common problem. A grid can be described as a
distributed collection of a large number of computers working for a single application.
Computing Environments (Contd.)

● Cluster Computing
○ Cluster computing is a collection of interconnected computers. These computers work
together to solve a single problem.
○ In a cluster computing environment, a collection of systems work together as a single
system.
● Distributed Computing
○ Here, the complete functionality of the software is not on a single computer but is
distributed among multiple computers.
○ Here we use a method of computer processing in which different programs of an
application run simultaneously on two or more computers.
○ These computers communicate with each other over a network to perform the complete
task.
○ In a distributed computing environment, the data is distributed among different systems
and that data is logically related to each other.
Computer Languages

● Computer languages are the languages through which the user can communicate with the
computer by writing program instructions.
● Eg. : C, JAVA, Python etc.
● Every computer programming language contains a set of predefined words and a set of rules
(syntax) that are used to create instructions of a program.
● Over the years, computer languages have been evolved from Low-Level to High-Level
Languages. In the earliest days of computers, only Binary Language was used to write
programs.
● Computer languages are classified as:
○ Low-level languages
○ Middle-level languages
○ High-level languages
Low-level Language

● Low-Level language is the only language which can be understood by the computer. Low-level
language is also known as Machine Language/ Machine Code.
● Binary Language is an example of a low-level language. All the instructions of binary
language are written in the form of binary numbers 1's & 0's.
● Low-level language is considered as the First Generation Language (1GL).
● Advantages:
○ A computer can easily understand the low-level language.
○ Low-level language instructions are executed directly without any translation.
○ Low-level language instructions require very less time for their execution.
● Disadvantages:
○ Low-level language instructions are very difficult to use and understand.
○ Low-level language instructions are machine-dependent, that means a program written
for a particular machine does not execute on another machine.
○ In low-level language, there is more chance for errors and it is very difficult to find
errors, debug and modify.
Middle-level Language

● Middle-level language is a computer language in which the instructions are created using
symbols such as letters, digits and special characters.
● Assembly language is an example of middle-level language.
● In assembly language, we use predefined words called mnemonics. Binary code instructions
in low-level language are replaced with mnemonics and operands in middle-level language.
● But the computer cannot understand mnemonics, so we use a translator called Assembler to
translate mnemonics into binary language. Assembler is used to translate middle-level
language into low-level language.
● Advantages:
○ Middle-level language is more readable compared to low-level language.
○ Writing instructions in a middle-level language is easier than writing instructions in a
low-level language.
○ Easy to understand, find errors and modify.
● Disadvantages:
○ Middle-level language is specific to a particular machine architecture, that means it is
machine-dependent.
○ Middle-level language needs to be translated into low-level language.
○ Middle-level language executes slower compared to low-level language.
High-level Language

● A high-level language is a computer language which can be understood by the users because
it is very similar to human languages.
● Eg.: COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C++, JAVA, etc.
● Every high-level language has a set of predefined words known as Keywords and a set of
rules known as Syntax to create instructions.
● High-level language needs to be converted into the low-level language to make it
understandable by the computer. A Compiler or interpreter is used to convert high-level
language to low-level language.
● Advantages:
○ Writing instructions in a high-level language is easier.
○ A high-level language is more readable and understandable.
○ The programs created using high-level language runs on different machines with little
change or no change.
○ Easy to understand, create programs, find errors and modify.
● Disadvantages:
○ High-level language needs to be translated into low-level language.
○ High-level language executes slower compared to middle and low-level languages.
Generations

● Computers have gone through many changes over time. The first generation of computers
started around 1940 and since then there have been five generations of computers until 2023.
● The different phases of this long period are known as computer generations. The evolution of
computer technology is often divided into five generations.
● The first generation of computers was developed from 1940-1956, followed by the second
generation from 1956-1963, the third generation from 1964-1971, the fourth generation from
1971 until the present, and the fifth generation are still being developed.
First Generation (1940-1956)

● The first generation used vacuum tube technology and were built between 1946 and 1959.
● Vacuum tubes were expensive and produced a lot of heat, which made these computers very
expensive and only affordable to large organizations.
● Machine language was the programming language used for these computers, and they could
not multitask.
● The ENIAC was the first electronic general-purpose computer that used 18,000 vacuum tubes
and was built in 1943 for war-related calculations. Examples of the first generation include
EDVAC, IBM-650, IBM-701, Manchester Mark 1, Mark 2, etc.
● The main advantages were that they were tough to hack and quite strong and they could
perform calculations quickly, in just one-thousandth of a second.
● The disadvantages were that they consumed high amounts of energy and were not portable
due to their weight and size.
Second Generation (1956-1963)

● Developed in the late 1950s and 1960s, these computers replaced vacuum tubes with
transistors making them smaller, faster and more efficient. Transistors were more reliable than
vacuum tubes, required less maintenance and generated less heat.
● Magnetic core memory was also introduced in this generation, which was faster and more
reliable. This paved the way for the third generation that used integrated circuits.
● Advantages:
○ They provided better speed and improved accuracy.
○ Computers developed in this era were smaller, more reliable, and capable of using less
power.
● Disadvantages:
○ They were only used for specific objectives and required frequent maintenance.
○ The second generation of computer used punch cards for input, which required frequent
maintenance.
Third Generation (1964-1971)

● This generation used microchips or integrated circuits, making it possible to create smaller,
cheaper and even faster computers. The third generation of computers was much faster than
previous generations, with computational times reduced from microseconds to nanoseconds.
● New input devices like the mouse and keyboard were introduced, replacing older methods like
punch cards.
● New functionalities, like multiprogramming and time-sharing, and remote processing, were
introduced, allowing for more efficient use of computer resources.
● Advantages:
○ The use of integrated circuits made them more reliable.
○ Smaller in size and required less space than previous generations.
● Disadvantages:
○ Advanced technology was needed to manufacture IC chips.
○ Formal training was necessary to operate third-gen computers.
Fourth Generation (1971 onwards)

● Fourth generation computers were developed in 1972 after third generation that used
microprocessors. They used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits, which contained
about 5000 transistors capable of performing complex activities and computations.
● Fourth generation computers were more adaptable, had more primary storage capacity, were
faster and more reliable than previous generations, and were also portable, small, and
required less electricity.
● Intel was the first company to develop a microprocessor used in fourth generation computer.
● Fourth generation computers used LSI chip technology and were incredibly powerful but also
very small, leading to a societal revolution in the computer industry.
● This generation had the first supercomputers, used complex programming languages like C,
C++, DBASE, etc., and could perform many accurate calculations.
Fourth Generation (Contd.)

● Advantages:
○ Fourth generation computers were smaller and more dependable.
○ GUI (Graphics User Interface) technology was used in this generation to provide users
with better comfort.
● Disadvantages:
○ They use complex VLSI Chips, and VLSI Chip manufacturing requires advanced
technology.
○ To build these computers, Integrated Circuits (ICs) were required, and to develop those,
cutting-edge technology was needed.
Fifth Generation (The present and the
future)

● The fifth generation of computers emerged after the fourth generation and is still being
developed.
● Computers of fifth generation use artificial intelligence (AI) to perform various tasks.
● These computers use programming languages such as Python, R, C#, Java, etc., as input
methods.
● The fifth generation computers employ ULSI technology (Ultra Large Scale Integration),
parallel processing, and AI to perform scientific computations and develop AI software. They
can perform intricate tasks such as image recognition, human speech interpretation, natural
language understanding, etc.
● Examples of fifth generation include laptops, desktops, notebooks, chromebooks, etc.
Fifth Generation (Contd.)

● Advantages:
○ These computers are lightweight and easy to move around.
○ They are easier to repair and parallel processing technology has improved in these
computers.

● Disadvantages:
○ Using it for spying on people.
○ Fear of unemployment due to AI replacing jobs.
Operating System (OS)

● An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the
computer by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a
computer. It is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for computer programs.
● The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for
services through a defined application program interface (API).
● Users can interact directly with the operating system through an interface, such as a
command-line interface (CLI) or a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
● Functions of an OS:
○ Providing a user interface
○ Running applications
○ Support for built-in utility programs
○ Control to the computer hardware
Operating System (Contd.)

● Components of OS:
○ Process Management
○ Memory management
○ I/O device management
○ Network Management
○ Network services
○ User interface
● Advantages:
○ Easy to use, user friendly
○ Intermediate between hardware and software
○ No need to know technical languages
○ Platform for all programs
● Disadvantages:
○ In case of issues with the OS, user may lose all program data
○ Security attacks, malware, virus etc. can cause problems
THE END