MODULE 3

TITLE: Mechanical Properties of Materials

TOPICS: 3.1 Tension and Compression Test

3.2 The Stress-Strain Diagram

3.3 Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

3.4 Hooke’s Law

3.5 Strain Energy

3.6 Poisson’s Ratio

3.7 Relationship Between E, G, and v

3.8 Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue

INTRODUCTION:

The study of mechanical properties of materials is crucial in understanding the behavior

of materials under various loads and stresses. The mechanical properties of a material
determine its suitability for a particular application, and a deep understanding of these
properties is essential for designing and developing structures, machines, and devices
that are safe, efficient, and reliable.

In this section, we will explore the fundamental concepts of mechanical properties of

materials, focusing on the tensile and compressive properties of materials. We will
examine the stress-strain diagram, which is a graphical representation of the relationship
between stress and strain, and how it is used to determine the mechanical properties of
materials. We will also delve into the differences between ductile and brittle materials,
and how they respond to different types of loading. Additionally, we will discuss the
concept of strain energy, Poisson's ratio, and shear stress-strain behavior, which are
essential components in understanding the mechanical properties of materials.
 “For Nation’s Greater Heights”

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

By the end of this module, learners should be able to:

1. Understand the principles and significance of tension and compression tests in

material analysis.

2. Interpret stress-strain diagrams and analyze the behavior of materials under

different loading conditions.

3. Differentiate between the stress-strain behavior of ductile and brittle materials.

4. Explain the concept of strain energy and its relevance in material deformation.

5. Define and calculate Poisson's ratio as a measure of material deformation.

6. Analyze shear stress-strain relationships and their implications for material

strength and stability.

PRE – ASSESTMENT. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the primary purpose of tension and compression tests in material analysis?

2. Describe the key features of a stress-strain diagram and how it reflects material
behavior.

3. Differentiate between the stress-strain behavior of ductile and brittle materials.

Provide examples of each.

4. How is strain energy related to material deformation, and why is it important in

material science?

5. Define Poisson's ratio and explain its significance in material properties.

6. Discuss the relationship between shear stress and strain in materials, and how it
influences material strength.
3.1 Tension and Compression Test

3.1.1 Tension Test

A tension test subjects a specimen (typically a rod-shaped sample) to a gradually

increasing pulling force (tensile load) along its longitudinal axis. The test is usually
conducted using a universal testing machine (UTM). Here's a breakdown of the key
aspects:
• Specimen: The specimen has a uniform cross-sectional area (Ao) and a gauge
length (Lo) where the deformation is primarily measured.
• Loading: The tensile load (P) is applied axially through grips attached to the
specimen ends. The load is steadily increased until the specimen fractures.
• Data Acquisition: Throughout the test, the machine records the applied load (P)
and the corresponding elongation (ΔL) in the gauge length. This data is used to
calculate stress and strain as explained below.

Stress and Strain:

• Engineering Stress (σ): This is the intensity of the internal force resisting the
deformation and is calculated by dividing the applied load (P) by the original cross-
sectional area (Ao) of the specimen.
o σ = P / Ao
• Engineering Strain (ε): This represents the relative deformation and is
calculated by dividing the change in gauge length (ΔL) by the original gauge length
(Lo).
o ε = ΔL / Lo

The stress and strain data are typically plotted to generate a stress-strain curve, which is
a crucial tool for understanding the material's behavior under tension. The curve can
reveal properties like:

• Elasticity: The initial linear portion of the curve represents the elastic region
where the material deforms proportionally to the applied stress and returns to its
original shape upon unloading.
• Yield Point: The point where the material deviates from linear behavior and starts
to deform plastically (without returning to its original shape) is known as the yield
point. The corresponding stress is the yield strength.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): The maximum stress the material can
withstand before fracture is the ultimate tensile strength.
 • Fracture Point: The point on the curve where the specimen fractures represent
the material's breaking strength.

3.1.2 Compression Test

A compression test is similar in concept to a tension test, but instead of a pulling force,
an axial compressive load is applied to the specimen, aiming to crush or shorten it. The
same principles of stress and strain calculations apply, with compressive stress being
calculated by dividing the compressive load by the original cross-sectional area.

Material Properties from Compression Test:

The compression test helps determine properties like:

• Yield Strength in Compression: Similar to the tension test, the yield point in
the stress-strain curve signifies the onset of plastic deformation under
compression.
• Compressive Strength: The maximum stress the material can withstand before
failure in compression.
• Brittle vs. Ductile Behavior: The nature of the fracture can indicate the
material's behavior. Brittle materials fail with little to no plastic deformation, while
ductile materials exhibit significant plastic deformation before fracture.

By performing tension and compression tests, engineers can gain valuable insights into a
material's ability to handle tensile and compressive forces, its elasticity, and its overall
strength. These properties are crucial for selecting appropriate materials for various
engineering applications.

3.2 The Stress-Strain Diagram

The stress-strain diagram is a fundamental concept that helps engineers and material
scientists understand the behavior of materials under different loading conditions. This
diagram illustrates the relationship between the stress applied to a material and the
resulting strain it experiences. Understanding this relationship is crucial for designing
structures that can withstand various mechanical forces without failure.

Stress-Strain Relationship: The stress-strain diagram typically consists of two main

regions: the elastic region and the plastic region. In the elastic region, the material
deforms elastically, meaning it returns to its original shape once the load is removed. This
behavior is described by Hooke’s Law, which states that stress is directly proportional to
strain within this region.
 Elastic Modulus (Young’s Modulus): One of the
key parameters derived from the stress-strain
diagram is the elastic modulus, also known as
Young’s modulus. This modulus represents the
stiffness of a material in the elastic region and is
calculated as the slope of the linear portion of the
stress-strain curve. Materials with a high elastic
modulus are stiffer and require higher stresses to
induce deformation.

Yield Point and Yield Strength: As the applied

stress increases, most materials eventually reach a
point called the yield point, beyond which they exhibit plastic deformation. The yield
strength corresponds to this point on the stress-strain curve and indicates the maximum
stress a material can withstand before undergoing permanent deformation.

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Fracture Point: Continuing past the yield
point, materials enter the plastic region where further deformation occurs until reaching
ultimate tensile strength (UTS). UTS represents the maximum stress a material can
endure before fracturing. The fracture point on the stress-strain diagram marks where
complete failure or rupture of the material happens.

Ductility and Toughness: The shape of the stress-strain curve also provides insights
into a material’s ductility and toughness. Ductility refers to how much plastic deformation
a material can undergo before breaking, while toughness measures its ability to absorb
energy without fracturing. Materials with elongated plastic regions on their stress-strain
diagrams are considered more ductile and tougher.
In summary, analyzing a material’s stress-strain diagram allows engineers to predict its
mechanical behavior under different loading conditions, aiding in material selection,
structural design, and failure analysis.

3.3 Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

The stress-strain behavior of materials is influenced by their inherent properties, such as

ductility, brittleness, and strength. In this article, we will discuss the stress-strain behavior
of ductile and brittle materials, highlighting their differences and similarities.
Ductile Materials
Ductile materials are those that exhibit significant plastic deformation before failing. They
have a high degree of toughness, which means they can absorb energy without breaking.
Examples of ductile materials include metals such as copper, aluminum, and steel.
Stress-Strain Curve of Ductile Materials
The stress-strain curve of ductile materials typically exhibits a gradual increase in stress
as the material is subjected to increasing strain. The curve can be divided into three
regions:
1. Elastic Region: In this region, the material behaves elastically, meaning that the
stress is directly proportional to the strain. The material returns to its original shape
when the load is removed.
2. Plastic Region: As the material is subjected to increasing strain, it begins to
deform plastically. The stress increases at a slower rate than in the elastic region,
but the material continues to deform.
3. Ultimate Region: In this region, the material reaches its maximum strength and
begins to fail. The stress-strain curve may exhibit a sudden drop in stress as the
material fails.
Properties of Ductile Materials
Ductile materials have several desirable properties, including:
1. High toughness: Ductile materials can absorb energy without breaking.
2. High ductility: Ductile materials can deform significantly before failing.
3. High strength: Ductile materials can withstand high stress without failing.
Brittle Materials
Brittle materials are those that exhibit little or no plastic deformation before failing. They
have a low degree of toughness, which means they are prone to sudden failure without
warning. Examples of brittle materials include glass, ceramics, and some types of
concrete.
Stress-Strain Curve of Brittle Materials
The stress-strain curve of brittle materials typically exhibits a sudden and catastrophic
failure at a relatively low strain. The curve can be divided into two regions:
1. Elastic Region: In this region, the material behaves elastically, meaning that the
stress is directly proportional to the strain.
2. Fracture Region: As the material is subjected to increasing strain, it reaches its
maximum strength and fails suddenly.
Properties of Brittle Materials
Brittle materials have several undesirable properties, including:
1. Low toughness: Brittle materials are prone to sudden failure without warning.
2. Low ductility: Brittle materials exhibit little or no plastic deformation before
failing.
3. Low strength: Brittle materials are prone to failure at relatively low stresses.
Comparison of Ductile and Brittle Materials
The following table summarizes the main differences between ductile and brittle
materials:
In conclusion, the stress-strain behavior of ductile and brittle materials is fundamentally
different. Ductile materials exhibit significant plastic deformation before failing, while
brittle materials exhibit little or no plastic deformation before failing. Understanding the
stress-strain behavior of these materials is crucial for designing structures that can
withstand various loads and stresses.
3.4 Hooke’s Law

Robert Hooke discovered an increase in stress causes a proportionate increase in strain

using springs in 1676 and is known as Hooke’s law. It may be expressed mathematically
as,

σ= E ε

The constant of proportionality is represented as E, which is called the modulus of

elasticity or Young’s modulus. It was named after Thomas Young, who published an
account of it in 1807.

Example: σ= 40 ksi and ε= 0.0025 in./in., what is E?

E= 40 kilopound per square in. = 16 x 103 ksi Ans.

0.0025 in./in.

Hooke’s Law also applies to shear stress τ and shear strain y, where G is called the shear
modulus or the modulus of rigidity.

3.5 Strain Energy

What is Strain Energy?

Strain Energy is a measure of the energy stored in a material due to deformation caused
by an external load. It is defined as the work done by the external load to deform the
material from its original state to its deformed state. In other words, strain energy is the
energy required to stretch, compress, or bend a material.
Calculation of Strain Energy
The calculation of strain energy involves integrating the stress-strain diagram of a
material over its entire deformation range. The strain energy per unit volume (U) is given
by:

u = ∫σ(ε) dε
where σ is the stress, ε is the strain, and dε is the infinitesimal change in strain.
For a linear elastic material, the stress-strain diagram is a straight line, and the strain
energy can be calculated as:
1
u= σε
2
where σ is the maximum stress and ε is the maximum strain.
When the stress σ reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy density, is referred to
as Modulus of Resilience.
1 1 𝜎2
ur = σpl εpl =
2 2 𝐸

For non-linear materials, the stress-strain diagram is non-linear, and the strain energy
calculation becomes more complex. However, for most engineering materials, a linear
approximation can be made, and the strain energy can be calculated using the above
equation.
Significance of Strain Energy
Strain Energy has several significant implications in the analysis of materials:
1. Energy Storage: Strain energy represents the amount of energy stored in a
material due to deformation. This energy can be released when the material
returns to its original shape, which can lead to vibrations, noise, or even damage.
2. Material Behavior: Strain energy can affect the behavior of materials under
various loads. For example, high-strain energy materials may exhibit increased
ductility or toughness, while low-strain energy materials may exhibit increased
brittleness.
3. Design Optimization: Understanding strain energy can help engineers optimize
material designs for specific applications. For example, designing structures with
lower strain energy can reduce vibrations and noise.
4. Fatigue Analysis: Strain energy plays a critical role in fatigue analysis, where
repeated loading and unloading can lead to fatigue failure.
Example Problems
To illustrate the calculation of strain energy, let's consider two examples:
Example 1: A linear elastic material with a Young's modulus (E) of 70 GPa and a Poisson's
ratio (ν) of 0.3 is subjected to a uniaxial tensile load of 100 MPa. Calculate the strain
energy per unit volume (U) for this material.
Solution:
Using Hooke's law, we can calculate the strain (ε) as:

100 x 106 Pa
ε= = 0.00143 mm/mm
70 x 109 Pa
The strain energy per unit volume (U) can be calculated as:
1 1
u= σε (100 x 109) (0.00143 mm/mm) = 0.0143 J/mm³
2 2
Example 2: A non-linear material with a stress-strain diagram as shown below is subjected
to a uniaxial tensile load. Calculate the strain energy per unit volume (U) for this material.
Solution:
Using numerical integration, we can calculate the strain energy per unit volume (U) as:
U = ∫σ(ε) dε ≈ 0.025 J/mm³
In conclusion, Strain Energy is a fundamental concept in Mechanics of Materials that plays
a crucial role in understanding the behavior of materials under various loads. The
calculation of strain energy involves integrating the stress-strain diagram of a material
over its entire deformation range, and it has significant implications in material design
optimization, fatigue analysis, and energy storage.

3.6 Poisson’s Ratio

A material loaded in one direction will undergo strains perpendicular to the direction of
the load as well as parallel to it.

• If a solid body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts in the lateral

direction.
• If a solid body is compressed, it expands in the lateral directions.
Poisson’s Ration is stated mathematically as,

𝛆 𝐥𝐚𝐭
v =-
𝛆 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠

where εlat = δ and εlong = δ’

L r
δ is the lateral or transverse strain
δ’ is to the longitudinal or axial strain
L is length
r is radius

Example Problem
Example 1: A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown. If an axial force of P =
80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its length and the change in the
dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The material behaves elastically.

Solution:
𝑃 80 𝑥 103 𝑁
σ= σ= = 16 MPa
𝐴 (0.1mm)(0.05mm)
 𝜎 16 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎
ε= ε= = 80 x 10-6 mm/mm
𝐸 200 𝑥 109 𝑃𝑎

The axial elongation of the bar is therefore,

δz = εz Lz = (80 x 10-6) (1.5 m) = 120 μm Ans.

vst = 0.32 as found from the inside back cover, the lateral contraction strains in both
the x and y directions are,

εx = εy = -vst εz = -(0.32) (80 x 10-6 ) = -25.6 μm/m

Thus, the changes in the dimensions of the cross section are,

δx = εx Lx = -(25 x 10-6) (0.1 m) = -2.56 μm Ans.

δy = εy Ly = -(25 x 10-6) (0.05 m) = -1.28 μm Ans.

3.7 Relationship Between E, G, and v

Poisson’s ratio is related to the elastic modulus E and the shear modulus G by the formula,
𝑬
G=
𝟐(𝟏+𝒗)

Example: A tension test was conducted on a 1.975-in.-wide by 0.375-in.-thick specimen

of a Nylon plastic. A 4.000-in. gage length was marked on the specimen before load
application. In the elastic portion of the stress–strain curve at an applied load of P= 6,000
lb, the elongation in the gage length was measured as 0.023 in., and the contraction in
the bar width was measured as 0.004 in. Determine (a) the elastic modulus E, (b)
Poisson’s ratio, and (c) the shear modulus G.
(a) The normal stress in the plastic specimen is,
6000 lb
σ= = 8,101.27 psi
(0.1975 in.)(0.375 in.)

The longitudinal strain is,

0.023 𝑖𝑛.
εlong = = 0.005750 in./in.
4.000 𝑖𝑛.
 Therefore, the elastic modulus E is,
8,101.27
E= = 1,409,000 psi Ans.
0.005750 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛.
(b) The lateral strain is,
−0.004 𝑖𝑛.
εlat = = - 0.002025 in./in.
0.1975 𝑖𝑛.
Poisson’s ratio can be computed as,
ε lat −0.002025 in./in.
v =- = − 0.005750 in./in. = 0.352 Ans.
ε long

(c) The shear modulus G is computed from Equation (3.7) as,

𝐸 1,409,000 psi
G= = = 521,049 psi Ans.
2(1+𝑣) (2)(1+ 0.352)

3.8 Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue

Creep is the time-dependent plastic

deformation that occurs when a material
is subjected to a continuously applied
stress, typically in the presence of
elevated temperatures.

The failure of a material due to excessive accumulation of creep is called creep failure.
It happens when the material no longer satisfies its intended function due to deformation
or fracture. The dislocation of atoms, either by diffusion or atomic glide and climb as
stresses are applied at increased temperatures (typically about 30-40% of a metal’s
melting point or 40-50% of a ceramic’s melting point) occurs within grains or along grain
boundaries. It occurs in three stages, and it is described in the following:

1. Primary Creep: It is characterized by the instantaneous or continuous application

of a force, followed by elastic deformation, and eventually plastic deformation at
 temperatures that are at least 35 to 45% of the material’s melting point. Increased
temperatures increase the internal energy of atoms in a material’s microstructure
and make it easier for atoms to overcome barriers to their movement within the
crystal lattice structure. Deformation in the primary creep stage occurs rapidly and
then slows as time goes on due to the work hardening of the material as it deforms.
2. Secondary Creep: During secondary creep, the material’s strain rate stabilizes
as strain increases nearly linearly with time. Deformation at this stage is much
slower compared to deformation in the primary creep and tertiary creep stages.
As plastic deformation occurs during this stage, damage to the microstructure
accumulates as atoms and vacancies dislocate.
3. Tertiary Creep: Tertiary creep is the last stage of creep deformation and
concludes with the material’s failure. During this stage, grain boundary separation,
internal void form, and microcracks initiate and grow because of the constant
movement of dislocations and diffusion of atoms occurring in the part. These three
things result in an eventual reduction in the cross-sectional area of the part which
consequently leads to the development of stress concentrations and acceleration
of the strain rate in the material as it responds to the continuing application of a
constant stress. Eventually, the material fails to satisfy its intended function and
may even catastrophically rupture or fracture.

Creep fatigue is characterized by the elongation of a crack over a period.

It also presents itself in situations where the material is under stress and subjected to
extreme temperatures. Surface finish and heat treatment can also significantly impact the
fatigue life.
The onset of creep failure can be determined by conducting a creep test. A creep test
enables engineers to understand the relationship between stress, temperature, and strain
rate and how these phenomena affect part behavior. It entails applying a constant tensile
stress to a test specimen held at a particular temperature. The accumulating strain in the
material is graphed as a function of time until the material ruptures or until some other
predetermined test-end criterion is met, such as a certain percent strain, or completion
of a specified number of hours with total material strain less than a given value.

It is crucial to try to predict creep life and to analyze any failures to determine what role
creep may have played in them. Failure to use all available tools to predict creep life and
to monitor in-service equipment for creep damage can lead to creep failures. These
failures can be catastrophic and can lead to property damage, injury, and even death.
For this reason, the design of parts and structures that operate under stress at high
temperatures, such as steam turbine blades and boilers, must be based on rigorous
materials testing under conditions like service conditions. They must also be inspected
regularly for evidence of accumulating creep damage during their in-service lives.
 In general, creep failure and fatigue are both
time-dependent issues that can have a
devastating effect on metal components but
are not the same thing. Both ultimately lead to
the failure of the material, by compromising its
structural integrity and resulting in an eventual
split or rupture.

PROBLEMS:
1. At the proportional limit, a 2-in. gage length of a 0.375-in. diameter alloy rod has
elongated 0.0083 in. and the diameter has been reduced 0.0005 in. The total tension
force on the rod was 4.75 kips. Determine the following properties of the material: (a)
the modulus of elasticity, (b) Poisson’s ratio, and (c) the proportional limit.
2. The thin-walled tube is subjected to an axial force of 40 kN. If the tube elongates 3
mm and its circumference decreases 0.09 mm, determine the modulus of elasticity,
Poisson’s ratio, and the shear modulus of the tube’s material. The material behaves
elastically.
3. The aluminum block has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to an axial
compressive force of 8 kip. If the 1.5-in. side changed its length to 1.500132 in.,
determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length of the 2-in. side. Eal = 10(103) ksi.
4. A 1045 hot-rolled steel tension test specimen has a diameter of 6.00 mm and a gage
length of 25 mm. In a test to fracture, the stress and strain data below were obtained.
Determine the ff:
(a) the modulus of elasticity.
(b) the proportional limit.
(c) the ultimate strength.
(d) the yield strength (0.05% offset).
(e) the yield strength (0.20% offset).
(f) the fracture stress.
(g) the true fracture stress if the final diameter of the specimen at
the location of the fracture was 4.65 mm.
 “For Nation’s Greater Heights”

SELF – EVALUATION: Answer the following questions.

1. After studying the mechanical properties of materials, evaluate your understanding of
the tension and compression test. How would you describe the importance of this test in
understanding the behavior of materials under different types of loading? Be sure to
provide specific examples and supporting details from the topic.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
2. Explain the concept of stress-strain diagrams and how they relate to the mechanical
properties of materials. How would you describe the differences between the stress-strain
behavior of ductile and brittle materials? Provide specific examples and illustrations to
support your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. Describe the significance of Poisson's ratio and strain energy in understanding the
mechanical properties of materials. How would you apply these concepts in real-world
scenarios, such as designing a structural component or predicting material failure?
Provide specific examples and case studies to support your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

POST – ASSESTMENT. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the two primary types of loading in a tension and compression test?

a) Tension and compression

b) Torsion and bending

c) Shear and normal stress

d) Vibration and shock

2. What is the purpose of the tension and compression test?

a) To evaluate the thermal properties of materials

b) To evaluate the mechanical properties of materials

c) To evaluate the electrical properties of materials

d) To evaluate the magnetic properties of materials

3. What is the idealization assumption made in the tension and compression test?

a) The material is isotropic

b) The material is anisotropic

c) The material has no defects or imperfections

d) The material is homogeneous

4. What is the slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain diagram called?

a) Young's Modulus

b) Shear Modulus

c) Poisson's Ratio

d) Yield Strength

5. What does the yield point on the stress-strain diagram represent?

a) The maximum stress a material can withstand

b) The point at which the material begins to deform plastically

c) The minimum stress a material can withstand

d) The point at which the material begins to fracture

6. What is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS)?

a) The maximum stress reached during the tensile loading portion of the test

b) The minimum stress reached during the compressive loading portion of the test
 c) The point at which the material begins to deform plastically

d) The point at which the material begins to fracture

7. What is characteristic of ductile materials?

a) They exhibit high stiffness and low ductility

b) They exhibit high stiffness and high ductility

c) They exhibit low stiffness and low ductility

d) They exhibit low stiffness and high ductility

8. What is characteristic of brittle materials?

a) They exhibit high ductility and low stiffness

b) They exhibit low ductility and low stiffness

c) They exhibit high ductility and high stiffness

d) They exhibit low ductility and high stiffness

9.What is typical of brittle materials under tensile loading?

a) They exhibit a gradual increase in stress followed by a sudden failure

b) They exhibit a gradual increase in stress followed by a gradual decrease in stress

before failure

c) They exhibit a sudden increase in stress followed by a sudden failure

d) They exhibit a sudden decrease in stress followed by a sudden failure

10. What is strain energy?

a) The energy stored in a material due to deformation

b) The energy released in a material due to deformation

c) The energy absorbed by a material during deformation

d) The energy lost by a material during deformation

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[3] Callister, W. D., Jr., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2019). Materials Science and Engineering:
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http://www.arthatravel.com/normal-stress-diagram

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http://www.industrialphysics.com/creep-failure-vs-fatigue-in-metals

[10] Xometry. (n.d.). Creep Failure: What is it, How It Works, and Examples . Retrieved
from http://www.xometry.com/creep-failure-what-is-it-how-it-works-and-examples

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