Philosophes of the Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

 British empiricist; lived through the violent English Civil War and was
appalled by the execution of Charles I.
 In his notable work Leviathan (1651), Hobbes argued that without
government, human life would be chaotic and violent (‘solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short’), so people must give up some freedoms to a
powerful authority to ensure peace.
 Believed only a strong, absolute government (not necessarily based on
divine right) could control humanity's self-serving nature and maintain
order.

John Locke (1632–1704)

 British empiricist; unlike Hobbes, saw humans as shaped by experience
and believed they were not inherently dangerous to one another.
 Argued that humans have inalienable rights—life, liberty, health, and
property—granted by a creator and independent of any government; in
Two Treatises of Government (1689), presented government as a social
contract to protect natural rights, with authority derived from the consent
of the governed, and if a government failed to do so, the people have the
right to replace it (influenced the Declaration of Independence).
 Blank Slate (tabula rasa); in Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1690), Locke described the mind at birth as a blank slate, with knowledge
acquired through sensory experience, highlighting the importance of
education in shaping individuals and society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)

 Geneva-born French thinker.
 Known for his treatise The Social Contract (1762); ‘man is born free, but
everywhere he is in chains […] show how they [the chains] are legitimate’;
in which he argued that people enter civil society to secure freedom and
happiness, and government gains legitimacy from a social contract
among free individuals.
 Opposed a republican government, advocating instead for a direct
democracy where citizens make laws themselves. He believed laws
should reflect the general will and be respected only if they do.
 Some interpreted Rousseau’s ideas as enforcing obedience to the general
will, potentially leading to a "tyranny of the majority" and inspiring aspects
of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.
 In Emile, or On Education (1762), Rousseau argued that education should
foster natural curiosity and allow children to learn through their
interests. He opposed strict discipline, advocating for children to learn
from natural consequences.
 Unlike other Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau valued human emotion
and sentiment alongside reason, connecting his ideas to the origins of
Romanticism.
 However, Rousseau held conservative views on gender roles, asserting
that women should stay home and nurture children, as he believed their
 biological differences made them unsuitable for business or politics. He
viewed female subordination as a natural, unquestionable law.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797)

 Leading English thinker and philosopher who challenged Rousseau’s views
on women.
 In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women could
only reach their full potential through equal access to education,
citizenship, and financial independence.

Voltaire / François-Marie Arouet (1694–1778)

 Prominent French philosophe who championed religious tolerance,
freedom of thought, and criticism of the French clergy and
aristocracy, whom he saw as corrupt and ignorant.
 In Treatise on Toleration (1763), he criticised religious fanaticism,
coining the slogan écrasez l’infâme ("crush the loathsome thing") against
the Roman Catholic Church.
 Exiled from France, Voltaire admired English tolerance and society,
reflecting these views in Letters on the English (1734), which praised
English freedoms and satirized French society.
 His famous novel Candide (1759) critiqued Enlightenment optimism
about inevitable human progress, highlighting human suffering as
proof that progress was not guaranteed.

Denis Diderot (1713–1784)

 French philosophe; led the creation of the Encyclopédie, a monumental 28-
volume work cataloguing knowledge on science, technology, politics,
religion, and more, with contributions from over 150 writers.
 The Encyclopédie placed human reason as the foundation of all
knowledge, challenging traditional theological views and sparking
controversy, though it was widely circulated across Europe and the
Americas despite censorship attempts.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755)

 French aristocrat, but criticised monarchs for taking away the traditional
rights of the aristocracy.
 Advocated for dividing government into legislative, executive, and
judicial branches, each with checks and balances, an idea he admired in
the British system, and which influenced the U.S. Constitution.
 In his key work The Spirit of Laws (1748), he argued for civil liberties,
abolition of slavery, limits on state power, and religious tolerance,
applying scientific principles to political theory and laying the
groundwork for modern political science and sociology.

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)

 Italian lawyer and philosopher.
 Applied scientific reasoning to criminal justice in On Crimes and
Punishments (1764), calling for the abolition of torture and capital
punishment.
 Argued that punishments should be proportional to deter crime, as
people are rational beings; his ideas laid the foundation for modern
criminal law and justice.
Coffeehouses and Salons: Coffeehouses were popular venues for discussing
Enlightenment ideas, primarily attended by men, while salons were mixed
gatherings often hosted by influential women, fostering intellectual
discussions and supporting reformers.

Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794)

A French philosophe as well as a notable figure in salons, he championed social
science and human rights, advocating for equal education and political
rights for women, despite acknowledging natural differences.

Civic Institutions and Academies: Enlightenment saw the rise of academies

and lending libraries, promoting knowledge in science, technology, and the arts,
with institutions like the Royal Society and the French Academy facilitating
collaboration among scientists.
Freemasonry: As church power waned, secret societies like Freemasonry
(masonic lodges) gained popularity, evolving from medieval guilds into a moral
and ethical network for personal growth, with connections to influential figures,
including signers of the Declaration of Independence.

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European natural scientists and explorers during the Scientific Revolution

expanded knowledge about humanity and nature, leading to new fields like
anthropology.
 Rousseau introduced the concept of the "noble savage," viewing
unspoiled societies as ideal.
 Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon described the "ignoble savage" as
inferior to European cultures.

Despite Enlightenment ideals of equality, slavery remained a powerful economic

institution, with science often misused to justify the mistreatment of non-
Europeans.

Natural Religion and New Ideas

Deism
 Voltaire is well-known for using satire and wit whilst fighting the
hypocrisy in religion.
 He promoted deism, the belief that God created the world and set it in
motion, similar to a watchmaker winding a watch, but then allowed it to
operate according to natural laws.
 Deists accepted the existence of God but rejected organised
religion and its threats of eternal damnation, gaining popularity
among the educated elite during the Enlightenment.
 Deism briefly became the national religion of France during the turmoil of
the French Revolutionary period, reflecting the nation’s desire for a break
from centuries of religious conflict and Catholic Church dominance.

Atheism
  Influenced by Voltaire, Denis Diderot moved from a Jesuit education to
deism and then to atheism, completely rejecting God and religion.
 One of the first outspoken atheists, Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) argued
in The System of Nature (1770) for a godless universe, advocating that
everything could be understood through scientific reasoning and that God
was merely a product of human ignorance and fear.

Scepticism
 Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) advocated for scepticism,
arguing that all knowledge and beliefs should be approached with
doubt and using logic to challenge religious texts and miracles in An
Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748).
 In Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (posth. 1779), Hume contended
that human reason cannot adequately prove God's existence,
disputed the notion of an afterlife, and argued that religion often
corrupts morality rather than enhancing it.
 Scepticism posed a significant threat to both religious authority and
Enlightenment principles, asserting that human senses are fallible,
which casts doubt on the certainty of universal truths and the reliability of
human reason in discovering them.
New Faith Movements
As deism, atheism, and scepticism gained traction, new religious movements
arose in 18th century Europe that emphasised individual conscience over public
allegiance to established churches, with each conversion seen as evidence of
"true" belief.

Methodism
 Founded by British Anglican priest John Wesley (1703–1791) after a
personal revelation, Methodism focused on personal experiences with
God, promoting the idea that salvation is accessible to anyone.
 Its appeal to the working classes was enhanced by its emphasis on
charitable works and Wesley's efforts to preach widely.

Pietism
 Originating among German Lutherans, Pietism stressed mystical
personal experiences and the importance of the Bible, while also
aligning with Enlightenment views that prioritised individual moral
behaviour as essential for salvation.
 Known for its emotional services, Pietism welcomed all social classes,
promoted educational reforms, and evangelised missions.
 Wesley was notably influenced by Pietism during his missionary work in
the American colonies.
New Economic Theories
Similar to absolutism, mercantilism required strong state intervention to regulate
economic activities, aiming to secure a nation's wealth through gold and silver,
often at the expense of subjects' interests—a concept later challenged by
Enlightenment ideas of natural rights and the social contract.

Physiocrats
 French thinkers such as Anne Robert Jacques Turgot and François
Quesnay criticised mercantilism and argued that land and labour were
the true sources of wealth.
 Turgot (1727–1781) advocated for laissez-faire economics, believing
that minimal government interference would benefit the economy.
 Quesnay (1694–1774) emphasised agriculture over industry as the
primary source of economic strength, calling for reduced taxes and
fewer trade restrictions.

Adam Smith (1723–1790)

 One of the most influential economic reformers of the 18 th century, Smith
sought natural laws governing economic behaviour, as outlined in his The
Wealth of Nations (1776).
 Argued that wealth comes from productivity rather than gold reserves
and critiqued mercantilism for overregulating trade.
 Smith introduced the concept of the “invisible hand,” suggesting that
individual self-interest drives economic decisions, leading to a
balanced economy.
 While he recognised the need for some government roles, such as
protecting property rights and ensuring fair trade, his ideas laid the
groundwork for modern capitalism.