Blood

! Blood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another, such as:
o Nutrients
o Wastes
o Hormones
o Body heat

Blood
! The only fluid tissue in the human body
! Classified as a connective tissue
! Components of blood
o Living cells
! Formed elements
o Nonliving matrix
! Plasma

Blood
! If blood is centrifuged:
o Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45 percent of blood, a percentage known as
the hematocrit)
o Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1 percent of blood)
! Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma
o Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)

Physical Characteristics of Blood

! Color range
o Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
o Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
! pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45
! Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature, at 100.4°F
! In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts
! Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight

Blood Plasma
! Composed of approximately 90 percent water
! Includes many dissolved substances:
o Nutrients
o Salts (electrolytes)
o Respiratory gases
o Hormones
o Plasma proteins

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 o Waste products

Blood Plasma
! Plasma proteins
o Most abundant solutes in plasma
o Most plasma proteins are made by liver
o Various plasma proteins include
! Albumin—regulates osmotic pressure
! Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is
injured
! Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens

Blood Plasma
! Acidosis
o Blood pH becomes too acidic
! Alkalosis
o Blood pH becomes too basic
! In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal

Formed Elements
! Erythrocytes
o Red blood cells (RBCs)
! Leukocytes
o White blood cells (WBCs)
! Platelets
o Cell fragments

Formed Elements
! Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)
o Main function is to carry oxygen
o Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
! Biconcave disks
! Essentially bags of hemoglobin
! Anucleate (no nucleus)
! Contain very few organelles
o 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood is the normal count

Formed Elements
! Hemoglobin
o Iron-containing protein
o Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
o Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 o Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
o Normal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL of blood

Formed Elements
! Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
o Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
o Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
o Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of RBCs

Formed Elements
! Polcythemia
o Disorder resulting from excessive or abnormal increase of RBCs
! May be caused by bone marrow cancer (polycythemia vera)
! May be a response to life at higher altitudes (secondary polycythemia)
o Increase in RBCs slows blood flow and increases blood viscosity

Formed Elements
! Leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs)
o Crucial in body’s defense against disease
o Complete cells, with nucleus and organelles
o Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
o Move by amoeboid motion
o Respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues (known as positive
chemotaxis)
o 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per cubic millimeter of blood

Formed Elements
! Abnormal numbers of leukocytes
o Leukocytosis
!
WBC count above 11,000 cells/mm3
! Generally indicates an infection
o Leukopenia
! Abnormally low leukocyte level
! Commonly caused by certain drugs, such as corticosteroids and
anticancer agents

Formed Elements
! Abnormal numbers of leukocytes (continued)
o Leukemia
! Bone marrow becomes cancerous; turns out excess WBCs

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Formed Elements
! Types of leukocytes:
o Granulocytes
! Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
! Possess lobed nuclei
! Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
o Agranulocytes
! Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
! Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
! Include lymphocytes and monocytes

Formed Elements
! List of the WBCs, from most to least abundant
o Neutrophils
o Lymphocytes
o Monocytes
o Eosinophils
o Basophils
! Easy way to remember this list
o Never
o Let
o Monkeys
o Eat
o Bananas

Formed Elements
! Types of granulocytes:
o Neutrophils
! Cytoplasm stains pale pink and contains fine granules
! Deep purple nucleus contains three to seven lobes
! Function as phagocytes at active sites of infection
! Numbers increase during infection
! 3,000–7,000 neutrophils in a cubic millimeter of blood (40–70 percent of
WBCs)

Formed Elements
! Types of granulocytes (continued):
o Eosinophils
! Red, coarse cytoplasmic granules
! Figure-8 or bilobed nucleus stains blue-red
! Function to kill parasitic worms and play a role in allergy attacks
! 100–400 eosinophils in a cubic millimeter of blood
(1–4 percent of WBCs)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Formed Elements
! Types of granulocytes (continued):
o Basophils
! Sparse but large blue-purple granules
! U- or S-shaped nucleus stains dark blue
! Release histamine (vasodilator) at sites of inflammation
! Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
! 20–50 basophils in a cubic millimeter of blood
(0–1 percent of WBCs)

Formed Elements
! Types of agranulocytes:
o Lymphocytes
! Cytoplasm is pale blue
! Dark purple-blue nucleus
! Functions as part of the immune response
o B lymphocytes produce antibodies
o T lymphocytes are involved in graft rejection, fighting tumors and
viruses
! 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood (20–45 percent
of WBCs)

Formed Elements
! Types of agranulocytes (continued):
o Monocytes
! Largest of the white blood cells
! Gray-blue cytoplasm
! Dark blue-purple nucleus is often kidney-shaped
! Function as macrophages
! Important in fighting chronic infection
! 100–700 monocytes per cubic millimeter of blood
(4–8 percent of WBCs)

Formed Elements
! Platelets
o Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
o Needed for the clotting process
o Platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
! 300,000 is considered a normal number of platelets per cubic millimeter
of blood

Hematopoiesis
! Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

! Occurs in red bone marrow
! All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
! Hemocytoblast differentiation
o Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
o Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed elements

Formation of Red Blood Cells

! Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
! RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days
! When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
! Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow

Control of Erythrocyte Production

! Rate of RBC production is controlled by a hormone called erythropoietin
! Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood
! Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels

Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets

! Controlled by hormones
o Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to
generate leukocytes
o Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

Hemostasis
! Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel
! Hemostasis involves three phases:
1. Vascular spasms
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)

Hemostasis
! Vascular spasms
o Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
o Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

Hemostasis
! Platelet plug formation
o Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
o Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
o Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 o Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug (white thrombus)

Hemostasis
! Coagulation
o Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
o PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting factors, and
calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
o Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)

Hemostasis
! Coagulation (continued)
o Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hairlike molecules of insoluble fibrin
o Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)
o Within the hour, serum is squeezed from the clot as it retracts
! Serum is plasma minus clotting proteins

Hemostasis
! Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
! The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
! The clot is broken down after tissue repair

Undesirable Clotting
! Thrombus
o A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
o Can be deadly in areas such as the heart
! Embolus
o A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream
o Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain

Bleeding Disorders
! Thrombocytopenia
o Platelet deficiency
o Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
o Evidenced by petechiae (small purplish blotches on the skin)
! Hemophilia
o Hereditary bleeding disorder
o Normal clotting factors are missing

Blood Groups and Transfusions

! Large losses of blood have serious consequences

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 o Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
o Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be fatal
! Blood transfusions are given for substantial blood loss, to treat severe anemia, or for
thrombocytopenia

Human Blood Groups

! Blood contains genetically determined proteins
! Antigens are substances that the body recognizes as foreign and that the immune
system may attack
! Antibodies are the “recognizers”
! Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination) and lyse

Human Blood Groups

! There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
! The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens

ABO Blood Groups

! Based on the presence or absence of two antigens:
1. Type A
2. Type B
! The lack of these antigens is called type O

ABO Blood Groups

! The presence of both antigens A and B is called type AB
! The presence of antigen A is called type A
! The presence of antigen B is called type B
! The lack of both antigens A and B is called type O

ABO Blood Groups

! Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
o Universal recipient
! Blood type B can receive B and O blood
! Blood type A can receive A and O blood
! Blood type O can receive O blood
o Universal donor

Rh Blood Groups
! Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D) that was originally defined in Rhesus monkeys

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

! Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh-positive)
! Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with Rh– (Rh-negative) blood
! Hemolysis does not occur with first transfusion, because it takes time to make
antibodies
! Second, and subsequent, transfusions involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+
RBCs

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

! Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and the child
inherits the Rh+ factor
! RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

! The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child
o The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
o The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
o In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to
attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

Blood Typing
! Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and
anti-B serum
! Agglutination or the lack of agglutination leads to identification of blood type
! Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner
! Cross matching—testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum,
and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of Blood

! Sites of blood cell formation
o The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
o Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month

Developmental Aspects of Blood

! Congenital blood defects include various types of hemolytic anemias and hemophilia
! Incompatibility between maternal and fetal blood can result in fetal cyanosis, resulting
from destruction of fetal blood cells
! Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth
! Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants when the liver cannot rid the body of
hemoglobin breakdown products fast enough

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Developmental Aspects of Blood
! Leukemias are most common in the very young and very old
o Older adults are also at risk for anemia and clotting disorders

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.