3.1 Specialist vs.

Generalist Species
Specialists vs. Specialist: Smaller range of tolerance, or narrower ecological
Generalists niche makes them prone to extinction
- Specific food requirements (bamboo)
- Less ability to adapt to new conditions
Generalists: Larger range of tolerance, broader niche makes them
less prone to extinction & more likely to be invasive
- Broad food req.
- High adaptability

Specialists vs. List at least 3 Characteristics of Each

Generalists
Specialists Generalists

Narrow Niche Broad Niche

More likely to become extinct Adaptable to many
Use a specific set of environments
resources Less likely to become extinct

FRQ Practice
Identify ONE characteristic of specialist species and explain how
that characteristic makes them more likely to become extinct than
generalist species.
 One characteristic of a specialist species is that they only use a
specific set of resources. If those specific sets of resources
disappear for any reason then the species will no longer have a
food source pushing them to extinction.

Summary
Specialist Species are more likely to go extinct than generalist
species, but have a greater advantage in very specific
environments that suit their tolerances.
3.2 K-selected & r-selected
Quality vs. Quantity K-selected- “quality”

▰ Few offspring, heavy parental care to protect them

▰ Usually reproduce many times
▻ Ex: most mammals, birds
▰ long- lifespan, long time to sexual maturity = low biotic
potential = slow pop. growth rate
▻ More likely to be disrupted by env. change or
invasives

R-selected- “quantity”

▰ Many offspring, little to no care

▰ May reproduce only once
▻ Ex: insects, fish, plants
▰ Shorter lifespan, quick to sexual maturity = high biotic
potential = high pop. growth rate
▻ More likely to be invasive
▻ Better suited for rapidly changing env. conditions

Traits or characteristics of List 3 traits and how they are expressed differently in
r-selected & K-selected K-selected species vs. r-Selected species
species
Trait K-Selected r-Selected

Life Span Long Short

Time to Long Short

reproductive
maturity

Number of Few Many

reproductive
events
Invasiveness & K-selected
Disturbances
▰ Low biotic potential (rep. rate) = hard for pop. to recover
after a disturbance (env. change)
▰ High parental care means death of parent = death of
offspring
▰ Invasives (usually r) outcompete for resources with high
biotic potential & rapid pop. growth
▰ Less likely to adapt & more likely to go extinct

r-selected

▰ High biotic potential (rep. rate) = more rapid pop.

recovery after disturbance
▰ Low parental care means death of parent doesn’t impact
offspring
▰ Not as impacted by invasive species since their pop.
grow quickly
▻ More likely to be the invasive
▰ Larger pop. & faster generation time = higher chance of
adaptation & lower chance of extinction

FRQ Practice Identify ONE characteristic of an r-selected species that could

increase the likelihood of the r-selected species becoming a
more successful invasive species than K-selected species
R-selected species can reproduce and adapt much faster than
K-selected species.

FRQ Practice

Describe the relationship between Zebra Mussel and Unionid

Mussel population density in the Hudson River

There is an inverse relationship as when Zebra mussels

increase, Unionid Mussel’s decreases.
3.3 Survivorship Curve
Survivorship Curves Survivorship Curve: line that shows survival rate of a
cohort (group of same-aged individuals) in a pop. from
birth to death
Faster drop in line = quicker die-off of individuals
Slower drop in line = longer avg. lifespan

Type I, II, and III Type I (mostly K-selected)

▰ High survivorship early in life due to parental care

▰ High survivorship in mid life due to large size and
defensive behavior
▰ Rapid decrease in survivorship in late life as old
age sets in
▻ Ex: most mammals

Type II (Between K and R)

▰ Steadily decreasing survivorship throughout life

Type III (Mostly r-selected)

▰ High mortality(low survivorship) early in life due

to little to no parental care
▰ Few make it to midlife; slow, steady decline in
survivorship in midlife
▰ Even fewer make it to adulthood ; slow decline in
survivorship in old age
▰ Ex: insects, fish, plants

Describe the trend in survivorship shown in this graph.

Justify which type of survivorship curve these data
represent.
Most likely a r-selected survivorship due to the high
mortality in the early years.

3.4 Carrying Capacity

Carrying Capacity Carrying Capacity(k): the max. Number of individuals in a
pop. that an ecosystem can support(based on limiting
resources)
★ Fig. 1 is theoretical
★ Fig. 2 is more realistic
★ Pop. briefly “overshoots” (k) and then die-off
happens

Carrying Capacity (k) ▰ Highest pop. an ecosystem can support based on

limiting resources:
▻ Food
▻ Water
▻ Habitat (nesting sites, space)
▰ Overshoot: when a population briefly exceeds
carrying capacity
▻ Ex: deer breed in fall, give birth all at once
in spring; sudden spike in pop. = overshoot
▰ Consequence of overshoot: resource depletion
ex: overgrazing in deer
▰ Die-off: sharp decrease in pop. size when
resource depletion (overshoot) leads to many
individuals dying
▻ Ex: many deer starve with too many new
fawns feeding in spring

Die-off Example ▰ Reindeer of St. Paul Island

▻ 25 introduced in 1910
▻ Growth was gradual (10’-30’), then
 exponential (30’-37’)
▻ Carrying Capacity was overshot
▻ Sharp die-off lead to pop. crash as food
resource (lichen) were severely depleted

▰ Real pops. don’t always fluctuate around carrying

capacity. If resource depletion is severe enough,
total pop. crash can occur

Predator-Prey 1. Hare pop. increase due to low predator pop.

(lynx)
2. Lynx pop. increase due to increase in food(hare)
3. Increasing lynx pop. limits hare pop; leads to
die-off
4. Hare die-off decreases lynx food source, leading
to die-off
5. Hare pop. increase due to low predator pop.
(lynx)
Explain the impact that the canine virus had on the
moose population based on the graph.

The Canine virus decimated the wolf populations

decreasing the predator pop. for the Moose. As a result,
the Moose population increased quickly.
3.5 Population Growth & Resource Availability
Population Characteristics ▰ Size(N): total # of individuals in a given area at a given
time
▻ Larger = safer from pop. decline
▰ Density: # of individuals/area
▻ Ex: (12 panthers/km2)
▻ High density = higher competition, possibility
for diseases outbreak, possibility of depleting
food source
▰ Distribution: how individuals in pop. are spaced
compared to each other
▻ Random (trees)
▻ Uniform (territorial animals)
▻ Clumped (herd/group animals)

Pop. Characteristics & ▰ Sex Ratio : ratio of males to female. Closer to 50:50,
Growth Factors the more ideal for breeding(usually)
▻ Die-off or bottleneck effect can lead to skewed
sex ratio (not enough females) limiting pop.
growth

▰ Density-Dependent Factors: factors that influence pop.

 growth based on size:
▻ Ex: food, competition for habitat, water, light,
even disease
▻ All of these things limit pop. growth based on
their size; aka - small pop. don’t experience
these, large do
▰ Density-Independent Factors: factors that influence
pop. growth independent of their size
▻ Ex: Natural Disasters(Flood, hurricane, tornado,
fire)
▻ It doesn’t matter how big or small a pop. is,
natural disasters limit them both

Ex. of Density-Dependent ▰ Food is a density dependent factor. (also a limiting

Factor resource)
▻ When twice as much food was added to the
dish, both species increased carrying capacity
by about 2x
 ▰ Biotic potential = max. potential growth rate, with no
limiting resources
▻ May occur initially, but limiting factors
(competition, food, disease, predators) slow
growth, & eventually limit pop. to carrying
capacity (k)
▰ Exponential Growth = biotic potential, J-shaped curve
▰ Logistic Curve= initial rapid growth, then limiting
factors limit pop. , S-shaped or sigmoid curve

Calculating Population
Change

▰ Population Size = (immigration + births) -

(emmigartion + deaths) - you will also sometimes see
this as BIDE or (B+I)-(D+E)
▻ Ex: An elk pop. of 52 elk has 19 births and 6
deaths in a season, and 5 new elk immigrate to
the herd and 0 elk emigrate from the heart

Show work:

52 + ( 5+19 ) - ( 0+6 ) = 70 elk

FRQ Practice 3.5 Calculate the population size of a 14 wolf pack that
experiences 5 deaths, 3 births, and 4 new wolves released into
the pack from a nearby wildlife sanctuary.
 Show work:

14 + ((4+3)-(0+5)) = 16

3.6 Age Structure Diagrams

Video - 7 Billion People What trends do you notice?

The population is a logistic curve.

Video - Earth’s Most Typical How much of this describes you?

Person Around half of these describe me.

Age Cohorts Age cohorts & growth = groups of similarly aged indivifuals

● 0-14 = preproductive
● 15 - 44 = reproductive
● 45 + = post-reproductive

● Size difference between 0-14 & 5-44 indicates growth

rate
○ Larger 0-14 cohort = current and future growth
 ○ Roughly equal 0-14 & 15-44 = slight
growth/stable
○ Larger 15-44 = pop. decline

Population Pyramids

- Extreme Pyramid shape = rapid growth

- Less extreme pyramid = slow, stable, growth
- House = stable, little to no growth
- Narrowest @ base = declining pop.

Practice Reading Diagrams

Highest to Lowest Growth Rate

a,d,b,c
 Number of 0-14 Individuals

- India = 380 mil

- US = 60 mil
- Germany = 12 mil
- China = 270 mil

Video - Population How do population pyramids reflect a nation’s past?

Pyramids: Powerful
Predictors of the Future It shows the effects of wars, laws, and cultural changes on the
population

How can population pyramids predict future growth?

Population pyramids can predict future growth by looking at

the pre-reproductive age because as those in that cohort age,
it shows a lot of new adults incoming

FRQ Practice 3.6

Identify the country with the slowest pop. growth rate and
explain your answer
The country with the slowest pop. growth rate in Country Y
because it has the least people in the pre-reproductive
cohort.
3.7 Total Fertility Rate
Global Population Growth: Include a 2-3 sentence summary in your notes describing the
Box by Box: problem as Hans Rosling sees it and how to resolve the
problem.

Hans Rosling sees the gap between the richest and poorest
countries in the world as a problem. The poorest countries
have the highest child mortality and largest family sizes. To
resolve, health and education need to be improved.

TFR & Infant Mortality ▰ Total Fertility Rate (TFR): avg. Number of children a
woman in a population will bear throughout her
lifetime
▻ Higher TFR = higher birth rate, higher pop.
growth rate (generally)

▰ Replacement Level Fertility: The TFR required to

offset deaths in a pop and keep pop size stable
▻ About 2.1 in developed (replace mom & dad)
▻ Higher in less developed countries due to
higher infant mortality
▰ Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): number of deaths of
children under 1 per 1000 people in a pop.
▻ Higher in less developed countries due to lack
of access to: healthcare, clean water, enough
food
▰ Higher IMR = higher TFR, due to families having
replacement children

Global TFR vs.

Infant Mortality
Global TFR
What do you notice:
________________________
________________________
________________________
 Infant Mortality

Infant Mortality & TFR

Factors in IMR Decline

- Access to clean water

- Access to healthcare(hospitals, vaccines, vitamins,
and supplements for moms and babies
- More reliable food supply

Factors That Affect TFR ▰ Development (Affluence): More developed, or

wealthy nations have alower TFR than less
developed Nations
▻ More Educational access for women

▻ More econ. Opportunity for women

▻ Higher access to Family Planning education

and contraceptives

▻ Later age of first pregnancy

▻ Less need for children to provide income

through agricultural labor

▰ Gov. Policy: can play a huge role in fertility by

coercive(forceful) or noncoercive(encouraging)
policies
▻ Forced or vol. sterilization
 ▻ China’s 1 (now 2) child policy
▻ Tax incentives to have fewer children

▻ Microcredits or loans to women without

children to start businesses

Affluence & TFR

▰ More access to contraceptives & family planning

▰ Ed, econ opportunities, leaving less for raising

children

▰ Lower IMR = lower TFR

Female Education & TFR

 ▰ More education = fewer unplanned pregnancies

▰ More education = more opportunities for women

▻ Alternative to marrying young

FRQ Practice 3.7

Identify and discuss TWO of the causes for the trend in

worldwide TFR.
One cause for the trend in worldwide TFR is that
women are receiving more educations. So instead of
having kids and raising a family, they are pursuing
their career. Another cause is moving to urban
environments. Kids are expensive to raise and
become a financial burden.

3.8 Human Population Dynamics

Does Earth Have a Human Malthusian theory (what Malthus theorized):
Carrying Capacity? - Earth has a human carrying capacity, probably based on
food production
- Human population growth is happening faster than
growth of food production
- Humans will reach a carrying capacity limited by food
Technological Advancement
- Humans can alter earth’s carrying capacity with tech
 - Ex: synthetic fixation of Nitrogen in 1918 leads
to synthetic fertilizer, dramatically increasing
food supply

Birth Rate, Death Rate, and ▰ Growth Rate (r) = % increase in a population
Growth
▻ Ex: a growth rate of 5% for a population of 100
means they grow to 105

▰ Crude Birth Rate (CBR) & Crude Death Rate (CDR)

▻ Births & deaths per 1000 people in a pop.

▻ Ex: Global CBR = 20 & CDR = 8

▻ Calculating Growth Rate (r)

▰ Divide by
10 because CDR
& CDR are per
1,000 and
growth rate is %
or per 100
▰ Growth
rate always
expressed as %

Doubling Time (Rule of 70) ▰ Rule of 70: The time it takes (in years) for a population
to double is equal to 70 divided by the growth rate

Ex: Global growth rate = 1.2%

Calculating Population ▰ Practice Problem: A country has a CDR of 9 and a CBR

Change of 18.
 ▻ Calculate the annual growth rate, and the
doubling time

18-9 / 10 = 0.9% annual growth rate.

70/0.9% = 77.8 years doubling time

Factors Affecting Human ▰ Factors that increase pop. growth

Pop. Growth ▻ Higher TFR → higher Birth rate
▻ High infant mortality can drive up TFR
(replacement children)
▻ High immigration level
▻ Increased access to clean water&
healthcare(decrease death rate)

▰ factors that decrease population growth rate

▻ High death rate
▻ High infant mortality rate
▻ Increased development (education & affluence)
▻ Increased education for women
▻ Delayed age of first child
▻ Postponement of marriage age

Standard of Living ▰ Standard of Living

Indicators
▻ What the quality of life is like for people of a
country is based on GDP and Life Expectancy.

▰ Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = key economic

indicator of standard of living
▻ Total value of the goods & services
produced

▻ Per capita GDP is total GDP/total

population

▻ So per capita means divide by

 people in population

▰ Life expectancy = key healthindicator of standard of

living
▻ Average age a person will live to in a given
country

▻ Increases with access to clean water, health

care, stable food sources

High GDP & life expectancy are both indicators of

development and low pop. growth

FRQ Practice 3.8 Describe one environmental problem associated with a rapidly
growing human population and propose a solution a
government could take to slow population growth.
One environmental problem associated with a rapidly
growing human population is that environmental
resources are depleting quickly to meet the demand
of that increased human population. A solution a
government can take to slow population growth is to
have tax incentive to encourage people to have less
children.
3.9 Demographic Transition
Industrialization ▰ Industrialization: the process of economic and Social
transition from an agrarian (farming) economy to an
industrial one (manufacturing based)

▰ Pre-industrialized/Less developed
▻ A country that has not yet made the agrarian to
industrial transition
▻ Typically very poor (low GDP)
▻ Typically high death rate & high mortality rate
▻ High TFR for replacement children &
agricultural labor
▰ Industrializing/developing
▻ part way through this transition
▻ Decreasing death rate & IMR
▻ Rising GDP

▰ Industrialized/developed: completed the transition

▻ Very low DR and IMR
▻ Very high GDP
▻ Low TFR

Development Status
Stage 1 - Preindustrial ▰ High IMR & high death rate due to lack of access to
clean water, stable food supply, and healthcare

▰ High TFR due to lack of access to:

▻ Education for women

▻ Contraceptives/family planning

▰ Need for child agricultural labor

▰ Little to no growth due to high CBR & CDR balancing

each other out

Ex: Virtually no country is in phase 1, but there are pockets or

regions in phase 1 within countries who have transitioned to
phase 2.

Stage 2 - ▰ Modernizations bring access to clean water,

Industrializing/Developing healthcare, stable food supply

▻ IMR and CDR decline

▰ TFR remains high due to

▻ Lack of education for women and

contraceptives/family planning

▻ Need for child agricultural labor

▻ Generational lag (takes time for ed. And societal

change to spread)

▰ Rapid growth , due to high CBR and declining CDR

▰ Econ./societal Indicators
▻ Low per capita GDP

▻ Shorter life expectancy

▻ High IMR

▻ High TMR

▻ Low literacy rate and school life expectancy for

girls
Stage 3 - ▰ Modernized economy and society increase family
Developed/Industrialized income, so TFR declines significantly due to

▻ More educational opportunities for women

▻ Delayed age of marriage & first child to focus on

ed./career

▻ Access to family planning and contraceptives

▰ Slowing growth rate as CBR drops closer to CDR

▰ Econ./societal Indicators
▻ High per capita GDP

▻ Long-life expectancy

▻ Low IMR

▻ TFR near replacement level

▻ High literacy rate and school life expectancy for

all

Stage 4 - ▰ Highly modernized countries that are very affluent

Post-Industrialized/Highly
Developed ▻ TFR declines even further as families become
more wealthy and spend even more time on
educational and career pursuits

▻ Increased wealth & education brings even more

prevalent use of family planning &
contraceptives

▰ CBR drops lower than CDR & growth becomes

negative (pop. decline)

▰ Econ./Societal Indicators
▻ Very high per capita GDP

▻ Longest life-expectancy

▻ TFR below replacement level

▻ Highest Contraceptive use rates

 Stages & Development

1 = Pre-industrial

2 = Developing

3= Developed

4 = Highly developed

FRQ Practice 3.9

Identify the stage of this graph in which population grows the

fastest and explain why this is the case. Describe one
economic or societal indicator of a country in this phase.

The population grows the fastest in stage 2 because the death

rate decreases rapidly while the birth rate stays high causing a
huge population growth. One societal indicator of a country in
this phase is low literacy rate and school life for girls.