10

IrunNrrE sERtEs

The,trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential functions as

well as many related functions can be expressed as infinite
series. These series help us determine many of the basic
properties. of the functions they represent and are frequentty
used for the numerical calculation of the values of functioni.
ln tl-ris chapter we develop the fundamental properties of
infinite series and we show how these properties are related
to the,functions we have studied thus far.

INDETENMINATE FORMS

lf f(x) and F(x) both approach 0as x tends to a varue a, the quotient
[(x)
r(x)
may approach a limit, may become infinite, or may fail to have any limit.
we
saw in the definition of derivative that it is the evaluation of just such
expressions that Ieads to the rrsual differentiation formulas. we ire aware
that the expression

f(o\ :90
F(a)
is in itself a meaningless one, and we use the term indeterminate
form for the
ratio 0/0.
t!!(x) and F(x) both tend to infinity as x tends to a number c, the ratio
f
^.
(x)lF(x) may or may not tend to a limit. we use the same term, indeterminate
:
form, for the expressio n a f a,obtained by direct substitution oix c into
the
quotient f(xllF(x).

379
CHAPTCR.IO lNFrNlrE sERlEs

We recall the Mean Value Theorem, which we established (Chapter 4,

page 131).

THEOREM 1 (Mean Yalue Theorem) Suppose that f is continuous lor

a1x<b
and that f'(xl existsfor each x bettveen a and b. Then there is an xo between s
and b (that is, a<xo<b) such that

f (b) -I@) :J (xo)'

b-d

Remark. Rolle's Theorem (page 130) is the special case /(c) : f (b):0.
The evaluation of indeterminate lorms requires an extension of the Mean
Value Theorem which we now prove.

THEOREM 2 (Generrlized Mean Value Theorem) Suppose that f and F are continuousfor
a<x<b, f'(x) and F'(x) existfor a<x<b
and with F'(x)+0 there. Then
F(b) - F(a) +0 and there is a number ( with
a<(<b
such that

( 1)

The fact that F(b) - F'(a) * 0 is obtained by applying the Mean Value
Theorem (Theorem 1) to F. For then, F(b) - F(a): F'(xo)(b - c) for some
xo such that a < xo < b. By hypothesis, the right side is difflerent from zero.
For the proof of the main part of the theorem, we define the function {(x)
by the formula

Q@):r(x) -f ta) - F(b)

!:?!-f=(:' tr(x) - r(a)l'
-r(4)
We compute 4k),0@), and d'(x), getting

6@):f (a) -f (a) * F(a)] :0,

#$-Lr[F(a) -
o(b):f (b) -f {a) - F(b)
{:?)-f:!,[r(b)- F(a)] : Q,
- F(a)
f (b) -f (al
0'(x\:f'(*t" - r@) F(a)' t^''
- '''*'
sEcTtoN 10.1 INDETERMINATE FoRMs
381

Applying the Mean varue Theorem (i.e.. in the

special form of Rolre,s
Theorem) to @(x) in the intervalfa,bf, we fincl

f(bt
- tta\
itai - rr, t'ttt
for some ( between a and b. Dividing by F,(O,we obtain Formula (l). I
The next theorem, known as PH6pitaPs Rure,
. -
indeterminate forms. Let / be aninteivar in which
is useful in the evaluation of
n is an interio, poirt. rrc
interval I with c removed from it is called a dereted
intervar about a.

THEOREM : (l'H6pital's Rule) Suppose that

.f (x):0, lim F(x) : Q, and : .,

l,* 1i ffi
and that the hypotheses of Theorem 2 hotd
in some deleted interuqr about a.
Then

Proof /
Since and F
are not defined at a,wedefine : 0 and F(a) :0. Fo: some
&>0 we apply Theorem 2 (the Generalized/(a)
Mean varue iileoreml in the
interval a<x<a+h. Then

I@+ h) f @ + h) - t"ta\ r't t\

FG+D: p@$.p@ FT-, Q1(<a+h.
As ft tends to 0, ( tends to a, and so

1;^{!!l-2:i^f'(o
t-o f * h) -,
la E:. F'(()
A similar proof is valid for x in the interval
a_h<x<a. I
EXAMPI-E 1 Evaluate

,,_r.-2x2-2x_3
ttm
q---
-;: -
Solution We set ftx) : xt - 2x2 -.2x --3 and F(x) : x2 _9. We see
:0 and F(3) :0, and we have
at once that
/(3) ind"t".-inate form. we carcurate
"n
f'(x) :3x2 _ 4x _2, F,(x) : )y.
By Theorem 3 (l'H6pital's Rule):

11_
/(r) :1i_ /'(r) : 3{91 _4(3) _ 2 t3
"*3F(x) *-1,.,...r ---=_4j)--:d. il
CHAPTER 10 INFINITE SERIES

Remarks. It is essential that /(x) and F(x) both tendto zero as x tends to a
before applying I'H6pital's Rule. If either or both functions tend to finite
limits # 0, or if one tends to zero and the other does not, then the limit of the
' quotient is found by the method of direct substitution as given in Chapter 2.
lt may happen that f'(x)lF'(x) is an indeterminate form as x --+ a. Then
I'H6pital's Rule may be applied again, and the limit f,,(x)1F,,(x) may exist as
x tends to a. In fact, for some problems I'H6pital's Rule may be required a
number of times before the limit is actually determined. Example i b"lo*
exhibits this point.

EXAMPTE 2 Evaluate

-. xP-aP
lim-. a>0.
a-a Xq - aq'

Solution We set f (x): xP - aP, F(x) : xq - aq. Then /(a) :0, F(a) :0. We compute
f '(x) -- pxp- F'(x) : qx,t- | .Therefore
r,

11ffi:y*ffi:,:*#:!o'-', r
EXAMPI-E 3 Evaluate

-. x-sinx
hfil --;-
x-O
^

Solution We set "f(x) : x - sin x, F(x) : x3. Since ,f(0) :0, F(0) :0, we apply
I'H6pital's Rule and get

lTffi:g=ree:I
But we note that,f'(0) :0, F'(0) : Q and so we apply I'H6pital's Rule again:

-/"(x) : sin x, F"(x) : $v.

Therefore

lrffi=s#B
Again we have an indeterminate form: f"(0):0, F"(0) :0. We continue, to ,

obtain .f"'(x): cos x, F"'(x) : 6. Now we find that. l

l*ffi:l*#ti=#:u1 f
IJHdpital's Rule can be extended to the case where both f (x\ -- oo and
F(x) -r oo as x -' a. The proof of the next theorem, which we omit, is
analogous to the proof of Theorem 3.
SECTION

THEoREM 4 (l'H6pitaps Rule) Suppose thot

f
about a. Supposefurther that

lim
x-a
/(x) : 6, lim F(x) : 6, and

Then

Retnark. Theorems 3 and 4 hold for one-sided limits

as we, as for ordinary
limits. In many probrems a one-sided rimit is required
even irrough this
statement is not made expricitry. The next
exampre ilrustrates such a
situation.

EXAMPI-E 4 Evaluate

.. lnx

Solution First note that x must tend to^zero through positive

since vl'v
varues s"'w otherwise the
logarithm function is not defined. We slt
x, F(x) = ln(2d _ 2).
-f(x): In
Then /(x) --+ oo and F(x) -+ oo as .x -+
- - 0+. Therefore

,-6.
,:-- Ux
lim /(x) :,'lT.
r(t ,,* €'-
;1C"4:.1fl
-;; 1

.. l-e-*
:r']fl - ' ,
we still have an indeterminate form, and we take
derivatives 4E,
fv^r,slrvvD again. we
obtain

,,rT. il#_r:,riT. f :,. n

Remark. Theorems 3 and 4 are valid when

have an indeterminate expression to,
a: * co or _ oo. That is, if we
tti O,?( + co), then

+:iiliii:lilill.:.:.ii j:
ffi
i.E+i-,;
++p+s**:U.l,Strg;iitri_t,,9,.I

and a similar statement holds when -+ _

.x o. The next example exhibits this
type of indeterminate form.
38d
CHAPTEN 10 lxnxrE sEmEs

DGMPTE 5 Evaluat€

..
llfll
8x
_.
x-+a €'

Solution r- E:
,-+-d
hm 1:0.
t-+a €x
tr

Remarks. Indeterrrinate forms of the type 0'oo or oo - @ can often b€

evaluated by transforming the expression into a quotient of the form 0/0 or
oo/co. Limits involving exponential expressions may often be evaluated by
taking logarithms. Of course, algebraic or trigonometric reductions may bo
made at any step. The next examples illustrate the procedure'

EXAMPTE 6 Evaluate
lim (sec x - tan x).
x *rl2

Solution We employ trigonometric reduction to change co - @ into a standard form

and then differentiate. We find
/ t sinx\ l-sinx
xl} ,r"72 \cos x cos x / x-r12 cos x

: lim -tlt':0.
5*772 -SlI} X

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluate
lim (l + xlrr.
x-O

Sotution We have 1*, which is indeterminate. Set y : ( I + x) 1/' and take logarithms.
Then
ln(1 + x)
ln Y: In(l -l x;li' - x
By I'Hopital's Rule,

,'o,ln(l+x) :lim
I :r.
x-o x x-ol+x
Therefgre, lim,-o ln y: 1, and since etnr : y: e1, we conclude that
lim Y: lim(l * x)rt' -
x-0 ''
EXAMPTE I Evaluate

"*ll(';!'
,-z lx- Z).

Solulion We have ln (2 - l) : ln ( 1) : 0 and lim,*2 (x 2l' - 0, so we have

indeterminate foq 0/0. Applying I'H6pita!'s Rule, we get
 sEcrtoN 10.1
38s
lNosnnulNlis ronms

:t ## : l,t F* = gi,1,J,;, _ a
When we examine closely the limit as x tends to 2, we r." ,t u,
lim : *6 and lim : -66.
,-2, 2(x - l)(x - 2) xrt z- 2(x
,\^
- l)(x
t)\*
-
_ 2)
L)

In order for a limit to exist, the same value rnust be approached

as x tends to
2 from the right and from tlie left. we concrude tt
atir,e ti*il ao". ,"i
"-iri
!

1 PROBTEMS

In each of Problemd I through 50, find the limit 1finite or 29 lim x cot x 30 lirn (x - nll)
infinitel when it exists. r-0 sec x
x-nl2
2x2+5x+2 x1_ x2*x-2 I
I llII1 I tlflt_: 3t lim lItan 32 lim{...8-1\
^--2 x'-4 r-2 X'-8 r-+m I o-o\ 0/
x3-3x+2
JIIITI ,=-
r-lX''-X'-X+l
4lim .*o-Jt-!-
*.2xr*2xt-4x-8
33 lim (cot2.*
,-o\ - 1\
x"/ 34 lim x,
r-O
-2x3-x2+3x+l :

.xr-8x2+2.x+l {).
)llm,
,.*o3xr*2x2- x- l ,_i4.(._xr+2x-J
35 lim xa'
r*0
36 ri,
x-+r \
(r *
X/
x3-3x+l -37 lim x(,'l
'38 liT
/ lrm _-'-_
,-+ n.2xa - x2 + 2
I lim -: --'.
.',2.x'-3x2+3-'-
v4-)*2-l (cor x)r
, yP
tan 3x J! fi6r{t/tnx) 40 lim {, p>o
Y llm =_- 6 6,ll11' x-O ,_-* ex '
,-s SlIl X x-0 X
2*
42 lim { -
arctan x
It 2' l o3, I
a1 1;n,1t"t'n
li.n
r-o"'-I -cosx
. 12 lim ' -'- ,*s SfCSUt X x-0 X Sln I
,-61-cosx
43 lime* -:-' y^'-) l--
13 1;r E' ,n
In
j. r, , o
r+O X'
aa
r-o X"
t -o 4x ,lT. y"
ln(l + 2x) o' n a Positive integer
I5 llm
1x* ?r
16lim- - ,IT- i'
x-o 3x rr0 X PX
1, ou
17 lim - -)x
?x _ 1x n a Positive integer
r:- 18lim" ' r'lT-;'
r{o X' r-o J, *47 1i^ !'-
I
19 lim -slnx /t- 't r-*$ sln x
\-4t2
20 limY'^ '
COS X
.-2ln(x- l) *48 1;rn l'n'
lnsin x
2l lim zz rim c,os; x
-0,
r-+r €x
,-n2t-sinx x-ri: SlIl' X (sin ,x)1""*
---l ,lT_
23 lim I A lim tan x
Inx
r- + o €l ln
--.72 cos x t','lT. h a Positive real number
stn'
;t'
25 li- sin' 5l :
r-.+@ X
25 fim Let /(x) 15 e'1dt, g(x) : e,,. Find
x-*i2 X,

27 li^'- u'".t'n * tinr "r(i)

r+O X-StnX
28 limyilnx ,-*- g(x)
386
CHAPTER 10 INFTNITESERIES

+52 In statistics
- it is often necessary to estimate the value of then
ti;:;;;; ;;*r,.n , ir r.re.. Sh"* that if e -''2 is used as
an estimate, it i, ".onrrruitive." Ttrat is,e-"tz ir'pr"U"Siy :t
larger than the quantity being estimated. x' t o #
,lT- 51^'l

53 a) pr0ve rhat (Hint: Consider 1im,-6- f olx)lsolx).\

56 Suppose that
lim x3erl,: + co.
x-o* : lim :0,
:-o /(x) = '-o /'(x) r-o /"(x):
lim lim lim /-(x)
x-o
b) Prove that for every positive integer n,
and that
lim x,erlr: + co.
r .o' ,. x'f"'(xl :Z'
c) Find the result if in part (b) we have x - 0- instead of l'1 ifi
x-+ u' ' Find lim,*6 x'1f'(x)lf g).
54 By direct methods, find the value of 57 If the second derivative f
,,
of afunction .f exists at a value
1).
lim,* + - (x sin x1/(x2 + xo, show that

What happens if I'H6pital's Rule is used? Explain ,.- /(xo + ft) - 2/(ro) + f (xo- h) .,,, -.
lxo)'
\

55 prove the foilowing form of l'H6pital's Rule: If

i'\-:J
: a, lim g("x) : Q 58 Let ?(x) and Q(x) be polynomials of degree m and n'
lim
r*+e/(x) r++e resPectivelY. AnalYze

and ti_ P(r)

1;-,f'(*) "'*Q(x\
.-'l- g'(x)-,"' according as m> n or m:n ot m<n.

SEQUENCES

The numbers
3, 8, 17, -12,15
' form a sequence of numbers. Since this set contains both a first and a last
element, the sequence is termed finite. The numbers
At, e2,43, ..,,4.25, e26, e27
.
form a sequence with 27 elements. The subscripts used here to identify the
location of each element are more than a convenience; they provide a way of
associating a number with each of 27 positive integers. The process of
determining one number when another is given reminds us of the idea
of function.

DEFINITION ,4 sequence isafunction the domain of which is a portion of, ar all of, the positiae
integers, and the range of which is any collectlon of real numbers."

In writing a sequence, the subscripts form the domain and the members
of the sequence make up the range. When the domain of a sequence is all the
i

I
 387
SECTtON 10.2 S€QUENCES

positive integers or an infinite portion of them, we say the sequence is an

infinite sequence.
A simple example of an infinite sequence is
I-
1111 I
" 2'3'4' 5' n

In this sequence

' at : az:
ltlor: e,: ,,
7,
1, j,' , ... .

When we draw a horizontal axis we see graphically that the successive terms
in the sequence come closer and closer to zero, and yet no terrn in the
sequence actually is zero (Fig. 1). Intuitively, it appears that the further along
one gets in this sequence, the more closely the terms approach zero.

--ffi--i-----1-- lt2
TIGURE 1

A second example is the sequence

!?3_!1
2,3,4,5,6,...,n+|,...,
n

where

ar: | *123naz:
2+ l,
4:: , ..., dn:, .
1, 3 +I +l
Graphically it is readily seen that these terms approach I as n gets larger,
although no individual element in the sequence actually has the value I
(Fig. 2). We write a, + I as n --+ c/) in this case and say that the limit of the
sequence is 1. When the natural numbers tend to infinity, we follow the general
custom and write n-+ q) rather than n+ + co.

TICURE 2

DEFINITION Giuen the infinite sequence a1, a2, ...1 anl ...t rrye say that a, -) c as n - m if for
each t,>A there is a positiue integer N such that la,- cl < s for all n > N.

We can visuaiize this definition by first marking off the quantity c on a

number scale (taking c:0 in Fig. 1, and c : I in Fig. 2), as in Fig. 3. The
definition asserts that given any positive number, e, then, after a certain stage
in the sequence is reached, all the terms iie in the intervai (c - e, c * e). That is,
c*E<an<c+t
for all n larger than sorne particular integer N. The first few (or few million)

*-+-+--+- terms may be scattered anywhere. But if c is to tre the limit, then eventually all
the terms must be in this interval; the quantity e may have any value. If e is
c-d. c c+c quite "small," then N, the place in the sequence where the terms must begin to
TIGURT 3 be in the interval about c, may pe required to be very "large."
388
CHAPTER 10 lNrrNrrr stRrrs

Another interesting sequence is given by

l, -i, +1, -*, +1, ...,
where

. I I I (-l)'*'
ar:1.a2: -1,or: j,oo: - 4,....a,:\- n ,....
The "general term" is worth examining, since (-l)'*t is just equal to +l
when n is odd and to -- I when n is even. This comes out right, since all the
terms with even denominators are negative and all the terms with odd
denominators are positive. The sequence tends to zero, but the terms oscillate
about the value zero, as shown in Fig. 4.
A1

I
--*l.-i+++-|--l
az 0 ae a*ot as ar
4
'IGURE
Suppose that we have a sequence of numbers in which each term in the
sequence is larger than the preceding term. we usually think that there are
only two possibilities: either ( l) the terms increase without bound, i.e., they go
off to + co as does, for example, the sequence of odd integers
1,3,5,7,9,..., \
or (2) they cluster about a point which is a limit of the sequence as does, for
examPle' the sequence
IZ, E4, g,7 riL6> 3r12> ...;
in which the successive terms are
I 22-l at: 23-l
At: i, az: -7f 24-1 2'-l
, -fi-, a+: - y , an: 2n , ...,
and the limit is l. These facts cannot be proved on the basis of the axioms which
form the foundation of arithmetic and elementary algebra. we require an
additional axiom known as the Axiom of continuity or Axiom c which we now
provide.

AxloM C (Axiom of Continuity) Eoery bounded nondecreasing sequence of real num-

bers tends to q limit.

The example above with an : (2, - 1)/2" illustrates Axiom C. The

sequence has the limit b: 1 and an upper bound M for the sequence is any
, number greater than or equal to l,say M =312.Fig.5 shows the situation.
The evaluation of limits of sequences is quite similar to that of limits of
functions. For example, we know that
1
--r0 asn+oo i
n j
I

--J--r--i-#-H1fl+-
a702o3a|o5bM
I
I
TIGURE 5
stcTtoN 389
10.2 SEeUENCES

in much the same way that

I
;'-"
0 as x -+ oo'

EXAIIIPTE 1 Evaluate the limit

..
ll[1
3nz -2n+ I
,+@ 4nz +I
Solution when we divide both numerator and denominator by n2 (a
custolnary device
in,ev_aluating the limit of sequences), we have
-
3n2.-_2n + I _ 3- (2ln) + (t/n )
4n'* I 4+(tln2)
The theorems on sums, products, quotients, etc., for limits
apply equally well
to sequences, and so we get

.. 3-(2ln)+fi/n2l
.- '-
lim [3 -(zln)
r-@
+(Un\)
llm
,-; 4+(lln2) @ tr+o
lim 3 - tr+@
lim (2ln) + lim (t/n2) \
alo n+o
lim4+lim-Jyfiy-'
a-Q i+@
We now see that

lim 3:3; ll*;:r,,lT;=0,

)t

lri ;! : jrt * ::t i = o.o:0,

and so on. This gives us

,. 3n2-2n*l
lllll-:-
3
L-r
t4q 4nt+l 4'

..--^A3 -alternative approach to the evaruation of limits is the use of

I'Hdpital's Rure. Unfo.rtunatery I'H6pita|s Rule at * i,
oniy a"nn.a ro,
functions whose domain contains an interrai of
the form (a, q),for some c,
and a sequence en, en+rt en*2;... is only defined
on the positive integers
larger than r. However if wJ can find a functio
n f (x) such that f (n) : a, for
e1c.h n, then wc may be able to use the
fo[owing theorem, which we state
without proof.

THEoREM5Letal,a?,..,,.an:..,beaninfinite,,,,*n",,M
on.U, q) such that f (n): a,. lf ltm,-*
f G) : i,'rirn limn** an: L.
EXAMPIE 2 Find the limit of thc sequence
{a,}, n=1,2,..., where ao is given by
nt13 + n2l3
4":
Ti;ir +7o.
390
CHAPTER 10 INFINITESERIES

Solution We observe that the function

f (x): , *''t,I*''t,,^
l+xrtz+xttz
is defined on il, m) and is such that f (n): a,. Since

/(r:ffi
with g(x) - + x2t3 and h(x): I + xrt2 + xrtr,and since lim,-* g(x) : o
x1l3
and lim,*- h(x): co, to compute lim,*- /(x) we can use I'H6pital's Rule.
We have

rim/(x):lliffi=t 'ffi
which tends to 0/m; thus the limit is 0. Hence

:xffi:' tr

What does it mean to say that a sequence does not approach a'limit as n
tends to infinity? The definition of the limit of a sequence contains a test for
deciding when a limit is approached and when it is not. There are many ways
in which a sequence may fail to approach a limit, some of which we illustrate
with examples.

EXAMPI-E r (Arithmetic Progre*sion) A sequence is called an arithmetic progression if it

has the property that the difference between successive terms always has the
same value. That is, there is a number d, called the common difrerence, such
that cn* t- a,: d for all n. The sequence

. l, 4,7, 10, ..., 3n_2, ...,

in which d:
3, is anexample of an arithmetic progression. When d is positive,
the nth term of such a sequence tehds to * oo, and when d is negative, it tends
to - co.
A sequence such as

+,1,+,*, +, i€, +,:+, #, ...,

in which
at: i,, az:1, at: *, a+: &, as: i, ...,
has as its formula for the general term

1
azo- r: 2! (for odd-numbered terms),

and

,r, : 2# (for even-numbered terms).

 39'l
SECTION 10,2 SreuENcEs

This sequence does not tend to a limit, since there are twonumbers, namely
0
and 1, toward which the terms cluster (Fig. 6). [n order for a sequence to
approach a limit, there must be exactly one number about which ih. t"r*,
cluster (uniqueness of limits). I
Ag Ag

I {

Oa1a5 a3 d1 A2 AaA67
FICURE 6

EXAMPLE 4 (Geometric Progression) A geometric progression is a

sequence in whicfr
there is some number r, calred the common ratio, with the property
that

!t:a : r br all n.
an

Examples of geometric progressions are

333 3 3
,' 4' g' 16' "'' jt "' (,: ;),
and

6, 19, 54, 162, 496, ...,2.3n, ... (r: 3).

rf a, ar, e2t ... ;dn, .. " is a geometric progression with common
ratio r, it is not 1
hard to show that ar: asrn, n:1,2, 1..,
I.
The following facts about geometric progressions can be proved.

THEOREM 6 If - l <r< I in a geometric progression, the limit of the r"qurrrri rffi

r > l, the sequence does not tend to a limit. If r : r, ih, trr*, are alr identicar
and the limit is this common term. If r
- -i, the sequence is of tieform
a, -a, a, -Q, A, _A, ...,
which has no limit except in tlrc case a:0.

2 PROBTEMS

In each of Problems 1 through 20, evaluate the limit of the

sequence (or show that an+ * co, or
- oo). 7 lim 8lim-!
"-* !n2 +2
I liml 2lim2'-3 J
"-*5n*2 9 1i*2n'
n-€ n'+ l
ln 1
,Or^2n2+3n+4
3 lim
3'- I 5=n-6
ri6 n3
4 lim I
,--4-2n ,-- n'+3n tt tim 1+ ,r -,8r 1)
G/,1n +t
n-*n'*3
5llm_
2n2 +3n- l 2n2 + 3n- S ",lT
tr+6 n*4
0llfil-
3n'
13 tim1147+r-r; ,.jTe67+n+t- d
CHAPTER 10 INHNTTE smIEs

15 rim '{y:r^: r
l6 ,,^@:-{- 27 Does the sequence
,-* 3X2n- tn+ i/nr+t+tn 1324 n-ln+l
5
^-*
1'r,1,1," ^ , ''
l? fim1
n-* €n
l8 lim 1
o-* d tend to a limit?
"
sin(l/n) 28 Does the sequence
19 hm.
n-@
l---
ln(n")
2o lim
,+@ Un
.3 . 15.31
., "Z'nt-l
2l Prove that an arithmetic progression with d + 0 cannol 2,.,"74,., T,., 16, ", 2' ' ..,
tend to a limit.
.must tend to a limit?
22 Prove that a geometric progression with 0 < r.< I
tend to the limit zero. 29 Does the sequence

23 Show that 1 lt I I I (-l)'*'

,'- 4' 8' - t6'i'-A'"'';--j-'; "'
o. 130. (?\' tend to a limit?
\3/
for every > I and, therefore, that 30 Does the sequence
n

n
l, -1, l, -1, t, -1,...
l*r:o tend to a limit?
*31 Consider all positive solutions of the equation sin x :
24 Show that i
arranged in order of size. Denote these numbets r r, 12, r!
.... Show that
lim 1=0.
rl\ :0
1n
n+6 L
nm
\
25 Does the sequence ,-- \rn,/
1234 *32 Let P(x)=a,y'*a,-rx'-L +...+ arx+ao and @(x) :
n
i'1'4' 5'"'' r+ t'"' b,-rx"- I + ... + brx*bnbe two polynomials with
b"x" +
a,*0,b"*0. Find the value of
tend to a limit?
26 Does the sequence
P(')
fio,
,-*Qb)
1111 according as r>s, r=s,
I' Jt' .ool' .ooo1' "' *33 Show that every nonincreasing
and r < s.

sequence ofnumbers which

tend to a limit? is bounded from below must tend to a limit.

CONVERCENT AND DIVERGENT SERIES

Let ur, t2, ..., uru be a finite sequence. An expression such as

ur + u2+ il3 + ... * uz+

is called a finite series. The sum of such a series is obtained by adding the
24
terms. we now extend the notion of a finite series by considering an
expression of the form
 393
SECTION 10.3 CoNvtnctNr AND DIVTRGENT sERlEs

uL+uz*us* .:. *uo* ...

which is nonterminating and which we call an infinite series.*
our first task is to give a meaning, if possible, to an infinite succession of
additions.

DEFINITION Giuetr the series

ur*ur+il3+ ...*u^*... _:- ,..,rr-r {h (1)

with the sequence of partial sums
t' v e'1o
U;
51, 52, 53, ...p Sar ...r (2\
v,e de|ine,ie sum of the series (l) to be

,'T n
wheneuer the limit exists.

Using the X notation for sum, we can also write

i ,,: Iim s,.

a= 1 r+@
If the limit (2) does not exist, then the sum (1) is not defined.

DEFINITIONS

Remark. The expression rfl=, uo is a shorthand notation for the

formar
series expression (t;. However, ihe'symbol Df= r u,is also used as a synonym
for the numerical value of the series when'it-converges. There will be
no
difficulty in recognizing which meaning we are employing in any particurar
case.

The sequence of terms

e, ar, er!, er3, ..., af-t, arr, ...

*The definition given here is informar. A more formal definition

is as foilows:
infiniteseriesisanorderedpair({a,},{s,})ofinfinitesequencesinwhichst:ur*...An
*u*foreachk.Theinfiniteseries({u,},{s^})isdenoted'by,ur+uz* ...
['i=tu^.when no'confusion can ariie we arso denote by El=iu^the
irn* ...o,
rimit of the
sequence [s,] when it exists. '
394
CHAPTER 10 lxrnrr senlrs

fory: 1 geome*ic progression. Each rerm ir*."pi the first) is obtained

by
multiplication of the preceding term by r,the common ratio.The
partial surns
of the geometric series

a+ ar + arz + ar3+ ... + arn a ...

sr :4,
s2: a + ar,
sr:d* ar*arz,
s+:d*ar+ar2+ar3,
and, in general,

sn:a(l *rl12 + ... +l-1).

For example, with c :2 aad r:i,
,,:z(r .:.i + 1\
'.. + n=r l.
The identity

(l +r+ r2 + ... +r,-1)(l - r) : | _rn,

which may be verified by straightforward multiplication,
reads to rhe formula

- s r:r#I -r
for the nth partial sum. The example a:2, r:] gives
1 _)_n
s,:2*:4- I
z *2.
z'-
In general, we may write

.
l-f
SI: A-*:-
a a
--
fr, f*1.
l_r 1_r l_r (3)

The next theorem is a direct consequence of Formula

(3).

THEOREM 7 Ageometic series

a+ + ... i_ ar" 1_ ...
ar + arz
conuerges if -l < r < I and diuerges if
lrl> r. In the conuergent case we haue

(4t

Proof From (3) we sle that rn -- 0 if lrl < l, yielding (4); also, ..+
6t if lrl > l. For
r: l, the partial sum so-is na,and s,-does iot tena to,aa limit as n* oo. If
. :.-- ,, the partial sum str is a if a is odd and 0 if n is
.u.",
,ir. t'6' .r*,
" fu.iiut
oscillate between 0 and a, and the series divergcs, ' Ll
 395
srcTtoN 10.3 CoNvencwr AND DTvERGENT sERtEs

geometric series is particularly simpre, since we only need to find

- The
value of r to determine whether or not the series converg"i. In th" case of
the
a
general series it is much more difficult to decide if it converges
or diverges.
Nevertheless, several important results can be obtained eisily. The next
theorem is useful in that it exhibits a limitation on the behavior of the terms
of a convergent series.

THEOREM I If the series

I ilk:ur +u2+a3 * :.. +utr+,..
@

t= 1

coruterges, then

Proof Writing
so:ul +u2+... *uo,
sa_1 = ur+ u2* ... I ttr_1,

we have, by subtractio un sn : -
s, - , . Letting c denote the sum of the series,
^,
we see that sn-+.c as n--+.@; n* Therefore
also, s,_1+c as *i. \

,lX
r,:,1*(s,-s,-r):,,iTn-,,iTn-, :c-c:0.' o
Remark. The converse of Theorem g is not necessarily true..Example 3 of
the next section shows that it is possible both for u, to iend to 0 and for
the
series to diverge.

The following corollary, a restatement of rheorem g, is useful in

establishing the divergence of infinite series.

COROLIARY If u, does not tend to zdro as n --+ *, then the series Ef= r;J;diurrgrnt.

Convergent series may be added, subtracted, and multiplied by con-

stants, as the next theorem shows.

THEOREM 9 If \,3=ru, and Ef,=r o, both conuerge and c is ony nurrrbi, rh"iffi
O
| (cu,), I (il.+u,),
ao

n=l r-=l I (u"-r") a= I

all conuerge, and
 396
CHAPTER 10 INFINITE SERIES

Proof For each n, we have the following equalities for the partial sums:
nn

i=l
2 1cu):c j=rI uii
nnn
I (rrtu;): j=rI ulf-l
j=1 j=r
u1.

The results follow from the theorems on limits as given in Chapter )

Section 7. T
EXAMPTE Express the repeating decimal ,4:0.151515 ... as the ratio of two integers.
(A rational number is any number expressible as the ratio of two integers.)

Solution We write ,4 in the form of a geometric series:

/: 0.15(t + 0.01 + (0.01), + (0.01)3 + ...),
in which a:0.15 and r:0.01. This series is convergent and has sum
0.15 0.15 5
-c:- :-:4
r - 0.01 0.99 33
n

3 PROBTEMS

In Problems I through 13, express each repeating decimal as given. Use the corollary to Theorem 8 to show that the series is
the ratio of two.integers. divergent.
t 0.717171 ... 2 0.4&646... m-2

3 0.013013013 ... 4 2.7187187t8

...
lgr
n?1
"
n+1
20s 2n
,?r3n+5
5 0.000141414... 6 32.465t3513513 ... n'z-2n+3
7 3.6t4361436143... 8 42.000100010001 ...
2r ;'
n?1 2n'*n*1
,, ,L,?\".'#
9 0.45454s.". r0 0.636363... ,, ; n2+n+2 ztf,?tn*l"
t7 0.46666 ... t2 1.13333... ln(n* l)
"-!-1
13 0.714285714285 ...
14 Fiod the sum of the geometric series if. a:3,, : - *.
2s si-
o?r €-n
26 il
15 Find the sum of the geometric series if a: -2, r:*. ncos(nz)
,, i 2n+3
16 The first term of a geometric series is 3 and the fifth term is "?,
ff. Find the sum of the infinite series. In Probiems 28 through 34, assurne that the series
I 7 The fourth term of a geometric series is * I , and the seventh @!9191
term is $. fina the sum of the infinite series. Y--. T T_:_
n*t ni' n*1 n3' n=, n'
13 A ball is dropped from a height of 6 metefs. Upoa each
bounse the ball rises to one-third of its previous height. all converge. In each case use Theorem 9 to show that the giveo
Find the total distance traveled by the ba!I. series is convergent.

28
6 th-L)
r r:- 29
2 n-?
In Problems 19 through 27, write the first five terrns of the series n?r n' k, na
STCTION IO.3
397
CoNvrncrruT AND DIVERCENT sERIEs

30 i14a1
n?r n4
3r I 3n2
_--.4:+ -2n+4
n'
a limit, find the value to which S,, the partial sums of
deleted series, must tend.)
the

f, n'l'
,, n?t n4
3.1
I 2{n
3n"
- l)'2
36 Show that any number of the form

,o ; ln(2') A.a ra 2a3a rara3a ta 2a \,.,,

Lr 'l
n=l n- where a,, ar, and a. are digits between 0 and 9, is
35 expressible as the ratio of two integers and therefore
Suppose that the series Ep, ilr converges. Show that any is a
series obtained from this one by deleting a finite
number of
:
terms also converges. (Ifinf: Since s, IX= ,/r. converges
I to 37 Show that any repeating decimal is a rational number.

-4
OF POSITTVE TERMS. COMPARISON AND TIMIT
SERIES

COMPARISON TESTS. THE INTECRAT TEST

Except in very special cases, it is not.possible

to tell if a series converges by
flnding whether or not s, the nth parti;l sum,
tends to a limit. geometriclrtre
series, however, is one of the special cases
where it is possible.) In trris section,
we present some indirecr tests for convergence
and divergence which apply
only to series with positive (or at least noniegative)
terms. ihat ir, ** urru-,
throughout this section that un> 0 for n: r,i,...
. Tests for series with terms
which may be positive or negative will be discussed
in the following sections.

THEOREM 10

Proof By subtraction, we have

Ur:Sn-Sr_t)0,
and so the s, form an increasing (or at least
nondecreasing) sequence. If a,
sn S M, then by Axiom C (page 388),
which says ,f,u, u nonJ.?r"JifUounar,f
sequence has a limit, we conclude that
sn
- s < M. Tf,us parl [a] of the
theorem is established. If there is no such",t{,
then for.*.t nun,b.r E, no
matter how large, there.must be an s, > E;
and all s, with ;;;-;;"grearer
than or equal to s,. This is another wa, of
suying s, , * co. iJ
The next theorem is one of the most useful
tests fo1 deciding convergence
and divergence of series.
CHAPTER 10 INHNITE SERIES

series and ilos.d, for all n, then Ef=r u, is conuerjent and

b) r/ xr= r, an is a diuergent series of nonnegatiue.terms and un2 an for all n,

then 2f=, un diuerges.

Proof Let
s,:ill +u2',,+un, Sr:cr +a2+..,*an
be the nth partial sums. The sn, ,s, are both nondecreasing sequences. In case
(a), we let S be the limit of S, and, since s, < S, < S for every n, we apply
Theorem 10 to conclude tlat sn converges. [n case (b), we have i, -+ * oo-and
sn ) S, for every n. Hence, s, + * oo.
ir
Remarks- (i) In order to apply the comparison Test, the re4y'er must show
either (a), that the terms ilr of the given series are < c, where zL anis a known
t
convergent series or (b), that each un> a, where Ef;= anis a knowndivergent
r
series. In all other cases, no conclusion can be drawn (ii) since an y
finite ntiber
ofterms at the beginning ofa series does not affect.onu.rg.n.i or divergence,
the comparison between un and a, in Theorem l l is not required for all n. It is
required for all n except a finite number.

For the comparison Test tb be useful, we must have at hand as large a

number as possible of series (of positive terms) about whose convergence and
divergence we are fully informed, Then, when confronted with a nei series of
positive terms, we shall have available a collection of series for comparison
purposes. So far, the only series which we have shown to be convergent
are
the geometric series with r < l, and the o4ly series which we have shown to
be
divergent are those in which uo does not tend to zero. we now study th,e
convergence and divergence of a few special types of series in ord'er.to obtain
rnaterial which can be.used for the Comparison Test.

DEfINIIT|ON If n is a positiue integer, we define nl (redd n factorial):1.2...n; it is

conuenient to define 0! : 1.

For example, 5! : I .2.3. 4. : 120, etc. We see that

5

(n+1)!-(n+l).n!, n>0.
EXAMPI-E 1 Test the series

n?t
srnl
I
!
for convergence or divergence. {
 :I,!It
SECTION 10.4 SE*trs or Pos,TlvE TERMs. CoMpAntsoN AND LlMlr coMpARtsoN TEsrs. THE lNrrEGrAt- Tg;.r

Solution Writing the first few terms, we obtain

1-:1. l: I 1: I l- 1

l! t' 2t 1.2, 3t- 1.2.1, 4t-T.T.3.4.

Since each factor except 1 and 2in n! is larger than 2, we have the inequalities
(which may be rigorously established by mathematical induction):

nt>2n-1 and therelore

*=#
The series Lf=ta, with a,:ll2'-r
is a geometric series with and is r:|,
therefore convergent. Hence, by the comparison Test, Ef=, l/n! converges,
tr
The next theorem gives us an entire collection of series useful for
comparlson purposes.

THEO&EM 12 (Thep-series) The series

known as the p-series, is conuergent if p> 1 and diuergent tf p <1.

The proof of this theorem is deferred until later in the section. we note
that it is not necessary that pbe an integer.

EXAMPI-E 2 Test the series

f1 * 1)
^?1n(n
for convergence or divergence.

Solution For each n we have

_z_ll
,..:
t) n-
n\n+
Since Ef,= , llnz is a p-series with p :2 and, so converges, we are in a position
to use the Comparison Test. Therefore, the series
nl
Y_, 1
,?1n@ + l)
converges. D
EXAMFLE 3 Tesf the series
sr
,?r, + 1o
for convergence or divergence.
CHAPTTR 10 INFINITE sEnIEs

Solution f Writing out a few terms, we have

*+*+*+# ,

and we see that the series is just like 2o.=, lln,except that the first ten terms
are missing. According to Remark (ii) after Theorem 11, we may compare the
given series with the p-series for p :
1. The comparison establishes divergence.

Solution 2 We have, for everY n > l.

lln. so 11 ,-
n + l0 < and
;-+ l0 tt .

The series
a I €1 I
I1*:11,I,;
is divergent (p-series with p:;,;, ;";;;, the given series diverges. r
A useful variation of the Comparison Test is given in the next theorem.

THEOREM 13 (LimitComparisonTest) Supposethatallan>0anilallb,> 0,n:1,2,3,...,

and suppose that

,iH$H #ffiffi# #

Then either Zf;=t a, and 2f=, bn both conuerge, or they both diuerge.

Proof sincg
. [m
n-*
?:
bn
L>0,

there must exist an N such that if n ) N, then

L-.!" ."
2b^2 .

\
This is equivalent to
(*)'"<an<(+)'-
since b, 2 0, for each n > N. To show that both series converge together we
first apply the Comparison Test (Theorem 11) to the left half of the above
inequality. We find that if Ep,v an < oo then
* /r \
t ( ; )0,...,
n=x \/ /
and since LlZ is a constant we have 2|-nb,< oo. But 23=t a,< oo if and
only if lfl=,, an1 6, since the first part of a series does not affect convergence.
stcTtoN 10.4

The same is for E&rbo, and Xflpb". Thus if Ef=lc,<co, then

Jrye
xl=rb,< oo. Arso using the right half of the inequatity above, ir rr=, a"
converges, then so does

- /tr.\
Il=1b",
n=t \ z /
and again by the comparison Test (Theorem il) we have that Ef_,
a,
converges. we may appry the same arguments (part (b) of rneorem
show the equivalence of the divergence of the two series.
iif to
tr
ilAMPtE 4 Test the series

\ 2nz+n+l
,I, io
for convergence or divergence.

Solution For large r we see that2n2 is the dominant term in2n2 +n + I and l0r3 is the
dominant term in l0n3 + n. Hence
2n2+n+l
-r0rf +,
behaves like

2n2 I
m;5: s,r'
so we try the Limit Comparison Test using the p-series, with p I for
comparison. Let
=

2n2+n+l I
4z: -fi['Jl-, and b,=
n
Then
en 2n3+n2+n
bn l0nt + n
We then observe thal
l-11
an Fo' '* i* 7
il:e,:;l
n-
,

which tends to { as n tends.to m. since > 0, the series converges

} or diverges
:
together with the p-series, with p l. Since this p-series diverges
6y fteorem tZ,
we conclude the series

i 2n2+n+t
,?, l}nt + n
also diverges. fl
The next exampre illustrates how useful the Limit
comparison Test can
ir[. -
.
be in complicated series, if we combine it with l,H6pital,s
CHAPTTR 10 INFINITE sERIEs

EXAMPTE 5 Test the series

) ---=-*
a,-

Jn'+7
/-

"=r
for convergence or divergeoce.

solution For large n w€ observe that {n2 + 7)t^ behaves rike ,2t3,so we try the Limit
Cnmparison Test with the p_series with p: J. Letting '
Ir
o,: and 6,: ,n,
,*1r'
we have

!. -_ ,''' n2rt
b^- :/m:1,'*rro'
To calculate,:h:.limj we use I'H6pital,s Rule
with J.(x):x2,3 and g(x):
(x, +71trt. We then have

iti#:l*(*)"':(:g*)"'
: (,,* 3)"': ,.
\,-.2x/
since r > 0, by the Lirnit comparison Test
the series converges or diverges
with the p-series, with.p:g.By Theorem 12
this p_series diverges, and we
conclude the given series diverges. al
The next theorem yields another test used
frequently in conjunction with
the Comparison Test and the Limit Comparison'Test.,

I
Proof a) Suppose first that the improper integral
f (x) >-f ( j) for x Sj, it foilowsihai
is convergent. Then, since I

fj
J'-,tt*l
dx>'f (i)' ,l
 403
sEcTroN 10.,t Srnrrs or posrlvr rERMs. CofpAnrsor., ino u"rn coupnnsox-Tc

a fact verified by noting.in Fig. 7 that J'U) is the shaded area and the integral
is the area under the curve lrom
, l'-
1 to l. We define
,
,,
oi: 1 flxJ dx'
JJ- L

and then (see Fig.8)

fn
a,+ | f(l)df :at*a2+--.+a,,
Jr
where we have set ar:-f (ll:r,. By hypothesis,
J1/1xydx is tinite, and so
the series 2f=]a, is conveiilent. Since f til:u;; the inequality a12u, is a
restatement of (1). and now the comparison Teit applies to yield ihe rlsult.

FICURT 8

b) Suppose next that 2f=ru,converges. Let

f n+ t

u,: I flx)dx<f(n):un, n:1,2,...;

Jn

/(x) <f(n) for n<x (Figs.9 and l0). Because

the inequality holds since
f(.x)>0, we have each un)0, and so Xp1utr converges to some number S.
That is. \
n f t+ |
I ru:1
I

r=1 ftx\dx<S
Jr
for every n.Lete be any positive number. There is an N such that
f n+ |
S-e<l itrtdx<S iorall n>N.
L
 .!O
CHAPTER lNRNlrr strrrs

Since /(x) ) 0, we see that

t fx
s-e<l fn+ f$)dr<l " " -.
- /(x)dx<s ifx>N+1.
J' J'
Hence the improper integral converges. D
we now employ the Integrar rest to establish the convergence and
divergence of the p-series.

Proof of Theorenn 12 We define the function f (x): l/xe, which satisfies all the conditions
of the
Integral Test if p > 0. We have

f"4:,,-
J,
f'y_ ri- /r'-,-l\
7:,ii:J,7:,lL\ r_r,/ torp*1.

H"J:$ff J:T:|:U;a:;.ii,:::T,T:[:,'"-,';1y*1:.'l,li:::I:li:
we have
f, d,
i -;:lnt'
which tends to + oo as r + * oc. Thus Theorem 12 is.established. I
EXAMPTE 6 Test the series
gl =-_.-
)
,?t(n*l)ln(r+1)
for convergence or divergence.

Let

f(x) : (x + 1) ln(x + 1)
and note that all conditions for the Integral Test are fulfilled.
and obtain
we let u: x * r

,
f' . r,1*
J, (x + I) In(x +
, -- '* ' !--
l) J, utnu-=1""
f 4-!\9
J2 t" r-
- In [tn(r + l)] - ln(ln 2).
The expression on the right diverges as, + co and, therefore, the given seria
is divergent.

. The particular p-series with p: 1, known as the harmonic series, is

interesti,g, as it is on the borderrine between convergence
and divergence c
the various p-series. It is an example of a series i,
*[i.r, ir" rerm ;;;;;r *
tends to zero whiie the scries diverges. (see the Remark pd;3tr. w.
prove divergence ,rf the h;rrmonic series witho,t recourse"n
*
To do so, we write
to the Integral r,,_
* + * + (++ *) -+ (*+ * -.i + *)
+(*+*+ri+*+ i:++ +.* +$1 +(next t6 terms) + ...
srcltoh{ _% ,CIs
_1ri.{
Srnms on poslrrvE rrnirt. co*nr*

We have the simple inequalities

*+i>or+t:*,
*rl r4+*r*+t+t+*=*,
d +it+ #+ t+*+*+*+*

> * + rl, + *+ it+* + * + #+*= *,

and so forth.
In olher woreis, each set of terms in- a set of parentheses
larger than ] . By taking a sufficient number
in series (2) is
of parentheses, w€ can make the
partiar surn sa of rhe harmonic series
as rarge ;; Therefore ;i;;;;. the series
rJiverges. ",

I.XAMPIE Z Show that the scries

i1
n?t3n_2
diverges.

Solution We may use the lntegral Test. or obscrve that

.1 I Is
^!, t;a:
1

J,l, Gllt and

,1 -',=I
-5 n
ro.alln)l.
-'
The comparison Test shows divergence.
The aivergence may also be shown
directry by a recombinarion of thcierms,
,, ;; ;f;;i tr," ir"rmonic series,
T
often it is usefur io combine two tests, as the
next example i,ustrates.

EXAMPLE I Show that the series I,,=

r e-,, converges.

Solurion We would,lil:.r: the.Integral Test and if we show that

:::
converges, then the series will. H, Jf e-,, dx
we o bservc. o n t h e o t r,", i,ana, 1ffi
Comparison Test it suffices ,o rt o* ,t u,
:i }"=ff*' r::'1":'1,, :il[T]ti#
rr=,'rr-Jls we have
"onuerg.nt.
fz ft
| *r-,' :
,_-JrI
dx lim xe-,, d.x
Jr
=l::
[- i,-")i,,
=11?[* -#]=*,
and thus-the series
Efl , ,,e- ,,
is convergent by the,Integral Test.
Zf=, e-"'converges. Therefore
|j
 CHAPTER 10 INIINITE SERIIS

4 PROBI-EMS

In each
divergence.

IY,
6l
of Problems I through 38, test for convergence or

6l
-r,
*39
.i '," (;) .r,
.i ,^"
0
2T'ar Let c, > 0 and soppose Zf= t, a^is a convergent series. Show
n=1 n\/n n=t that XE1 sin(a,) is a convergent series.
'uln
3s
,?r (n *
I
l)(n + 2)
4fr1{ /
40 For what values ofp does the series

n\ln n=1 ,l
\. l

- g
5)
2n+3
6t
@1
^
,+,
"\ln
n)o
n?rn2 +3n+2 n?r fl'2n converge?
4l For what values of q does the series
7 S'-1 * ;1 n2+3n-6
,?, n3 n?, n4 g lnn
l0s I
nlr2n+3 converge?
,,+, no

42 For what values of p and q rloes the

ils I
t2 i -i- series
*
f lvI
n?r n lO0 Qan,a
n=l Z t 3

f J' ,?,
13 s
n?rns+n3+l---1- t4
n?rn2 +7 converge?
nq

@l 43 State and prove as general an Integral Test as you can

rsI -
16 ; na +3n3 +2n in
which / is not nonincreasing. (Ilint:The behavior of lor
,?t nl" n?, (ni + n2)2 f
small values of x can be disregarded. Also, the precise
,, s n+ln n 18 ;1 lnn behavior of / between two successive values of n is not
,,?rnJ+3n+6 ,?, n3 crucial.)

refl I 44 Let :
sin, zx. Show that the integral
n?rn2 *2
20 i 1000
,?r -2',
"f(x)
diverges. However,
J; sin2 z_x r/.t
\f= t j'@) converges. Explain.
45 Suppose rhat the series Xf,_, a, is convergent with o, > Cr
2t ;1 2n+5 a a-1
22 y" ' for all n. Show that Zf= fl?, is a convergent series.
,?, n3 ,?, n2 *46 [,et a, >0 for
all n and consider ,,:
lo,. Show thar ff
23 i!r
n?t fl
24 f
n?r 1n + 1) [n
I
(n + l)],
lim,-* tn:t 11, then D?t a, aonraagar. If r> l. rh,e
series diverges. (Hint: Show that for sufficiently large a a
comparison with a geometric series can be made.)
zs $ ln(n+ t) 26 s '! *47 (The Polynomial
,?r fu + l)3 ,?r 1.3-5.i...(2n-l) Test) Given the polynomials

27rL
n=1€
28s l--
L
P(x) : a,. rxn
anxn + + atx + ao, d" ) 0_
"=t r/n, * I Q.$):b^x*+b^_rx^-, + ... + brx+bo, &->ul
2e i 11r 30 f;'o Show that the infinite series
^?r n' 2n ,?r e,
2n F P(r)
3l Ltn 32f4 ,4,eu)
converges if m> n * 1 and ro is a sufficiently large
S lnn
o2t n2
34ir+
,=1 nJ
*48 Shorv that
n
gl
)_
ino 36 i g'n ,!? (ln(n))r'{,)
,?r n'. ,?1 (3n)l rs convergent
 407
SECTION 10.5 THE,AI.fEnNAnNG sRIEs TEST. THE RAno IEST. THE aooT TrsT

STNITS OF POSITTVE AND NEGATTVE TERMS. TNr NITTNNATING

SERIES TEST. THE RATIO TEST. THE ROOT TEST

In this section we establish four theorems which serve as important tests for
the convergence and divergence of series whose terms are not necessarily
positive.

THEOREM 15 lf Z3= , lu,l conuerge.s, then Zf= r uo conoerges, and

l@ | o
lr"l
lr=1 | =iru,r. a=r

Proof We define numbers t)1,t)2t...,u,,... by the relations

u : [u, if ua is nonnegativc,
[0 if un is negative.
In others words, the series E,I= r ,, consists of all the nonnegative entries in
Lf=tun. Similarly, we define the sequence w, by

..,_ [0 if un is nonnegative,
"'- t -ro if un is negative.
The w, are all positive and for each n

un * wn: lunl, Do -* wn : gr. ( 1)

Since un < lu,l and wnl,lu,l,and since, by hypothesis, Xp,

la,l converges, we
apply the Comparison Test to conclude that the series

ir,, ir,
t=l r=l
converge. Consequentiy, (see Theorem 9) the series

,i',-"i',:,i (',- ") ="i r,

converges. Also,

l.i "l: l(.i,")- (.i,.)l

i
= a=l
,,* r=lf ,,: r=li lr"l. n

Remark. Theorem 15 shows that if the series of absolute values Ef,=,

lu,l is
convergent, then the series itself also converges. The aonr"rrc is not
necessarily true. We give an example on page a09ln tvhich >;=,
,"
while E|=, lu,l diverges. "inr"rq.,
CHA'TTR

uErlNmoNs
"e.p,idla:tb"e;';;d:b|ri,,q|ltt€l,y
i[,,d;i, rsr1ih,in:,;1ht

The next theorem yields a test for series whose terms are alternately
positive and negative. since the hypotheses are rather stringent, the test can
be used only under special circumstanccs.

THEORE\,| 16 (Alternating series Theorem) suppose that the numbers lu1, u2t ...,
satisfy the hypotheses: "r*.
::r::i':I.:l I

irilX.Itr
rilifilil

Then Ef= , un is conuergent. Furthermore, if the sum is denoted

by s, then s lies
between the partial silms sn and sn*, iach n. lor

Proof Assume that u1 is positive. (If it is not, we can consider the series
beginning
with ur, since discarding a finite number of terms does not affect converl
gence.) Thereforq all ur with odd subscripts are positive
and all u* with even
subscripts are negative. We state this fact in thj form

1l2r_ 1 ) 0, az, 10
for each n. We now write
sz, :(ilr + u2) + (u.+ u)*(t, *ao) * ... * (uzn_t * uz,\.
l
since lu2pl uzi,- t for each k, we know that each quantity in the parentheses
is positive. Hence s2, increases for all n. On the oiher hand,

s2n = ut * (u2 * ur) + (ua+ rrs) + ... * (uzn_ z * uro. r) + ur,.

Each quantity in parentheses in the above exprcssion is negative,
and so is
(
arn. Therefor€ s2o a1 for all n. we conclude that s2, i-s an increasing
sequence bounded. by the number ar. It must tend to u (Axiom c). ii.it
We apply similar reasoning to s2n_1. We have

Szr-r*ll2n:S2n
and, since u2, <0,-we have s2n_ > s2, for every n. Therefore
1 for n > l, srr_, is
bounded frorn below by s, : r, + rr. Al.o,
S2r+ 1 : Szr_ r * (u2, I U2na 1).

Since the quantity in parentheses on the right is negative,

S2n-1 )S2oa1l
in other words, the partial sums with odd subscripts form a decreasing
bounded sequenc€ (Fig. l l). The limits approached by sr, and
srn_, must bc

Flcl.rlt 11
sIcTloN.t0.s THT AI.TEftNATING sTRITs TEST. THE RATIo TEST. Txt xoor rtsr

the same, since by hypothesis (iii),

' UZt:S2n-S2n_t -+0aS n-+(n,
If s is.the limit, we see that every even sum is less than or equal to s, while
every odd sum is greater than or equal to s. Ll

COROLLARY Suppose the nuit, *u*U

with ur> 0. I*t s,: and s = Then ls- snl < lun* rl.
rtrur rtruo
proof From Theorem 16 we know that s lies between sr, and sr,*r, and also
. between s2r+, and srr*r. Therefore _sr"l (
ls lsz,*r _lrrl : yrr,. j, Si*itarty,
ls- sr,*rl ( lsr,r, - szn+zl : luzn+zl. Thus foi n uottr' everi ana ooa, ttre
inequality ls - s,l < fa,* rl holds.
5;

EXAMPLE 1 Test the series

.iL#:
for convergence or divergence. If it is convergent, determine whether
it is
conditionally convergent or absolutely convergent.
.

solution set u, : ( - r)'* ln and obscrve that the three hypotheses of Theorem
1

16
hold; i.e., the terms arternate in sign, 1/(n + 1i'< rln for each ,r,
and
lim,- - ( - D'ln: 0. Therefore the given series converges. However, the
. I7=tlu,l is the harmonic series
series

@l
T:
n?r fl'
which is divergent' Therefore the original series is conditionally
convergent.
r
For any series which satisfies the hypotheses of the Alternating Series
Theorem, we can approximate numericaily the value of the
sum s. Tie next
example illustrates the technique.

EXAMPI-E 2 Test the series

:l ( l)";
,L -
for convergence- or. divergence. If it is convergent, approximate
the sum of the
. series to three decimal places.

Solution Here
t I
u,:(-l)'i and lllrl = -nl
Clearly lu,* rl < u,l an-d lim,*- ilo 0, so the series is
f
= convergent. If we sum
the first six terms, we have

-r4! -,, *,t : . *,I _ I I

-,*l_l*l__1
-,=T-3! I I
6! -,
_O.Urrr*,
^
e+ U_ n0+h:
and we know by the coroilary of the Alternating Series
Theorem that the sum
CHAP,TTR

of the infinite series, s, lies between this sum, su, and sr. Therefore
ls sul ( lsrl, -
and the accuracy of su as an estimate of s is better than lsrl, which in this case is

lr a 0.000198.
n: 5M0
since this number is less than .0005, we conclude that this estimate is accurate
to three decimal places. I
The next test is one of the most useful for determining absolute
convergence of series.

THEOREM 17 (Ratio Test) Suppose that in the series 2i=t un euery un*0 and that
ll r!
rim
un I -p
,'-*llLul or ltu,.l- * co as n- e.
I I

Proof (i) Suppose that p < L Choose any p,such that p < p, < 1. Then, since

;:rl?i :,,
there must be a sufficienl,: N ior which
11*
l\ul. o', for all n > rv.
lu"l
Then we obtain

lun* ol < p'luxl, lux*zl < p'lun*, l, lrz,rnri < p'lu*nrl, etc.
By substitutic'n we find
Iur*rl < p'2luNl, lurn;l < p'3luNl, lrro*l < p,4lunl, etc.
anij" in general,

la,**rl < (p')klu*l for k: \,2, ....

. (2)
The series

.L.lunl( p')*: lrnl I (p')n

li=l *lt
is a geometric series with ratio less than 1 and hence convergent.
and the Comparison Test, we conclude that
@
'-T/
f
&=1
la;r**l
 {lt
sEcTtoN 10.s Tnr lttrnNlnNc sERtEs msr. Trr nAilo rEsr. Tne noor resr

converges. Since (3) dift"ers from the series

I | lu,l
n=

in only a finite number of terms (the N terms lurl, luzl,...,lu,rl, to be exact),

statement 1i) of the theorem is established.
ii) Suppose that p > I or lun*1lunl-- + co. There is an N such that

11,*,,1
, I for all n> Ni.
lu,l
By induction lu,l > luxl for all r > N. Therefore a, does not tend to zero, and
the series diverges (Corollary to Theorem g).
To establish (iii), we exhibit two cases in which g: l,one of them
corresponding to a divergent series, the other to a convergent series. we show
that for all p, the p-series.

i1
n?r nP

has p : 1. Setting un: l/n|, we have

['r*, I
|+,:
nP

I u, I @+11t- '/(,. *)'

Since for any p

ti*rf(t*1)':
,t-@ / \tt/
t-+
we see that ifp > 1 the series converges (and p * 1), while if p ( I, the series
diverges (and p: l). il
Remarks- A,good working procedure for a reader is ro try first the
Ratio
Test for convergence or divergence. Il'the limit p turns out to
te l, some olher
test must then be trred. The Integral rest is one possibility. (we
that
observe
the Integral rest estabiished convergence and'divergen,ce for the p-series,
while the Ratio Test fails.) when iire terms haye -alternating ,i;";;-;ir;
Alternatitg series Theorem is suggested. tn aoaition, *; ;y also
try
comparison tests.
In the srarement of 'rheorem 17,it may appear at first glance that
ail
possible situations for p have been consider"a. That
is not th-e .urr, ,ir.. ii
may happen thar

lul
l"l
does not tend to any limit and does not tend to + @. In such circumstances,
more sophisticated ratic tests are availabre. They are, however,
ueyona tne
scope of this course.
CHAPTEN'TO INFINlTE SERIEs

EXAMPTE 3 Test for absolute convergence:

61a
i:
n?1 n!'

Solution Applying the Ratio Test, we have

zn+t 2t 2n+t nl..
,*r:[[l)!, xn:i., and lu,*,| 2

l;l:(r+lX.n: r_,
Therefore

. lt
lin, .l :o:,.
o-*l u, I

The series converges absolutely.

EXAMPI-E 4 Test for absolute and conditional convergence:

$ (-l)'n
n?, 2,

Solution We try the Ratio Test:

' ' . .--*rnll (-l),r
iln+t:(-l)'*''r]--u,, un:\i-,
and therefore

lr,*rl
._.:
n*t _:_l_l:_l_l
2n l/n+t\ t/t+Un\
lu"l Zn+t , 2\ I )'
" )-2\
Hence

' ' l"*'I

lim l--"1'l* -I -o-
i_* I o l:r:P'
The series converges absolutely.

EXAMPTE 5 Test for absolute convergenoe:

g (2n)!
nlJr
'TOO'
Solution We try the Ratio Test:
(2nlt
uo:7ioo and rn+!: f2(n+ 1)l!
ffi
Therefore
l,
lA,l
r-;-l
,,
(2n+2)! .ntoo
:= ffi
t)loo';= : (2n+ l)(2n + 2) (/;+-
(2n)t
n \roo
I
| I (n + +n \t /
:(2n* t)(2n +, (#")
sEcTtoN {13
10.5 THE ATTERNAnNG $nrrs TEsr. THE RAno rEsr. fnr ioor rrsr

Hence

l5rrl: * m.
ri,,
"--l l, I

and the series is divergent.

n
THEORfl,l 18 (Root Test) Let Ztr= | uo be a series such that either

Iim (1u,11t1":, or (lu^Drt" --' + oo as n + @.

Then

0 d-r< l, the series EE r lo conerges abso;lutely;

ii) dr > l, or if (lu,l)tt'-r * @, the series iliuer[es;
iii) rf r:1, the test giues no information.

Proof (i) Suppose r<1: Choose s>0 so small that r*e<1 as well.
Since
(lu^llrt' -+r, we have (lunl)t/'<r*E,for all tr)N, for some
N sufficiently
large. Therefore lu,l < (r * e), for all n > N. But EE-, (r
+ ,y, since
it is a geometric series with ratio r + e < l. The ib*iuriron "onu.rges
i;;;;h'";
that Xp,y lrnl converges, and hence Ef= r" is absolutely .orr.il.rr. ;;;;;
r
ii) Suppose r> I or (lu,l)t/'-* oo. We choose e>0 sufficiently
small that
r- e > 1. (r can be chosen arbitrarily - but larger than I _ if ( u";j rr, _r f co J
;
Since (lu"l;tr'-+ r or + @, we haveihat,
-, i11r,1;r/, for alinIN, for some
N sufficiently large. Therefore (r e)'< lr"l for all n z N. since r
-
conclude that limo-- lu,l*O, and hence- both Ep,lu"l -'e > I, we
and Ef=, u, are

EXAMPI.E 6 Test the series

s1
\-
r?r(tn(*)lk
" for convergence.

Solution Here

'*:1iq-;y'
and since it is positive we do not necd to use its absolute
value. Then

(ur)rtr:f7-*o
and the series converges by the Root Test. fI
EXllMPtf 7 Test the series

s (-2)'
t-

for convergence.
"?, n3
CHAPTER 10

{,-2)',
Ln-
nl
we have -

ou,l),/,: (#)'":&:r[(i)'']' $)
To calculate

nm
,-.
f1)'/',
\U /
we resort to I'H6pital's Rule. While n is an integer-valued variable, we can let
y be a real-valued variable, and we observe that

ri* /1)"': ,--

,-- \-I,/
ri- /1\""
\n,/
Letting
I
X= ->
v
we have

lim (x)': fi' (1\"'

,-0 " ,*. \y,/
Therefore
lim x*: li11 gln(rx) : lim e'1"'
r-O r+O r-O
_
: €lim'-o(xlnx).

We now use I'H6pital's Rule to calculate lim,-6 x ln x. To do this we rewrite

x ln x as a quotient. Doing this, we have

limxlnx-limln',
;;; -' -- -' "*o t '
,x\
and using l'H6pital's Rule, we find
1

:lTi ;
=lT-x:0.
,x2

Therefore lim,-s xr - €lim,-o(rlnx) - ,o = 1, and returning to (4) we have

l
lim (lz,l)lh: ri* z[(1)"',-l': r. l
,+o ,+@ L\r/ I j
Therefore the series divergeg by the Root Test.

We note that the Ratio Test could have been used ln Example 7.
"i
 sECTtoN 10.5 Tns *retNnnNc
415
sERtEs rmr. Tre *nno rrsr.irr roorE
5 PROBTEMS

In each of Problems I through 45, test.for convergence

divergence.
absolutely or conditionally convergeni
or
If the seties is convergent, determine whether it is -3e i
n?t
14
17'
40 igr
,?1 (2n)l

i47U
r n?t 2 ig
n?r
41
.i#* tz
n!
(-l)'n3to 'i'n1|'1'
. S (-t)r-trt o, fa i4
J}
,?, ly 4L T=I
an+l
J
44
n?r n'

r"l'(;j e /e\n
6I n= 1
4si
,?2 (ln
I
n)"

? itll
n=r UlnL- 8I o<p< I
46 For what values ofp does the series

Sn!
)-
f tlll
e ar
n=t n\l/ n
to i (-l)'_-'(n-l)
converge?
. n?r fip
r=l n'+ l
(-t)'n2 (-l)'*r(,?-l)2
11 4a,
r= I
i L
S
12 p'l
47 For what values ofp does the series

13 ua i (-u'-1(4/3)'
M;
,= I
(-i)"(314,
n'
s{
n?1 n!
,= 1 ,l- ,?, n4
converge?
ls (-s)'-t (-2)'-l(n +l)
f
r= l n'n! ,u
,?t (2a)l
i 48 Given a series. Xfl=, u, in which, for each n 2 l, uo, and
u4n+1 ate positive while a+,*2 arrd
ron*. are negative.
,, i (-l)'-r(n!)'z2" After determining appropriaie-additioiai f,ypott
o,
,?r (Zn)t the {u,}, state and prove a theorein analogous "se,
to the
i (-l)'-'(z+1)
,, n=l ,, i (z!)'zS'
Alternating Series Theorem. Generalize your
possible.
result if
nJn ,?r
(2n)l
(-t)'2.a.6...(2n\ 49 Given that Ip , a, is a convergent series of positive
,, ,1
i g (-l)"*'3'*' show that Zf=ru!^ is convergent for every p>
terms,
1.4.7 ...(3n -2) L l.
^4,
$ (-l)'-rn $ (-l)"(n- 2)
50 Given that Ef=, r.r, is a divergent series of positive
terms,
,!,-;+1- ^?, nT lt show that Ef=rul diverges f* O<p.
t.
(-l)'(6n'z-9n++) *51 Consider the
series Xf=, (_ l),-t/nand let.4 be
,, i ul 26 i (-1)'*1
number. Show that by_rearranging the
any real
,= I n' n?1(n * 1) ln (r + l) tenns of the series,
the sum will be a number in tie ilntelraf
(-l)"*'ln(n+ 1a _ f , A + t).
z7

2e
i
r=l
@

| 1-1y,r-"
n+ I
t)

".ie#
s4
52 Suppose that p is a positive number less than
there is a positive integer N such that
I and that
lu,*rli^1< p for all
> N. prove that E;"1, pu,; converges even though
,= I ,,?r
1l"e"rr,n
rmtr_6
en lu,* r/unl may not exist.
@ 2r+l
)-- g sin(zn) 53 Let two numbers larger than I with a b.
a, b be
,?-r 5'(n+3) + Show that
r=l n if.u^:(tla^) when n is odd and
n ir.u.n,
$.i JL ",:(tiilf*ne,
then the seriesXf=r ro corrr".g"r,
* ,=f, (-l)"*rarctann not tend to a limit &s n + se. "tti,ouitr luo*,/anl does
I n'
35 s,'
,?t lU ,o f lnk 54 Use the Root Test to show that the
series
r
t= ,(
sd
37
.i (rh) 38 f 2'-',
.?r (n + l)(n, + 3) converges if0<a<b.
,!r176;
r
CHAPTEf,
CHAPTER 10 IMlN|TEsEruEs

*55 Let Z?=r an be an absolutely convergent series. Show that In each of Problems 56 through 6l, usc the Alternating Series
Theorem and a hand calculator to approximate the sum of the
e .-la series to three decimal places.

,4, no
so i r-r),-r I
ur,Eo(-1)"#
n?r' (2n-l)l
converges for p > {. What happens if
cos(z(n+l))
,, ; 59 sin(an)e-"
an= n-l(log(n+ 1))-3/2 "?t n" ,:i"
@l
and p: l?
uo (-l),-'* 6l
,)
cos (zn)-
"i

POWER SERIES

A power series is a series of the form

co *cr(x
- a) + cz(x - d2 + ... * cn(x_ a) * ...,
in which a and the c;, i :
0, 1,2, ...,are constants. If a particular value is given
to x, we then obtain an infinite series of numbers of the type we have been
considering. The special case o :0 occurs frequently, in which case the series
becomes

co* crx * c2x2*c.x3 + ... + c,xn + .,.,

Most often, we use the E-notation, writing
@

I
,=O
c,(x-a)^ and n=0
i ""r.
If a power series converges for certain values of x, we may define a
function of x by setting

f (x):,!o ,J, - r;" or g(x) : _i-*

l=0 ",r,
for those values of x. we shallsee that all the elementary functions we havc
studied can be represented by convergent power series.
The Batio Test is particuiarly ur"frl in-d.t.rmining when a power series
converges. We begin with several examples.

EXIIMPI.E 1 Find the values of x for which the series :

ol
I lrr
,?r
h

converges.

Solution We apply the Ratio Test, noting that

Ir
uo:
,*, rr+r:
nllxr*t.
sEcTtoN 10.5 Powrn srnrs
417

Then

Ir"*rl lxl,*, n n
l4 l:'+1';';'=lxl---'
It is important to observe that x remains unaffected as
r --+ oo. Hence

fi,, l51l :rim. n t

,--l u, | ,--t]lr*r:l'l"l1T r+T/n=lxl-
That is, p:lxl
in the Ratio Test.
we concrude: (a) the series converges if
lxl < l; (b) the series diverges if
lxr> r; (c) if rxr: l, the Ratio Test giu", no inioLation. The last case
corresponds to x : * r, and we may try other
methods r., it ..1".,
which are "r"i*"
s1 (irx: r)
,l; and ,i + (irx: _r).
The first series above is the divergent harmonic
series. The second series
converges tt e Alternating Series Theorem. Therefo."
!f
convergesfor *l<x<l.
il;;;; ;;;;
D
ExAMpLE z Find the values of x for which the series

g (-l)"(x+ l)"
,!r---27-
converges.

Solution We apply the Ratio Test:

(- l)'(x + l)'
;.:
. 2on2 s ,, 4att:_(- l),*,(* + 1;,*t
Therefore
-7_ITCTrr_

lfoaal: lx+11'*r . 2'n2 r, ../

,,
I l:1116+l)z ;fi:)v*,,(#)'
and

.q H : )r, *,r l1T (#m)' : E#

According to the Ratio. Test (a) the series
converges if |lx + 1l < l; (b) the
series diverges if jlx + ll > 1; and (c) if if :
|x l a the test fails.
The inequality |lx + lf < I may be written

-2<x+l<2 + _3<x<1,
and the series converges in this interval,
while it diverges for x outside this
interval. The values x: _3 and x:l remain for consideration. The
corresponding series are

and
"ie#;z:"i+ .E,W;:.i=g
CHAPTER 10 INRNm smEs

Both series converge absolutely by the p-series test. The original senes
converges for x in the interval -3 < x < l. tr
EXAMru 3 Find the values of x for which the series

$ (-l)"/
,L_-- n.

converges.

Solution We apply the Ratio Test:

(
- l)'/
u":--lf,7t
(
- 1y+ t*r+ t ,
ut*t: -lrr+
lI
and

It,"al: (nlxl'*' . '! :r'r I

I I + l)! '.-' n+ l'
lxl'
Henge p : Q regardlcss of the value of lx[. The series converges for all valuei
of x;thatis, -co<r<@. tr
ExAruru { Find the values of x for which the serics
g)- (-l)'n!t'
,u* l0
converges.

Solution We apply the Ratio Test:

-(
U": --E-
l)"n!rf
lstt:
(- 1)"*t(n + l)h/+t
t
l0*r
and,

_ lxl"*r(n+ l)! . lCI _t,t.

lr.*rl :---iori-' tr* I
:trl'-Ib-
I I l,tpt!
"
Thereforc, if x*0, luo*rfu.l+ +@ and the series divergcs. The series
converges only for x:0. tr
The convergence properties of thc most general power scries are
illustrated in the examples above. However, the proof of the theorcm which
states this fact (given in Theorem 20 on page 419) is beyond the scope ofthis
text. In all thc examples above we s€e that it always happened that ln,*r/nl
tended to a limit or to * o. The examplee arc deceptive, sincc there arc cases itr
which lu"*r/l"l may neithcr tcod to a limit nor ttnd to + @.
We next establish a simple lemma which is necded ia the proof of
Theorem 19 which grves a comparison test for the convergcnoc of power
series.

lfMrt{A If the series Ef=o a, conaerses; therc is a rumtbq M ruch that lu,l<M fiot
eoery n. a
 419
sEcTroN 10.6 Powm srnrs

ProoI By Theorem 8 we know that lim,*- un:0. From the definition of a limit,
there must be a number N such that

lu,l<1 foralln>N
(by taking e: 1 in the definition of limit). we define ,&r to be the largest of the
numbers

lurl, lurl, lurl, ..., lu,nl, l,

and the result is established. D

THEOREM 19

Proof since the series xf=oa,x! converges, we kncw from the Lemma above that
there is a number M such that

la"frl< M for all n.

Then

=1"* :
#l b.x\t.l*l' = "H[
tanx't

The series

,[ "l;l'
is a geometric series with ratio less than l, and so convergent. Hence, by the
Comparison Test, the series

i
r=O
o,t"
converges absolutely. n
Remark. Theorem 19 may be established for series of the form
6
I a,$-a)
r=0
in an analogous manner.
CHAPTEN 1O INHMTE sEnlEs

we omit the proof. The consequence (iii) in Theorem 20 states that there
-+---1----F,
@-R a a+R is an interual af conuergence
-R<x-a<R or, equivalently, a-R<x<
Radius of convergence R about the a + R. Nothing is stated about what happens when x : a- R or a + R. (See
point c, corresponding to the series Fig. 12.) These endpoin, problems must be se-ttled on a case-by-case basis. The
Zf,=o a,(x - a)^. alternatives (i) and (ii) correspond to R = oind R: * co, respectively. when
FICURE 12 0 < R < co, the number R is called the radius of convergence.

6 PROBTEMS

In Problems I through 41, find the values of x for which the q ')vn
following power serie3 converge. Include a discussion of the 29
,!-, (r,rr
,o,f ffi
endpoiuts.

I I*' i (-t)','
z ,=o i (-t):{
3r n-=r
2Jn
32
I
,I. n*
nx'
1

3 ! (zx;' I (*,)'
n r=O ,,
g n2f
,!, G+ rr- *ri?
P (x- l)' ^- S (2x)" s (2+x)'
L (-l)"(n+l)x'
s r=O 6,4,# 5J L ar+2
,= I J
36 Z
n=l
--;- J

S (x-l)' ( - l)'+ 1(x

- 2)' a1 e,
(x + l)' (x+.1)2'
7 )__
' ,?, 2nn3 )
"' ,?, nl. ,, ,?r
I nl
s (x+2)' P 3"x' o

e L--; 10 i (10i)'
n!
39L
,= 1 g-
* ,E,; -12

'=1 Jn "?o
ovi
12.i.41+ll: n''I,qS
" ,L* trol,
," fl (-t)'(312) x"
t'"4"- 14 3
) ----:-
(2n)!/ 42 Prove Theorem 19 for series of the form
n+l ,?o
n!
@
n{x *2)' olx - a;r.
ts i n'(x-t)' T 2:
,i^
43 a) Find thqintervai ofconvorgence ofthe
,, $ (-1)'-t(x+4)' I r!(x - 3)' series
'' n!, 18
1'3'5'..(2n- t) e\ I '3'5 .-.0n
3n'n2
t(r4!)2(x L/ ' - tl'*t
i1 - l)'* 2.4. 6 .. . {2n}
(
,o - 2),
^' o?, 2(2n)t b) show tn"t tr,, *rr", ,;,;n;;:r,icar with the scries
n!(x - 1)"
-ij S Qn)l -i
'n ,I, oL'T\ffx'
";I
.rt $ (- l)'-'nl(3/2)"x' @
,r,L=n--
(-l),3,+lx,
" .?, l'3.5...(zn-l) 44 Find the interval of convergence of the series
: (n - 2)x" (.6n2+3n+l\x'
ar\
* n?, E /GTt)5- $ 1.3. 5... (Zn- l;(x-2)"
^!,- 7iltr:7.111;4-'
n2 =0

+ (-l)'-'x"
L ;-;: (r + ln(r + 1)
1) I ln(a+ n*l)3'(x-
,!r I
l)"
aS Fiod the interval of convergeace ofthe binomiat scrirr
1)'- -1(ln r)2'x" ef
27L
r= I
i-
3'n2
n ,L, eny.
,*,i r{r.-t}":!n-n+t) u. nrfixed.
 421
sEcTtoN 10.6 Fawm srnms

46 Supposc that thc series Ef=o a,xo has an interval of {8 Given the two series Epo aoxn arrd Eps b,xn. Suppose
. convergence (-R, R). (a) Show that the series there is an N such that la,l < lb,l for all n > N. Show that
Ef=, a,{+ | l(n + l) has the same interval of convergence. the interval of convergence of the first series is at least as
b) Show that the series 2f=, nanr" - L has thc same interval large as the interval of convergence of the second series.
of convergence.
47 Given the series Lf=o anx,. Suppose that lim,-. ,Ao): ,.
Show that the series converges for
49 Suppose the series 2f=, anxn converges for
l1 -R < x < R.
Show tlpt the series Lf=oa,xk" for some fixed positive
--<x<-
rl integer /c converges for -.)& <, < {,&.

TAYT@R'S SERTES

Suppose that a power series

i
r=O
a,(x-a)'
converges in some interval -R<x-c<R (R>0).Then the sum of the
series has a value for each x in this interval and so defines a function of
x. we
can therefore write

f(x):astar(x-a)+az(x-a)z +ar(x_a)3+ ..., (l)

a-R<x<c*R.
we ask the question: what is the relationship between the coefficients 40, ar,
a2, a3t .;,, dn,... and the function /?
we shall proceed naively, as if the right side of (1) were a polynomial.
Setting x:
a, we find at once that

f(a): ao.
we differentiate (1) (as if the right side were a polynomial) and get
f'(x):ar*2ar(x-a) +3ar(x- a)2 +4an(x_c)3 + ....
For x: ri, we find that

f '(a) : ar.
We continue both differentiating and then setting ,: o] ,o obtain
f " (x) : 2as * 3. 2ar(x - a) + 4. 3a,n(x - a)2 + 5 . 4a 5(x- c)3 + ...,
f" (a) : 2a, or or:#,
f"'(x) : 3' 2a3 * 4. 3. 2an$ a) + S, 4. 3ar(x
. - a)z

+ 6.5. 4a6(x- a)3 + ...,

f "'(a) :3'2at 4s: f
"'(a)
or
J-,
CHAPTII 10 limxmsam

and so forth. The pattern is now clear. Thc general forurula for the coefficients
46 Alt i0.2t ,..t 4r, ... ig

(2)

DEF;NITION Tlw right siile of Eq. {2) is calleil rlre Taylor series for / about tLe Poilt o ot tlrc
expansion of / into s power series about a.

For the special cas€ c:0, the Taylor series is

(3)

The right side of (3) is called the Maclrurin *fie for f .

ExAMru 1 Assuming that /(x) = sin x is given by its Maclaurin series, expand sin x into
such a series.

Solutlon We have
:
"f(x) sin x, l(o) =O
.f'(x) : cos r .f'(o) - 1,
t"{x): x;
-sin "f"(o): O
*cos xr - - 1,
"fc(x) - "f(t\o)
1r+r(x) : sin x, lter(Q) :0.
It is clear that Ttst =f', fu:/", etc, so that the seguenoe 0, 1,0, - 1, O 1,
0, - 1, ... repeats itself indpfinitely. Therefore, from (3) we obtain
.x3x5x'x9
sinx:x-JI+ 5! - Z!
+
9! - "'
or

(4)

I
Remark. It may be verified {bY the Ratio Test, for example) that the sericr
coruserges for all rtalues ol x.
(4)
s[cTtox toJ Trnorssas

EXAMPI.E 2 Assuming that/(x) : cos x is given by its Maclaurin series, expand cos x into
such a series.

Solution We have
: cos x
,f(x) ,f(0): I
f'(x): -sin x ./'(0) :0
f"$): -cos x I"(01: -1
: sin x Jr(3)(0) :0
'rGl(x) cos x
f(n)(*): /(4)(0): I
Proceeding as in Example I we obtain:

. .x2x4x6 _A+ -2s

cos.x_r_2,!+4! '..+(-,)"fu*...

:lll,:l.,,ll rill+ui,u,'.:i!:'illlll!il.:riii:l::1::i:l1r:.:i::,:::i;:irli:iiuii:llii!!r'i

+riffi+r+xtfrffiiix"rrffi
rilllrfl,rr,i:rtiilr,rili:lr;tll.:l:,fllillii,,jil,iii:ir.,,,irllii ij',,,ii:,,l,lri ri.:ili,i

EXAMru 3 Expand the function

. t. I
r(x):-x
into a Taylor series about x 1, assuming that such an expansion is valid.
=
Solution We have
f(x) = x-t, -f(1) = 1,

ft(xl:(-l)x-r, : - l,
.lr'(1)
f!(x):(-lX-2)x-3, f"[l:(_tl2 .2t,
,f(.)(x) : ( - r)( - z)(-3)x-n,
"f€)(1):(_t)r.3!,
ft"t(x) : ( - lX - 2) ... ( -n)x-.- r, ,fo)(1):(-1)'.n!.
Therefore from (2) with a: l, we obtain

(5)

tr
Rmurk. The-series (5) convergcs for lx- ll < I or 0 { x 12,as may be
-
confirmcd by the Ratio Test.

Examples 1,2 aad3 have meaning only if it is known that the functions
rgprlsentable by means of power series. There are examples of functions
Tc
for which it is possible to compute all the quantities
,f6)(x) ui eird a
3d- y* the Talor scries about a ryin not repres€nt the"function. ""1u"
(sec
Problem 39 at the end of this Section.)
ullMPtt a Find the Taylor series for sin x centered at a:z/3, assuming that such an
expansion is valid.

Solution We prooeed as in Examplc 1:

.f(x) - sin x, /(l): { 2

.f'(x) : cos a ,,(;)= ,

1

f"(xl = -sin x, t"(;): {

3

,fc)(r) = -cos r, ,'(l)= I 1

"f()(x) = sin I, ,"'(i)- & 2

and therefore

sinx=
+.:Q-;) - #(,-;I-# 0-;)'
.#(.-l)'.
It is.not easy to express this series concisely. we can do it by writing
.
sinx:"i,J, _r/3),,

and distinguishing between the even and odd coefrcients, i.e., between a2,a11d
azo+ t.For the even ones we can write:

^frr -tr r:O 1,2,3,...

or,:W
and for the odd ones:

uzs+t:tffi n:O 1, 2,3,.-..

Therefore

: _?)^*"8,
sin x
i,+E#(, i #h(,_ ;)-., tr

EXAMPU 5 Compute the first six terms of the Maelaurin expansion of the function

'f(x)
: tan x'
assuming that such an expansion is valid.
 425
sEcTtoN 10.7 TAYLoRt sExlEs

Solution We have
/(x): tan x,
"f(o)
:0,
f'(x):sec2 x, .f'(0): 1,

f "(x) :2 sec2 x tan x,

-f"(0) :0
"f(t\r)
: 2 sec-ax * 4 sec2 x tarrz x, fp)(o):2,
f(n'(*): 8 tan x sec2 x(2 + 3 tan2 x), 1or(e =O
Ttst$):48 tan2 x secax
/(t)(0): 16.
* 8 sec2 x(2 + 3tan2 x)(sec2 x * 2 tan2 x),
Therefore

f (x) =tan.x:, + {1 + ?"

s ls+"" D

Renurk. Example 5 shows that the generar pattern for the successive
dcrivatives qay not arways be readily disceriribG. Examples
t, i, uio l, on
the other hand, show how the g.o.r"i formura for the ,tf
J;rt"+;; may be
arrived at simply.

7 PROBLEMS

In Problems 1 through 16, find the Taylor (Maclaurin if a:0) In each of Problems 17 through 37, find the first few terms of
seriesfor each function / about the given valuc ofc. the Taylor expansion about the given value of a. Carry out
the
t f (x): {, a:0 process to include the term (x- a) for the given
integer n.
2 /1x): sqs 1, a: nl4
3/(x):ln(1+x), a=0
l7 [(xl:e-", a:0,n:4
a f @l:ln(l + x), a: t
lE f(x):ys', a-\,n=4
I
s /(x) : (l - x)-2, a:0 t9 l(x) = ,*"r, a:O,n-4
6 f(xl:ll-x)'ttz, a:0 f(x):4fctanr, a:Qn:5
20
7 f(x):(l+x,1trz, a:0
2l
f(x)-s't2, a=l,n=3
8 /(x) : s', a: I
22 f (x):x3 ln x, a: l,n:7
9 /(x) : ln x, a:3
23 f(x\=ln(l +2x), a:t,n:5
l0 /(x1 : sin ,, a: n/4
U f(x):cos2x, a:fi,n:4
11l(x):cosx, a:n/3
12 [(xl: sin x, a=2n13 25 [(x): sin2x, a:!,n=4
2'
ts f (xl:,.G, a:4 X I$\:(x- l)1o, a=O,n:4.
u f (xl: sin(x + 1), a:0 27 f(x):ercosx, a:O,n: 4
15l(x):cos(x+i), a=0
16 /(x) : f, a: t
n fEl:-#,, a:o,n:4
v r -r
425
CHAPTET 10 INFINITE sEnffis

29 x, a:0,n: 5
I{x)=arcsin b) Show that F('\0) :0 for every positive integer n.

30 /(x)-tanr, a:nl4,n: 5
c) What can be said about the Taylor series for F?
3l f(x): ln sec x, a:0,n=6
32 f(x)=s€cx, a:0,n:4
33 /(x)=cscr, a: nl6,n: 4
34 IQ)=cscxr a-af2,n:4
35 /(x) :secx, a=7'13,n=3
36 f(x) = ln Sin x, a:7Ll4,n=4 HCURE 13

37 I$) = tor )(, a:0, n:7

(.Einr: See Ex4mple 5; express /(s)(x) in terms of sec x.)
40'For any real number n and any positive number a show
3t a) Given the polynomial that the Maclaurin series for (a * x)' is given by
f(x):3 *2x-x2+4x!-2x4, (6)
:
(a * x)' a' + nan-
1
x *"(:;\ o'- 2x2
+ "'
show that / may be written in the form

f(x) : ao+ alx - l) * az$ - l\2 , n(n- l) ... (n k + l)

- u-i_*_-*
, a.-..
,

* a3(x - l)3 + an(x - l)4.

(Ilint: Use the Taylor expansion (2) and (6) to get each ar.)
Set a
= I n :!
and find the Maclaurin series for
and
Given the same polynomial in two forms, (l +:s;tlz. Find the radius of convergence.
Also, find the
'b) Maclaurin expansion and the radius of convergence for
nn
(l+x)-1.
f(x): I ar(x-a)k, /(r): I brg-b)r, *41 L€t i be the imaginarf square root of - 1. (That is, i2 :
express **'rr'r, terms of o, b, und rll"' or. - l.) Assuming that the Maclaurin series for e'obtained in
*39 a) Given the function (see Fig. 13)
the solution of Problem I holds for imaginary numbers of
the fofm z : ix, where x is real, verify Euler's Formula:
F61:{e-tt"' **:'
' [o' x:0, ei":cosx*isinx.
42 Find the Taylor expansion of (3+y):u2 xfsul a: l.
use l'H6pital's Rule to show that
(Ilint: Wrrte 3 + x:4 * (x - l) aod use the result in
F',(o) :0. Problerq 34 with a:4 and x replaced by x - 1.)

I
TAYLOR'S THEOREM WITH REMAINDER

If a function / possesses only a finite number-say r-of derivatives, then it

is clear that it is not possible to represent it by a Taylor series, since the
co€fficients a*:ftkt(a)lk! cannot be computed beyond a,. In such cases it is
still possible to obtain a finite t)ersian of a Taylor expansion.
Suppose that /{x} possesscs n continuous derivatives in some ioterval
about the value o. Then it is always possiblc to write
 427
sEcTloN 10.8 TAYLon,s THEonTM wTH nEMAINDER

f(x) :f(a) * #u - a) + tfa - d, + ...

ft"t( a\
+
--I(x - a)'+ R, ( l)

for x in this interval. The right side consists of a polynomial in x of degree n

and a remainder Ro about which, as yet, we have no knowledge. In fact, the
quantity R,is defined by the formula (1). For example, in the unusual case
that f and its n derivatives all vanish at x : a, the "remainder" R, is just /
itself. The content of Taylor's Theorem concerns useful information about the
nature of R,. This theorem is not only of great theoretical value but may also
be used in approximations and numerical computations.

THEoREtuI 21 (Taylor's Theorem with Derivative Form of Remainder) Suppose that f , f',
...,
f('), f(t),l:b+t) are all continuous on some interual containing a andb. Tien
there is a number ( between a and b such that

,::l:! lilt ti
I

That is, the remainder Rn is gioen by the formula

(2)

Remarks. i) We see that R, depends on both b and a, and we write, in

general, R,: Rn(a, b), a function of two variables.
ii) In the special case r:0, we obtain
f (b):f (a) +f'(O(b - a),
which we recognize as the Mean value Theorem (page 131). Thus this form of
Taylor's Theorem is a direct generalization of the Mean value Theorem.

Proof of Theorem 21 The proof makes use of Rolle's Theorem (page I 30). we creite a function rf(x)
which is zero at both a and D and so, by Rolle's Theorem, there must be a number
( between a and b where {'(0 :0. The algebra is lengthy, and the reader
should write out the details for the cases n : l, 2,3 in order to grasp the
of the proof. We use the forrn (1) with x:b and write
essenc.e

f (b) = f (a) . t-ffll . {:yFt * .. . * I''@)!L- o) * R,(a, b);

CHAPTEX INnNm sENEs

we wish to find R,(a,b). We define the function

r'(x)(6 x) f<zt1g(b -
--lj---
x)2
0g):I(b) -I$) - - -----z
7a-
tt{x)(b _ x)r- - r

3! (n - l)!
/(')(x)(b - x)
-R.g!b)[f:ffi
The function { was concocted in such a way that Q@):0 and
{(b) e facts :
which are easily checked by straight substitution. we compute the'derivative
{t(x) (using the formula for the derivative of a product wherever necessary):

$) : - f (x) + I' $) -
f "' (*)=(! -') 2f Qt $)!b - x)
0' '
1! + 2t

_ f@(x)(b - x)2 3/t3r1x;1b - x;2 y<*tg)e- x)3

,= -----J!-
2l - -- 3!- -r ...
l\x)(b x)'
/o+ - * R^(a,b)(n + t)(b - x),
n! (b a)n+ t
-
Amazingly, all the terms cancel except the last two, and we find
tth)-(b x)
o,i(*) :-
I<t+ - * Ro(c, b)(n +r)
&ft
using Rolle's Theorem, we know there must be a value ( between a and b
such that 0'G):0. Therefore we get

0- - fa*,)(()(b
nl.
- t\ *R,(c, b)(n+l)ffi
or, upon solving for Rn(a, b), the formula (2) exactly. tr
Remarks. i) If we know that /(x) has continuous derivatives of all orders
and if R,(a, b) --+ 0 as r, + oo, then we can establish
the validity of the Taylor
series.
ii) In any case, R, is a measure of how much / differs from a certain
polynomial of degree n. If Rn is small, then the polynomial may be used for an
lpproximation to f . This fact is especially useful in applications where a
function which is not known precisely may describe an important quantity;
while the function may be unknown it is often possible to esiimate accurateiy
its first few derivatives. If Rn is known to be small, Taylor,s Theorem statcs
that a polynomial can then be used to approximate the,unknown function
/.
when we use Taylor's Theorem in the computation of functions from the
approximating polynomial, errors may arise from two sour@s: the error R",
made above by neglecting the powers of (b-a) beyond the rth; and the
'tound-off error" made by expressing each term in decimal form" If we wish
to compute the value of some function /(D) to an a@uracy of four decimal
sEcTloN 10.8 Tlyron,s THEoREM wtrH IEMA|NDER

places,it is essential to be able to say for certain that /(b) is between some
decimal fraction with four decimals
-0.00005 and the same decimal fraction
+ 0.00005' Time is saueil by computing each term to two decimals more than are
required. Frequently R, is close to the value of the first tjrm omitted in
the formation of the approximating series, and this fact can be used as a guide
in choosing the number of terms. Although we usually do not know R"
exactly, we can often show that there are two numbers m and M with
m<fb*'r(*) < M for all x between a and b.
Then we get for R,(a, b) the inequality
m(b-a)+t .( ^. M(b-al,*r
I(r(4, D) <
(n + l)! -(,? + tn-'
EXAMPTE 1 Compute (l.l;tls to an accuracy of four decimal places.

Solution The key to the solution, using Taylor's Theorem, is the fact that we can set
f (x): (1 + xltrt, a:0, D :0.1.
Then

f (x) : (1 + x;trs, f(a):l ,

: 1.0000 00
1

:
1

f'(x):5{t +*)-n,t, f'(a)(b - a): ito.t), 0.0200 00

f"(x): - itr* x)-e,s, t-PYt: -- - |O.rl,: -0.0008 00

f
,,,(x):fftt n x)-r+rs, ru#r:: fito.r), : 0.0000 48.

For all x between 0 and 1 we have

0<(1+ x)-t+rsj'r.
Therefore we can estimate Rn for n: 2:

: r+rs(b . :
0 < R,
#,, a 11- -..a)t
fi to.rl, 0.0000 48.

Adding the terms in the Taylor expansion through n:2, we get

( 1.1; trs : 1.0192, approximately;
in fact, a more precise statement is
t.Ol92< (1.1;trs < 1.0192 48. tr
Remarks. In Example I we could have selected
l@):xrl5 with a:1,
b:1.1. The result is the same. Hand calculators are sufficient for making
the required computations.

Ex Mru 2 Compute { ,o an accuracy of four decimal places.

430
CHAPTER 10 INBNm sBfis

Solution Set

f(xl:xrl3, a:8,b:'l .

Thenb-a:-land
f (x): x't3, I@):2 : 2.0000 00

f,(x):!x-zn, f'(a)(b - a): -i :*0.083333

srt, f'(a)(b- q)2

: -
f '(x) = -26x- 2l #' = -o'oo}472
l0 __r,, ytttlg(b _ a)3
Jr(3)(r) = 27^ '
_-__ :- : -o.ooo2 4r
3!

ltttg): ui9r-"r',
-
yrttla)(b _ a)a
=-
"b 5
: 20.
41 243.210 -0.0000
It would appear to be sufficient to use only the terms through (b*a)r.
However, by computing the sum of the decimal fractions given, we obtain
1.9129 54. But the next term is
-0.0000 20 which, if includJd, would reduce
the value to 1.9129 34. If we stopped with the (b - a)t term and rounded ofi,
we would obtain 1.9130 whereas, if we keep thc next term and round off, we
obtain 1.9129. So the term in (b - aln should be retained, and the remainder
Rn must be estimated. We have

ltst,,l=ffir-rn,r: #.
Since we ane conoerned with the interval 7 <x <8, we see that xrl3 <2 and
x5 > 1+e11r3). Hence

o'#'.,o9r;ffi*'#<o'ooooo4.
Since (b - a)5 : - l, we conclude that

-0.000004<Rn<0
and that

fi =t.9tzg
to tbe required aocuracy. Actually, if we merely keep an extra decimal in each
tcrsr retained, wc s€c that

fi : t.9r29t
to five decimals. u
Renaks. (i) In Example I thers is no round-ofrcrror, since each d€cimar
fraction gave the exact value of the corresponding term. This is aot truc in
Example 4 however. In geaeral, the round-ofretror in each rcrm may bc as
much as{'in th€ last dccimal placc rctained. Round-ofrerrorc may tend to
cancel cach othcr if there is a laige numbcr of computations in a given problan.
(ii) Many calculators can computc lft ^fihc
prcss of a button. The internat
 431
sEcTtoN 10.E TAYTon,s THEoIEM wTH REA{AINDGR

program of thecaiculator which performs this task must use an approximation

which involves only additions, subtractions, multiplications, ind divisions.
Polynomials and rational functions (i.e., the quotient of two polynomials) are
suited perfectly for such approximations. In many cases the simplest program
(and the one used in the calculator) is given by the porynomiar in Taylor's
Theorem.

The remainder Ro(a, b) in Taylor's Theorem may be given in many forms.

The next theorem, stated without proof, gives the remainder in the form of an
integral.

THEORE\,| 22 (Taylor's Theorem with Integral Form of Remainder) suppose that f , f,,
f(,1,...rt:tnl,f6+tl areallcontinuousinsomeintentalcontainingaandb.-Tien
f (bl may be written in the form

EXAMPI.E 3 write ln(l*x) as a polynomial of the third degree, and estimate the
remainder R" for 0<x<|.
Sotution We set

lG):ln(l +x), a=0,b=x.

Then we write successive dcrivatives,

r'(x):#, "f'(o)
: t,
f"(xl: - #;; , f"(Ol: -1,

,f(t)(*):#;=, .;ror(Q):2,

(xl: -
Thcrefore
f(n
#r.
-r2x3
ln(l+x):x -i +
? *^r,
with

Rr=-
:l;#tG-t)3dt
432
CHAPIER 10 hrRxm srnrs

A simple estimate replaes (1 + r)4 by its smallest value l, and we find

B.r.l" (*-,)'":* tr

8 PROBLEMS

In each of Problems 1 through 8, find Taylor's Formula with 29 sin lo, 6decimals 30 sin 5o, 5 decimals
Derivative Form of Remainder for the given values of a and n,
and any unknown value b. 31 cos 5o, 5 decimals

32 Find the largest interval about x = 0 in which the function

I /(x) : si1 1, 4-!,n:3 -/(x) : sin x may be approximated to four decimal plaoes
by x - |x3, the first two terms in the Maclaurin expansion.
2 /(x) : sqs )c, a:l,n:3 33 Given thc function
"f(x) = cos2 x, find an upper and lower
bound for R,(a, D) where o : Q b = nf 4, n: 4.
t f@):Ji, a:9,i:2 34 Verig the identity in x:
4 f(x):s-', a:0,n-4
5 /(x):11 1, a- e,n:3
| , ... *(-1;'-t*,-r.r--
,t r\,-r.-t.(-lff
: : I -x* x2-
6 f (x): arctan x, a= l,n=2
l+x l+x
7 f(x)=s2', a:12,n:3 Integratb between 0 and D to obtain the formula

8"f(x): -, a:-3,n=2
1

rn(r + b) :i r-,r.f +(- r),

I, rfr-
In each of Jott"-, 9 through 28, use Taylor's Theorcm with Show that this is Tayldr's Forrrula with Integral Rcmainder.
Remainder to compute the given quantities to the spccified Obtain the estimate for R,:
number of decimal places. Use a hand calculator in estimating
the remainder.
g '5
lR,l<]!+
r-lDl
for lbl< l.
e-o'7, decimals l0 e-o'4, 4 decimals
ll eo'2, 5 decimals 12 sin(0.5), 5 decimils 35 Apply the method of Problem 34 to the function ,f(x):
!3 cos(0.5), 5decimals 14 tan(0.1), 3decimals ll[ + x2) and obtain Taylor's. formula for arctan x.
t5 ln ( 1.2), 4 decimals 16 ln (0.9), 5 decimals 36 Let El=o il, be a convcrgent infnitc scries whose terms
17 e- t,
are alternately positive and negative and also such that
5 decimals 18 e, 5 decimals
lu"* rl < lz,l for each n. The Corollary to Theorem 16 shows
19 (1.08)1/4, 5decimals 20 (0.92)1t1, 5decimals that the error in approximating the above scries by E]=6 n, is
21 (0.91)1/3, 5 decimals 22 (O.90')1t5, 5 d€cimals always lcss thaa lup*rl" Apply this result to approximatc
co1(n/6) bf its Taylor scrics with remainder and thercby find
B (30)1/5, 5 decimals A (15)tt1, 5 dccimals
25 (0.8)1/5, 5decimals 26 (65)tt6, Sdecimals .f to threc decimal places.
*37 l;r;t
27 ln(O.E), 5decimals 2E ln(0.6), 3decimals f * a coutinuous function defined on the intcrval
[c, b]. Combine Theorem 21 and Thcorern 22 to show that
Given that l": a/180 radians - 0.01?4533 radians and 5": there exists a value e, a<( < b, such that
z136 radians : 0.0872665 radians, compute cach of the following
fD"
1o 166 srmber of decimal places required without using a
| t, - t)'f(tl dt :G - a)'* | I{l)
calculator. J.' r+1
 43:t
sEcTtoN 10.9 DFenEunAnoNIND'INTEGRAnoN oF sBIEs

DIrrrRrrurIATIoN AND INTEGRATIoN oF sERIEs

In Section 7 we developed the formula for thi Taylor series of a function and,
in so doing, we ignored the validity of the manipulations which were
performed. Now we shall establish the theorems which vqrify the correctness
of the results already obtained.-

THEOREM 23 (Term-by-Term Differentiation of Power Series) lf R > 0 and the series

( 1)

conerges for lxl < R, then the series obtained from (l) by term-by-term
differentiation conuerges absolutely for lxl < R.

Proof Term-by-term differentiation of (l) yields

a
I
i=l
nanx"-r. (2)

Choose any value x such that lx!<R and choose x, so that lxl<lxrl<R.
According to the Lemma of Section 6 (page 418), theie is a positive'number
M with the property that
la,t'l< M for all n.
We.have the relation

tl :lrr,#. *l = rf
lnaoxn-
li[',
and now we gan apply the comparison Test to the series (2). The series

* i nl:Ll'-'
x1,?r l*, I

converges by the Ratio.Test, since p:lxlxl<

l; hence, so does the series (2).
is any number inthe interval (
Ilf I
(2) is the same as that of (t). -R, R), the interval of convergence of
L-t

Remsrks- i) The corollary is obtained by induction, since each differen-

tiated series has the same-radius of convergence as the one before. (ii)
ihe
results of Theorem 23 and the Corollary ai valid for a series of
the form

i
r=0
a,(x-a)',
434
CHAPTIR 1C INF]NITESTRIES

which converges for lx - al < R so long as R > 0. The proof is the same.
(iii) The quantity R may be * co, in which case the series and its derived ones
converge for cll values of x.

THEOREM 24 If R>O and f is defined by

f (x) : f an*' for lxl < R.,

a=O

then f is continuous for lxl < R.

Proof Let xo be any number such that -R<xo<R; we wish to show that / is
continuous at xo. In other words we must show that

f (x)--+f (x) 8S x -+ xo.

We have

l,f(x) -"f(xo)l : loI I a,(xn -xA)lI < fo lc,llx'-x61.

lr=0 | r=0
We apply the Mean Value Theorern to the function g(x) : x'; that'is, the
relation
g(x) - S(xo) : g'( O(x - xe), ( { is between x and xo),
applied to the function g(x) * x', iS
xn - xL:n(i-r$- xo)' ((, between x and xo).

The subscript n has been put on { to identify the particular exponent of the
function x'. We may also write
lx' - x6l : nl*l'-'lx - xol.
Thus we find

i,f(x) -,f(xo)l < i rlr,ll(,1"-'lx - xol.

n=0

So long as x is in the interval ofconvergence there is an x, such that l(,1 < x,

for all n. We deduce that

Now we apply Theorem 23 to conclude,n", r;:series on the right converges;

call its sunl K. Then

e l,f(x) -"f(xo)l < lx - xol 'K.

As x tends to xo the quantity on the right tends to zero, and so /(x) tends
to /(xo). That is, /(x) is continuous at xr. Since xois any number such that
-R ( xo < -R, the function / is continuous for all x in the interval [-R, R].
u
 435
sEcTtoN 10.t DmTMnAnoN AND INTEGRATIoN or smIEs

Ttf,O*Flt 25 (Term-by-Term Integration of Power S*ries) Suppose that R > 0 and the series

holds for lxl < R.

Letxbeanynumbersuch that -R <-x < R. Choosex, sothat lxi< lxrl<R.

Note that for any n

fx ^ -r+1
un*
I aoy 4' -
Jo '- n+l'
Therefore

N '*r*'
F(x)-,L o,;i_ = f'[r,,,-
,o, i o,*fa,.
n=o r
(s)

But now

JVo.Yo
f(t) L o,t' - n=0
- a=o | a,to : a=iY+I
| a,tn - r=o I a,t,,
and for all t such that -lxl< r< lxl and lxl< lx,l< R,
IwI-
l"t'trl-Io,rl
,=0
. I la,llxl'. (6)
| I r=N+l
Since the series (3) converges absolutely at x, the right side of (6)-being the
remainder-tends tc zero as N -* co. We conclude from (5) that

1",, -,i*,"#l
a,:( i
= I, (.=[-, lo,llrt')
/ \r=fi+ I
la,llxl,).x.
/
As N tends to co, the right side above tends to zero, and the left side above
yields (4). n
illlMPtE 1 Assuming that the function f (x):sin x is given by the series
. X3 Xs i _ l)ix2r+ I
srnx=x_r+o_ ... +7;;y + ...,
find the Maclaurin series for cos x.
CHAPTER 10 INFINITE sEtrIEs

Solution Applying the Ratio Test to the series

g (-1)'x2'*'
t-,
f;=o Qn+l)l '
we see that it converges for all values of x. We define
fr
F(x): I sinrdr:-cosxf
- 1.
Jo
Integrating the above series for sin x term by term, we obtain

' or
F(x):1-cosr=,i
tr#
(-l)ox2,g (-l)rx2,
. xz x4 x6
cosx:r_ zt+A_A+
... +l2r)-+ ... _,Ir6. o
The next theorem relates the derivative of a function given by a series
with the term-by-term differentiation of the series.

Proof The fact that @

(8)
)rna,x"-r
converges for lxl < fi was shown in Theorem 23. We must show that g(x) :
2f=, naoxn- I is the derivative of /. Theorem 24 establishes the fact that g is
continuous. Then, integrating the series (8) term by term we get, on the one
hand,
fx
ao* I g[)dt
Jo
and, on the other, the series for /(x). That is,
f(x):r"*1.Jo g(t)itt.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus then asserts that

/'(x):g(x),
which is the result we wished to establish. Now starting with g1x;:
o

l. na,x"- 1 which converges for ixl < R, we may repeat the argument to show
,= 1
@
that g'(x) : L nl, - l)anx"- 2
for lxl < R. By inductiono we conclude that the
t=2
series (7) differentiated ft times yields a convergent series for;flr{ x),k: l,Z, ... .
The radius of convergence is always R. tr
 437
sEcTtoN 10.9 DrmtxnenoN AND rNTrcRATtoN oF sERrrs

Remark. The result of Theorem 26 holds equaily well for functions f grven
by series of the form

which converge for lx - al < R with R > 0. I'he /<th derivative of / is given by
q$$ g+ +#

EXAMPIE 2 Assuming that the exiansion of /(x) :(4+ x2)-' is given by

I _ € (_l)n.-r,
4+" - ^*o2'*'^
valid for lxl< 2, obtain an expansion lor 2xl@+ *'),.
Solution Differentiating term by term, we find
2x
-,*,2"*' *
-$+7f _S(-1)'2n.-rn-, '

We may replace nby n f I in the infinite series if we change the lower limit
from I to 0. We get
2x g (-1)'(2n+2) lrlt
giff:,L-uj#x'n-' r
We now make use of the above theorems and the fact that the function
I l0 + x) may be expanded in the simple geometric series

+_:
1+x i ot=o
(_r),r,, lxl< r,

to obtain additional series expansions.

Proof Letting F(x) : ln(l + x) and differentiating, we find

F'(x):/(x): +: i t -t)nx,, lxl< l.

l+X a-=o

Now, by Theorem 25, we may integrate terrn by term and get

F(x)
Jo""
i (-l)'1.','
: f' f*,ra,-: ,u=o
.n+l
which is equivalent to the statement of the theorem.
CHAPTER 10 INFINITE STRIES

EXA ,IPLE 3 Find the Maclaurin series for

I$):-f=,
' (r-x)'
Solution If we define F(x) : (l - r)-r, we see that F,(x) :f (x).
Now
@

./ F(x) :,Io ,i lxl < I

(which we obtain from the expansion for (1*x)-1 if we replace x by *x).

Therefore,
lg@
I$\: C-r : ,Ern*n- ' :A (fr + l)xr, lxl< l. n

EXAMPTE Find the Maclaurin expansion for /(x) : ( I+ ,r\- ,.

Solution The geometric series

lo :,I^ ( - 1)"" <I

f; lul

after substitution of x2 for u, becomes

l@
(
Ti7:'I^ -r)nx'"'
valid for x2 < l.The inequali ty x, <l is equivalent to the inequality lx! < l.
u
For a geometric series we are able to compute lhe exact sum of the series
by using the formula

irlrl< l.
,Lo*:*,
Term-by-term differentiation or integration allows us to obtain new formulas
and exact sums as the next example illustrates.

EXAMPTE 5 Find the exact sum of the series

.P. n
\-
L Lon'
n=I

Solution We rewrite the series in the form

.t,* :.i, (;)' : ;.i,(i)"

We observe that the function f (x) = EFo t'
converges for lxl < l. Then we
have :
/'(x) E& r nxo - | and tberefore I f '(.}) is our desired quantity. Since the
series Xfl, xn is a convergent geonutric series, we have

f(x): I -.X
 439
sIcTtoN 10.9 DIFTEf,EMnATI0N AND TNTEGnATIoN oT sERIEs

and so
i
I rxi: (l--x)"
valid for lxl< 1, and i/'(i) :2. We conclude that

$ , _,
a1n
Ii
n=l L

In below, assume that the following formulas hold. They

will be next section.

9 PROBLEMS

In Problems I and 2, assume as known the Maclaurin series for 13 Find the N{aclaurin expansion for (1 - tz)-1t2, and then
sin x and cos x. find one for arcsin x.
I Find the Maclaurin series for l4 Find the Maclaurin expansion for cos 2x and then find one
for sin2 x.
: x)/x'
/(r) {Gin '*?'
x:0. 15 If /(x) :
eo', show that the Maclaurin series for /(l)(x) is at
[, tirnes the Maclaurin series for /.
2 Find the Maclaurin series for
In Problems 16 through 25, use term-by-term differentiation or
- cos x)/x' * *2' integration as in Example 5 tg ffnd the exact sum ofthe given
tal: [0,{(^'
x:0. series.

3 Find ihe Maclaurin series for e', determine the radius of

convergence, and then find the Maclaurin series for given /
roi' P 1r- 1
t7s'1 2 tn- |

by
(,a-Dlx. x*0. l8 I n(n- 1)32-' ,, f, (n2+n)
/(r) :
u ar-I
r=
tl ;:;. 2

3n- |
In Problems 4 through I l, use term-by-term differentiation and
integration of known series as in Examples 2, 3, and 4 to
20 I + n5n
7'
2t t
6l

,"a (n + l)2'
1
determine Taylor or Maclaurin series for the function /. State
the radius of convergence. zz in"--o(n'.* 3n I-2\3^" x i 2'-'
+ ,?r * l)3'
(n
a f @): (1 + x)-2 s.f(*):hi=
24 f, (n!)2'-ro
,=o (n + 1)!3"
2s i lz-'
n?t 4tl
6 f(x):(l -:61-r f{x):(1+x)-3
7
E /(x)=xln(1+x2) 9 f(x):ln(1-x) 25 find the exlcr sum rrf rhe series (that is, an exprebsion which
l0 /(x) : ln(3 - 2x) ll /(x) = ln(! + x2) is equal io the sum ol the series for all x in the interval of
ccnvergence):
12 Find the Maclaurin expansion for ( I * x2) - 1
and then use
term-by-term integration to get a Maclaurin expansion for
arctan.x. I
t-. I
I:.xr- 1 for lxl < l.
m
CHAPTER 10 INBNITE SERIES

27 Find the sum of the series a) Show that the expansion lor xle
- x3; is precisely
(x'f(x'))'.
i_r
*?, k(k + l)' b) Find an expression for /(x).
33 Use the fact that xp : eplos, to express xe as a power series
28 Find the Maclaurin expansion for ln(x +
$i?y. in log x:
29 Find rhe sum of the series
p(log x)
g (n + 2l(n+ l)x" 4 rp: I+ + ... ' 1(log x)' _
_r_
-lT
I!
,1 ,r
n!

Find the radius of convergence. For what values of p is the

and conclude that above expansion valid?

,:1in?nqJ2qjl
7 nl
34 Suppose that /(x) has a Maclaurin series with a positive
radius of convergence: f (x) :Zf=o a,f . Show that if is
/
an even function of x, that is, if /( x) =/(x) for all x, then
30 Find the first five terms of the Maclaurin expansion of -
an:0 for all odd integers n. If / is odd, i.e., if /( : -x)
(x), show that ao:0 for all even
-f
rt't: i e-" dt. 35 Writing the identity
n.

Jo
Obtain an approximate value of F(1). Can you approxi- I : _l
mate the error? 1 -,
-7---l\'
*31 Show that for every positive
integer p, we have
-(.' -;/

(t-x)-e-r : aJo\
i ?*r),,,
p / txt<l,
we get the formal expansion

lg, 1

where the symbol (,ir) is an abbreviation of I=: - ,L^ *^+t'

(n+p)(n+p- 1) ...(n+ l) For what values ofx does this series converge? Under what
1.2.3 ... p conditions can the series be differentiated and integrated
term by terrn?
Deduce the formula 3p+ r : IEo (;o)({,.
*32 Let 36 Find an expansion for arctan x in powers of llx. (Hint:
lxx2.x3
Jlx)=r*i* S +, * ... Consider the expansion of l/(l + x2) as in problem 35 and
then integrate)

10
NUMERICAL COMPUTATION WITH SERIES

In this section we present theorems that both show that certain important
functions are truly represented by their Taylor series, and also give methods
for making numerical computations.

THEOREM 28 For any ualues of a and x, we haue

(l)

i.e., the Tavlor series for ex about x: a conerges to d for any a anil x.
 .141

stcTtoN 10.10 NUI*nICI COMPUTATIoN wlTH SERIES

Proof For simplicity, set a : 0, the proof being analogous when a * 0. If we let / (.': r

: er, then.f(")(r) : e'for all n. Now, using Taylor's Theorem with Derivative
Form of the Remainder, we have

o: rL#
* *,, where *,: ffi,
with ( between 0 and x. Ii x is positive, then e( < e' while, if x is negative, then
eE < eo: 1. In either case,

r--ru+I
1n,1 < cfif rtr
, t2t

where C is the larger of I and e'- but is independent of n.If the right side of (2)
is the general term ofa series then, by the Ratio Test, that series is convergent
for all x. The general term of any convergent series must tend to zero, and so

a (nlxl'+' -- o as ,,r + oo for each x.

+ 1)!

We conclude that Rn -- 0 as n --+ @t and so (1) is established.

THEOREM 29 The following functions are giuen by their Maclaurin series:

The proofs of these results follow the same outline as the proof of
Theorem 28 and are left as exercises for the reader at the end ofthis section.
The reader no doubt recalls the formula (1+x)2:l+2x+x2 and is
probably familiar with the binomial formula for (1*x)t for each positive
integer k. Infinite series allows us to provide a formula for ( 1 * x)-, for every
real number m, integer or not.

THEOREM 30 (Binomial Theorem) For each real number m, we haue

(3)

Proof To show that the series on the right converges absolutely for lxl < 1, we apply
the Ratio Test:

m(m- 1).'.(m-n*l)(m-n) n! l*rl

l+l:l (r + 1)! m(m- 1) ...(rn-n* l)
. _t
xrl
: lm- , : lr - mln!r*,
nl
r*t l'l l+ll,
CHAPTTN 10 INRNm sEnffis

The quantity on the right tends to lxl as n--+ e, and so the series converges
for lxl< L We define

m(m-t) ":!m-n+t) o.
IG\:'*,i (4)

and we still must show that f (x): (1 + x)'if lxl < l. Employing Theorem 26,
we get f'(*) by term-by-term dift'erentiation of the series for /. We have

m(m-l) "'(m'-n+1)
i
f'(x):m+' ,?z t'-'. (5)
(te
- 1)!

Multiplying both sides of (5) by x, we ger

r) "' lm + t)
x['(x)' : ;, nm(m - - n
*". (6)
n?t n!

We add (5) and (6) to obtain

: *{t * i. m(m - r) "' lm - n + t) *\ :

(t + x) f'(x)
( ,1 ,t-tl:n{(x)' ^r(*
In other words, the function / satisfies the relation
(1+x)/'(x) -mf(x):{.
To find /(x) we,use a method that comes from the theory of linear first order
differential cquations. We multiply this equation by (1 + x)-,-r. getting
(l + x)-^f '(x) - m(t + x) -,- 1/(x) : 0.

This last equation can be written

i
frftt + x)-'l(x)l: Q.

A function whose derivative is identically zero must be constant, so that

(l+x)-J(x):r,
where K is some constant. Setting x : 0 in (4), we see that /(0) : l, and this fact
yields K: l. We conclude that

f (x): (1 + x)' for lxl < 1. il

The series expansion of (1+x)'for lxlcl given by (3) is called the
Binomial Series

EXA {PL"E 1 Write the first 5 terms of the series expansion for (1+x;3/2.

Solution We have y:|in Theorem 30, and therefore

: r + fl* + (?)(+)x,. QqFa,r (*xlx

(r + y;rrz * -*)(-*),n
: r +|x* i,, - *,, * fi*, * ... tr
 43
sEcTtoN 10.10 NUA,TBrcAI COAtrUTANON WITH SIRIES

EXAMru 2 Write the Binomial Series for (i + x)?.

Solution We have
7(6) '-n+
"'(1; '' *''
'- ' 1)
(r * x)7: t ' +
n?t i nl

We'now observe that beginning with n : 8 all the terms have a zero in the
numerator. Therefore,

(1 + x)?: *,I,+ ]:Lt-'-_-r"

7(6)'..(7-n+1)
'
:7+7x*U*' 7'6'5,'+
7.6 ^*-i! - "'+7x'.
7t
=
Example 2 is a special case of the following general rule:

EXl111,4ptE 3 Use Theorem 25 on term-by-term integration of series and a hand calculator to

compute
/. o.5
I e,, dx
Jo
to an accuracy of five decimal places.

Solution We have
@r.ro.2n
e" f. \n!
= n?s for all u, and so e*' : l. * . for all x.
,?s n!
By Theorem 25 we can integrate term by term to get
fx .2 . a I-2n+
|
I
I
Jo
" -'
o' rlt: \
nl(2n + l)'
"?o
For x:0.5, we now compute

x:0.5 :: :0.50000 00,

(o'.5)t
'It. :
l!.3 3
: .l'
24
:0.0416t667-

i:2t.5= (o;?' : 320 :0.00312 50,

l0 =1^
x7 : (0.5)' :0.00018 60+
1

31.7 42 5176
- -: -
,'_(0.5)e_ I
:
4t. g 2t6 110,59, 0'00000 90+
sum of the right s6lrrml:0.54498 67.
CHAPTER 10 INRNm smrs

If we wish to stop at this point we must estimate the error made by neglecting
all the remaining terms. The remainder is
e Xzn+t Xll / X2 x4 x6 \
,1rnt12r*g =s!.ll('* o *e+i+ ')

<_xlllz4ll < _._._

- 1320 (t - xzl6) - 23 t320 2Mg
< 0.00000 04.

Therefore

to an accuracy of 5 decimals,
fo't n, dr: [o.susl
Jo [0.544987 to an accuracy of6 decimals. tr

1O PROBI-EMS

In each of Problems I through 9, write the beginning of the f o.s

binomial series for the given expression to the required numbei ,, dx
5 decimals
of terms. J, Jl+ x3
'11tl
I (1+1;-3l2, '5terms 2 (l - x)u2, 4 terms ilx
5 decimals
3 (l + x2)-2i3, 5 terms 4 (l -;1-rtz, 6 terms 'o J"
5 (l + x3)?, all terms 6 (5 + x)1t2, 4 terms f 1/3

7 (3 + Jil-', 5 terms
2tl 5 decimals
E (1 4 x;trz, 4 terms Jo
9 (1 + x1- tls, 4 terms ro.5
22 I 5 decimals
In each of Problems l0 through 12, use the Binomial Theorem Jo
and a calculator to make the appropriate estimate.
23 Use for
l0 Estimate 7'ttt to within 0.01

II Estimate ./If to within 0.01 hl+*

I -x
12 Estimate, JTU to within 0.01. (Hint: tJw that ./01=
(100 + l)'/2: l0(l + ;u)'/'.) to find ln 1.5 to 5 decimals of accuracy.

In each of Problems 13 through 22, compute the value of the

24 Sdme as Problem 23, to find ln 2.
definite integralto the number of decimal places specified. 25 Prove that
Estimate the remainder" Use Theorem 25 and a calculator.
ft (-l)'x2'*r.
sinx= $
t3 i sin 1x2; dx, 5 decimals ,"-a (2n* l)!
Jo
lr 26 Prove that
14 | cos 1x2) dx, 5 decimals
Jo
rr cosx= $ (-l)'x2'
(2n)l
15 | e-"ilx, 5decimals ,u--o
Jo 27 Show, by induction, that /G)(r) = sin(x + {&z) if
loi dx :
16 I ;--;- T, 5 decimals "f(x) sin x.
JO l-l-I 2t Use the result of Problem 27 to show that for all a and x the
frsinr Taylor series for sin x is given by
17 I dx. 5decimals
Jox
t8 f' n -' or. 5 decimars
Jox
 {rfs
sEcTtoN 10.14 l{u,Erc r coiY?ur^T}oN wrrH sffi

29 Show, by inductton- rrrfiut f'(x) :cos(x+]kz) if ln(y+l):lnY

/(x) : cos x'
30 Use the result of Probiem 3 to sho*' that for all a and x the
Taylor series for cos x b given by
.rl;n.**1r.*irf. ]
(Hint: Let x = (2y + - values of y for which
1) '.) Find the
...'r11.t*irxltffi .i .,i cs-!3l-:j=) 1* - al;1,,i.i1++i1f ir...;
the series converges.
;;;:r,::t..,ii:ili;:rll,:::.::iir:ttl:::t,i:::irlit::i:ll::i1,1.:l:i,rF€ n! r.,i:
.,lirl1;.ril::i:i:i..i+illifl,lii
32 Assuming that ln 2 and ln 5 are known, use the expansion
in Problem 31 to estimate the error in finding ln 1l when
3l Use the series for ln [( I+ x) {I - x) ] to obtain the formula three terms of the series are used.

CHAPTER 10
REVIEW PROBTEMS

through 9, find the limit (finite or infinite)

In each of Problems
I (i)-'
1
1
20 t-_ 2l
when it exists. "n'+10
I lffi.-.----
3x2 +6x-45 lim-x2-l7tX 22 I
d,.
u 2n+r 23 r/r-1\'
r-3 xt -9 5-1 Slll "\ n)
ln(l +.x2 + 2x) ..
ln(x) + xz + 3
J llm-
r{+6 3x'+4x
ll[1
rr+@ (6x + 3)' 24 r'" ' 25
1
L nlnn
"nl
' /t\
t,n(7 ;_1
! llm-
cot x
lim // x !\"
Ln
' 27 -n2+l
Lnt-7
,rrlz In cos x l-+-' -'
-
1

-x- B lne-* 29
I
L n(hn)2
(x - l)' ln cos x
, ,T]6:,p5 lim ,
r+o X'
30 t
64n' 3l (a>0)
cos x' Sin.x "tf ln2s-o
9 lim
,-l*tl ln tan x
In Problems 32 through 49, test for convergence or divergence.
ln each of Problems 13, evaluate the limit of the
l0 through If the series is convergent, determine whethcr it is absolutclX or
sequence (or show that the sequence tends to cc, + .c, or co). - conditionally convergent (all surnmations are from a = I to o).
n+3 I
l0 lim 11 lim: 32 t(-l)" 33 -(-l)'*tn
L3i
.--n'+2 .-* ln2 + 3 " (2n)l
- .4.7 ...(3n+ l)
12 U- 3' 13 tim 1r/i'+ fn + O
- n) *,(n-2Xr+3) 3s -Ln51
4 r-+o " 2'4'6...(2n)
Io Problems 14 ttrrough 17, express each repeating decimal
the ratio of two integers. ,a r(-1)"(n+2)
u 3n-l 37 -(-l)'-11000n2
L' 3'
11 0.626262 ... $ a272127...
t5 0.230769230769 ... fi a.x57t4?35114... ,i.f11\
\2/
3st" 6n+3 3e -stnn
Ln2
In each of Problems lE through 31, tcst for convergence
divergence. AII summations arc from n: I to :c.
rr r: re r-!
- r,/rr'+ 3 - ,';{i) 41 y(-l_)'*'nz'
u e"+l
cHA?rEt 10 INHNm scntts

4'IeP 43 -L ( - 1)'104"
nl.
03
I
/(x) =:--:--,
I +.r
a: -4,n-3
g n2
Ltrrtr,+ rll" 45 r(ffi) u I$):i;,
1

a:0, n:5

* ltrpl 47 T(#I 0S,f(.t) =--#,

1

a:0,n:4
,i1+x
* r(ilr) 49 \. -cos fin
L 2n+3 In each of Problems 66 through 68, use Taylor's Theorem with
Remainder to compute the given quantities to the specified
In Problems 50 through 59, find the values of x for which the number of decimal places. Use the fact that2 < e < 4 and a hand
following power series converge. Include a discussion of the calculator.
end-ooints.
@
6 e-o't, 5 decimals 67 sin(0.4), 4 decimals
so t
n=O
(x+ t)" 51 f
r= I
{:x-z)' fg ln(0.7), 5 decimals

g nlx' g)- (-l)"x2' In Problems 69 through 73, find the exact sum of the given
52
,Lrzn- t ,?r Qnll series.
g (-l)'(3n +l)xz'
", i
011!{ @2,
ua, L^i 69 I ,,.r r^
tv $ '4'
lt Jct'l
r= t J ,=O Z r= I
g n*l g (-l)"
56 L -*r-I
a=o L
I rrnlf
57
,*1 ilx"
g nlrf " i,# n 2,(n2
+n)2-"

St)--
,rZt n!
59
,?t n" ,r,ic.#y 74
@

L Qn-2\e-'"
In each of Problems CI through.65, find the first n terms or ItIe
Taylor expansion about the given value ofc. 75 Use infinite series to i'-:dx
"r","o. Jo
to four
.,/too - x3
60 "f(x):lnx, a:l,n:5 decimal places.
61 f (x) = d, 4=2, n:5
fS Approximate J1, e-"t2 ilx with an accuracy of 5 decimal
OZ f{i:Ji, a:2,n:3 places.