Summary Notes 4

From Tangent Problems to Limits and

Derivatives

4.1 Finding The Slope of a Tangent Line

Let’s start with an elementary function y = f (x) = x2 . What if we want to find the slope mtan of the
tangent line to the graph of f at the point (1, 1)?
Recall that the slope of a straight line passing through two distinct points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
In addition to the point (1, 1), we can take a nearby point (1.05, 1.052) on the graph of y = x2 .
It is then straightforward to find the slope msec of the secant
line of the graph which passes through these two points, which
can be taken as an approximate value of mtan :
y
1.052 − 1
msec = = 2.05 ≈ mtan
1.05 − 1
(1.05,1.052 )
y = x2
Intuitively, we can get better and better approximation of the 1
(1,1)
slope mtan by looking at the slope of the secant line through
(1, 1) and another point (1 + h, (1 + h)2 ) on the graph, when h
is chosen to be closer and closer to 0. For examples,

h 0.05 0.005 0.0005 0.00005 x

msec 2.05 2.005 2.0005 2.00005 1

In general, for any h 6= 0, we have

(1 + h)2 − 1 2h + h2
msec = = = 2+h
(1 + h) − 1 h
Note that as h → 0 (“as h 6= 0 is approaching 0”), msec is approaching the number 2, which gives us the
slope of the tangent line mtan = 2.
In terms of the “limit notation”, this process can be written as
(1 + h)2 − 1
lim = 2 = mtan
h→0 (1 + h) − 1

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4.1. FINDING THE SLOPE OF A TANGENT LINE MATH1012 Calculus IA

The equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = x2 at the point (1, 1) is then give by
y−1
= 2 ⇐⇒ y = 2x − 1
x−1
In fact, it is easy to check that the straight line given by y = 2x − 1 intersects the graph of y = x2 at
exactly the point (1, 1) by solving the equation

x2 = 2x − 1 ⇐⇒ x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 1 .

Here are some more examples of the tangent line problem.

Example 1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve defined by the equation y = x3 at the
point (2, 8).
Consider the slope of the secant line passing through the point (2, 8) and a nearby point (2 + h, (2 + h)3 )
on the curve. Then
(2 + h)3 − 8 12h + 6h2 + h3
msec = = = 12 + 6h + h2 −→ 12 as h → 0y
(2 + h) − 2 h
8
Using the limit notation, we have

(2 + h)3 − 8 12h + 6h2 + h3 4

lim = lim = lim (12+6h+h2) = 12
h→0 (2 + h) − 2 h→0 h h→0
x
Hence the slope of the tangent line is 12, and the equation of −2 −1 1 2

the tangent line to the graph of y = x3 at (2, 8) is

−4
y−8
= 12 ⇐⇒ y = 12x − 16
x−2

Example 2. One condition that determines the number e, which is the base of the natural logarithmic
function, is that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the natural logarithmic function y = loge x = ln x
at (1, 0) is 1. Express this in term of the limit notation.
y
Suppose that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y =
loge x at the point (1, 0) is 1. Then the trending behavior of the 4
slope of the secant line passing through the point (1, 0) and a y = x−1
nearby point (1 + h, loge (1 + h)) on the graph as h → 0 should y = ln x
2
be
loge (1 + h) − 0 1
msec = = loge (1 + h) x
(1 + h) − 1 h
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
= loge (1 + h) h −→ 1 as h → 0
−2
Using the limit notation, e is the number which satisfies
1
lim loge (1 + h) h = 1
h→0

In particular, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = ln x at the point (1, 0) is y = x − 1.
Noting that loge e = 1, one way to define the number e is
1
e = lim (1 + h) h .
h→0

10
Putting in h = 10−10 , we have (1 + 10−10 )10 = 2.718282053 · · · ≈ e = 2.718281828 · · ·.

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4.2. LIMIT DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE - THE “1ST PRINCIPLE” MATH1012 Calculus IA

Example 3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the natural exponential function y = ex at
the point (0, 1).
Just recall that the graph of y = ex can be found by reflecting the graph of its inverse function y = ln x
across the line y = x.

In particular, the tangent line to the graph of y = ln x at the y

y = ex
point (1, 0) will be reflected to the tangent line to the graph of
y = x+1
y = ex at the point (0, 1). 4
y = x−1
It is then easy to see that the slope of this tangent line to y = ex
y = ln x
is also 1. 2

Using two nearby points (0, 1), (h, eh ) on the graph of y = ex , x

and the slope of the secant line passing through them, we have −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

eh − 1
lim = 1. −2
h→0 h

Note that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = ex at the point (a, ea ) can then be found by
the trending behavior of the slope of the secant line through (a, ea ) and (a + h, ea+h )

ea+h − ea ea (eh − 1) eh − 1
lim = lim = ea · lim = ea · 1 = ea .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
Example 4. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function y = sin x at the point (0, 0).
By considering the slope of the secant line through the points
y
3
(0, 0) and (h, sin h), the slope of the tangent line to the graph
of the function y = sin x at the point (0, 0) is given by 2

sin h − sin 0 sin h 1 y = sin x

lim = lim (h,sin h)
h→0 h h→0 h x

sin h −π π
By calculating a few function values of h as h → 0, it is −1
sin h
reasonable to guess that lim = 1.
h→0 h −2

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

sin x
x
0.998334166 0.999983333 0.999999833 0.999999998

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = sin x at the origin (0, 0) is then equal to 1. The equation
of the tangent line is y = x.

sin h
A precise explanation for lim = 1 would require more understanding on the limits of function
h→0h
values. We shall look at this limit again later.

4.2 Limit Definition of Derivative - The “1st Principle”

In general, given a function f , we can consider the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at the
point (a, f (a)) in a similar manner by looking at limiting behavior of the slopes of nearby secant lines which
pass through (a, f (a)):

f (a + h) − f (a) denoted
as
lim = f ′ (a) , whenever the limit exists.
h→0 h

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4.3. UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF LIMITS OF FUNCTION VALUES MATH1012 Calculus IA

f ′ (a) is called the derivative of f at a.

y y=f(x)

(a+h, f(a+h))

f(a+h)-f(a)
secant line

tangent line
(a, f(a))
h

x
Slope of the secant line will approach the
slope of the tangent line as h approaches 0

1
Example 5. Let f (x) = . Find the derivative f ′ (2).
x
1 1 2−(2+h)
f (2 + h) − f (2) 2+h − 2 (2+h)2 −1 −1 1
f ′ (2) = lim = lim = lim = lim = =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 (2 + h)2 2·2 4

where f ′ (2) = − 14 can be interpreted as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = 1
x at the point
(2, 12 ).
f (a + h) − f (a)
Remark is usually considered as the average rate of change of the function values of f
h
over the interval [a, a + h], and hence the limit f ′ (a) is considered as the instantaneous rate of change of f
at a.
Example 6. Let s(t) = t2 (in meters) be the position of a particle moving along the s-axis at time t (in
seconds). Then the average rate of change

(1 + 0.05)2 − 1
= 2.05 (m/s)
0.05
is the usual average velocity of the particle on the time interval [1, 1.05].
The instantaneous rate of change of s = t2 at t = 1 is called the instantaneous velocity of the particle at
time t = 2:
(1 + h)2 − 1 h(2 + h)
s′ (1) = lim = lim = 2 (m/s)
h→0 h h→0 h

4.3 Understanding the Concept of Limits of Function Values

Derivative is based on the limit of certain function expression, and hence it is important to understand the
concept of limits of function values, and some basic computational skills.

An important point to keep in mind is that finding lim f (x) is NOT the same as
x→a
finding the function value f (a).
x2 −1
Example 7. Consider f (x) = x−1 and g(x) = x + 1.

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4.3. UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF LIMITS OF FUNCTION VALUES MATH1012 Calculus IA

It is more or less obvious that

lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2 = g(1) 2

x→1 x→1 2

and
1 1
(x − 1)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1

but there is no well-defined function value f (1).

Remark In other words, lim F (x) may exist even if the function value F (a) is not well-defined.
x→a

Graphically speaking, finding limits of function values is like riding along the graph.
Example 8.
6

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6

• f (0) is well-defined, and lim f (x) = f (0).

x→0

• lim f (x) = 6, while f (4) is not well-defined.

x→4

• f (−3) = 3, but the left-hand limit is

lim f (x) = 1 6= f (−3)

x→−3−

and the right-hand limit is

lim f (x) = 5 6= f (−3)
x→−3+

where x → −3− means that x is approaching −3 from the left (i.e. x < −3), and x → −3+ means that
x is approaching −3 from the right (i.e. x > −3).
Moreover, lim f (x) does not exist since
x→−3

lim f (x) = 1 6= lim f (x) = 5

x→−3− x→−3+

• What happens as x → 2− , or x → 2+ ?
lim f (x) = 4 = f (2), but lim+ f (x) = 2 6= f (2) = 4.
x→2− x→2
The (two-sided) limit lim f (x) does not exist!.
x→2

Remark If f is well-defined in an open interval containing a, with the possibility of being

undefined at x = a, lim f (x) exists and equals the value L if and only if the two one-sided
x→a
limits exist, and are equal to L:

lim f (x) = L = lim f (x)

x→a− x→a+

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4.4. ASYMPTOTES AND LIMITS AT INFINITY MATH1012 Calculus IA



 −1 if x < 0

For example, if f (x) = 0 if x = 0 , then f (0) = 0, and



1 if x > 0

lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1

x→0− x→0−

lim f (x) = lim+ 1 = 1

x→0+ x→0

Since the two one-sided limits are not equal, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0

Exercise Sketch the graph of the following piecewise defined function



 x+2 if x < 3

f (x) = 1 if x = 3


2x + 1 if x > 3


and find the one-sided limits lim f (x) and lim f (x). Does lim f (x) exist?
x→3− x→3+ x→3

Example 9. The function f (x) = sin πx does not have any one-sided limit as x → 0− or x → 0+ .
1
0.8
The function value f (x) keeps running up and 0.6

down through the numbers between −1 and 1 0.4

0.2
without getting closer and closer to any fixed num- 0
ber when x → 0− , or x → 0+ . -0.2

π -0.4

Note that sin πx = 0 whenever = nπ for some -0.6

x -0.8
integer n; i.e., whenver x = n1 for some integer -1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
n 6= 0.

4.4 Asymptotes and Limits at Infinity

We may also consider limits of a function f (x) as x → ∞ or x → −∞.
1
Example 10. Consider the limit of the function f (x) = as x → 0− , 0+ , −∞, ∞ or a 6= 0.
x
By running along the graph of y = x1 , it is not hard to see the following:

1 1 4
y
(a) lim+ = +∞. (b) lim−= −∞.
x→0 x x→0 x 3
1
y =
1 1 x
(c) lim = 0. (d) lim = 0. 2

x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
1
1 1
(e) lim = for all real number a 6= 0 x
x→a x a −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

Note that the line y = 0 (x-axis) is what we call a horizontal

asymptote of the function f (x) = x1 .
−2

−3

The line x = 0 (y-axis) is called a a vertical asymptote of the

−4

function.

In general, we may consider the limiting behavior of f (x) as x → ∞ or x → −∞, or consider some one-sided
limits to see if f (x) is approaching ∞ or −∞ as x → a+ or a → a− .

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4.4. ASYMPTOTES AND LIMITS AT INFINITY MATH1012 Calculus IA

• y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the function f (x) if either lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.
x→∞ x→−∞

• x = b is a vertical asymptote of the function f (x) if at least one of the following holds:

lim f (x) = ∞, or lim f (x) = −∞,

x→b− x→b−

or lim f (x) = ∞, or lim f (x) = −∞

x→b+ x→b+

Note that f has two different horizontal asymptotes y = L1 and y = L2 if

lim f (x) = L1 6= lim f (x) = L2

x→∞ x→−∞

In any case, a function can have at most two horizontal asymptotes.

1
Example 11. Find the following limits of the function f (x) = by running along its graph.
x−2
1 1
(a) lim = 0. (b) lim = 0. y
x→+∞ x−2 x−2
x→−∞
4

1
1 1 3 y = x−2
(c) lim+ = +∞. (d) lim− = −∞.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x − 2 2

1 1
(e) lim = for all real number a 6= 2 1

x→a x − 2 a−2 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0 −1

−2

Vertical asymptote: x = 2
−3

−4

x−1 1
Example 12. Find the following limits of the function f (x) = = 1 − by inspecting its graph.
x x
x−1 x−1 y
(a) lim = 1. (b) lim = 1. 4

x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
x−1 x−1 y = x−1
x
3

(c) lim+ = −∞. (d) lim− = +∞. 2

x→0 x x→0 x y =1
x−1 a−1 1

(e) lim = for all real number a 6= 0 x

x→a x a −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

Horizontal asymptote: y = 1 −2

Vertical asymptote: x = 0 −3

−4

Remark
f (x)
• Given a function of the form , the vertical line defined by x = a is a vertical asymptote as long as
g(x)
f (a) 6= 0 but lim− g(x) = 0 or lim+ g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a

• If f (x) = ax + b + g(x) with g(x) −→ 0 as x → ∞ or x → −∞, then the straightline given by y = ax + b

is called a slant asymptote of f .

x2 + 2x + 3 3
Example 13. (Slant Asymptote) f (x) = = x+2+ .
x x

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4.5. BASIC TECHNIQUES IN LIMIT COMPUTATION MATH1012 Calculus IA
10 y

2 +2x+3
y =x
x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of f . x
5 y = x+2
y = x + 2 is a slant asymptote of f since
x
3 −5 5 10
lim (f (x) − (x + 2)) = lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ x

−5
3
lim (f (x) − (x + 2)) = lim =0
x→−∞ x→−∞ x

√
Exercise Show that y = −x and y = x are two slant asymptotes of the function f (x) = 1 + x2 .

4.5 Basic Techniques in Limit Computation

1
Once we know some basic examples of limits of functions, like the limits of the function x, we can easily
compute more limits by using the following rules of limits.

Some Useful Limit Laws

Whenever the limits below exist, we have
(i) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x) for any constant c.
x→a x→a

(ii) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

(iii) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

(iv) lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

(v) lim = x→a if lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

(vi) lim [f (x)]p = ( lim f (x))p for any rational exponent p when ( lim f (x))p exists.
x→a x→a x→a

Example 14. Apply limit laws and the intuitively obvious limit lim x = a to work out the following limits.
x→a

1. lim (x2 − 2x + 5) = ( lim x)2 − 2 lim x + lim 5 = 22 − 2 · 2 + 5 = 7.

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
p q p √
2. lim x2 − 2 = 3 lim (x2 − 2) = 22 − 2 = 2
3 3 3

x→2 x→2

2x2 − x + 1 lim (2x2 − x + 1) 2 · 22 − 2 + 1 7

x→2
3. lim = 2 = =
x→2 x2 − 1 lim (x − 1) 2 2−1 3
x→2

Several algebraic tricks, mostly about factor canceling, are often needed in order to find limits of the
form 00 or ∞
∞.

x2 − 4
Example 15. Find the limit lim . (A 00 -type limit.)
x→2 x − 2

Note that if we directly substitute x = 2 into the expression, we will get some undefined expression 00 .
This suggests that (x − 2) is a factor of both the numerator and the denominator. After factoring, we have

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

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4.5. BASIC TECHNIQUES IN LIMIT COMPUTATION MATH1012 Calculus IA

√
x−3
Example 16. Find the limit lim . . (A 00 -type limit.)
x→9 x − 9
0
It is also a 0 type limit. By suitable factor cancellation, we have
√ √
x−3 x−3 1 1
lim = lim √ √ = lim √ = √
x→9 x − 9 x→9 ( x − 3)( x + 3) x→9 x+3 9+3

Example 17. Here are some more examples of 00 -type limits, found by algebraic manipulation:
√ √ √
2x + 1 − 1 2x + 1 − 1 2x + 1 + 1 2x 2
(i) lim = lim ·√ = lim √ = lim √ =1
x→0 x x→0 x 2x + 1 + 1 x→0 x( 2x + 1 + 1) x→0 2x + 1 + 1
√ √
x2 x2 x2 + 4 + 2 x2 ( x2 + 4 + 2)
(ii) lim √ = lim √ ·√ = lim =4
x→0 x2 + 4 − 2 x→0 x2 + 4 − 2 x2 + 4 + 2 x→0 x2

2x2 − x + 3 ∞
Example 18. Find the limit lim .. (A ∞ -type limit.)
x→+∞ 3x2 + x − 1
1
It is just a matter of understanding the behavior of the function x as x → +∞:
1 3 1 3
2x2 − x + 3 x2 (2 − x + x2 ) 2− x + x2 2−0+3·0 2
lim 2
= lim 2 1 1 = lim 1 1 = =
x→+∞ 3x + x − 1 x→+∞ x (3 + − 3+0−0 3
x2 )
x→+∞ 3 + −
x x x2

since
1 1 1 1
lim = 0, lim 2
= lim · lim = 0·0 = 0 .
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

2x2 −x+3
In particular, y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the function 3x2 +x−1 .
∞
Example 19. Here are some more examples of ∞ -type limits, found by rewriting the function in terms of
1
x.

√ √ q
x 2 + x1 − √1x

2x + 1 − 1 1 hr 1 1 i
(i) lim = lim = lim √ · lim 2+ − √
x→+∞
√ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x
= 0 · [ 2 − 0] = 0 .
√ hr 2
2x + 1 − 1 1 1i
(Or, lim = lim − 2− = 0.)
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x x
x2 x
(ii) lim √ = lim q = +∞
x→+∞ 2
x +4−2 x→+∞
1 + x42 − 2
x

2x 2x 2
(iii) lim √ = lim q = lim q =2
x→+∞ x2 + 4 − 2 x→+∞ 4 2
x( 1 + x2 − x )
x→+∞
1 + x42 − 2
x

Example 20. Some examples on ∞ − ∞ type limits:

√ √ √ √
√ √ ( x + 1 − x)( x + 1 + x) 1
(i) lim ( x + 1 − x) = lim √ √ = lim √ √ =0
x→+∞ x→+∞ x+1+ x x→+∞ x+1+ x
√ √ √ √
p √ ( x2 + x − x)( x2 + x + x)
(ii) lim ( x2 + x − x) = lim √ √
x→+∞ x→+∞ ( x2 + x + x)
x2 1
= lim r  = lim x · lim q r  = +∞
x→+∞ q x→+∞ x→+∞
1 1
x 1+ x + x 1 + x2 + x1
1

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4.5. BASIC TECHNIQUES IN LIMIT COMPUTATION MATH1012 Calculus IA

√ √
p
2
( x2 + x − x)( x2 + x + x)
(iii) lim ( x + x − x) = lim √
x→+∞ x→+∞ ( x2 + x + x)
x 1 1
= lim √ = lim q =
x→+∞ ( x2 + x + x) x→+∞
1+ +11 2
x

Remark When computing limits of the form lim (f (x) − g(x)), where both f and g are approaching ∞
x→∞
as x is approaching ∞, one is actually looking at the trending behaviour of the gap between the graph of f
and g, i.e., how f (x) − g(x) behaves as x → ∞.
x2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1
Example 21. Compute the following one-sided limits: (i) lim , (ii) lim
x→1− x2 − 1 x→1+ x2 − 1
(i)
x2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1 1 1
lim 2
= lim · = · (−∞) = −∞
x→1− x −1 x→1 − x+1 x−1 2
(ii)
x2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1 1 1
lim lim · = · (+∞) = +∞
x→1+ x2 − 1 x→1+ x + 1 x−1 2
2
x −x+1
Hence x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of the function .
x2 − 1
x2 − x + 1 x2 − x + 1
Exercise Find (i) lim − , (ii) lim + . Can you find all vertical asymptotes of
x→−1 x2 − 1 x→−1 x2 − 1
x2 − x + 1
the function ? Any horizontal asymptotes?
x2 − 1
1 1
Exercise Compute the limit lim+ ( √ − )
x→0 x x
Exercise Compute the following limits.
s
x2 − 5x + 6 (ln x)3 − 8 1 + sin x
(a) lim 2
(b) lim2 (c) lim
x→2 x −4 x→e (ln x)2 − 4 x→0 cos2 x

Squeeze Theorem, or Sandwich Theorem:

If g(x) < f (x) < h(x) for all x near a, except perhaps when x = a, then

lim g(x) ≤ lim f (x) ≤ lim h(x)

x→a x→a x→a

whenever these limits exist. (The same is true for one-sided limits.)

Example 22. Suppose 1 − 2x2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 + 3x2 for −1 < x < 1. Then by the Squeeze Theorem, we have

1 = lim (1 − 2x2 ) ≤ lim f (x) ≤ lim (1 + 3x2 ) = 1

x→0 x→0 x→0

and hence
lim f (x) = 1 .
x→0

1
Example 23. lim x sin = 0, which is just a matter of applying the Squeeze Theorem to
x→0 x
0.2

1
−|x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x| 0.1
x
i.e., 0
1
0 = − lim |x| ≤ lim x sin ≤ lim |x| = 0 .
x→0 x→0 x x→0 -0.1

-0.2
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

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4.5. BASIC TECHNIQUES IN LIMIT COMPUTATION MATH1012 Calculus IA

Note that we cannot apply the limit law about product to write
1 1
lim x sin = lim x · lim sin
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x
1
since lim sin does not exist!
x→0 x
Example 24. lim e−t/2 sin 5t = 0 .
t→+∞

Just a matter of applying the Sandwich Theorem to

1

−e−t/2 ≤ e−t/2 sin 5t ≤ e−t/2

0.5
y = e−t/2 sin 5t
− lim e−t/2 ≤ lim e−t/2 sin 5t ≤ lim e−t/2
t→+∞ t→+∞ t→+∞ 0

where
-0.5
lim e−t/2 = 0
t→+∞
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10

sin θ
Example 25. lim= 1.
θ
θ→0
π
By the Squeeze Theorem, this limit follows easily from the following inequalities: for 0 < θ < 2,

sin θ
cos θ < <1
θ
Hence
sin θ
1 = lim cos θ ≤ lim ≤ lim 1 = 1
θ→0+ θ→0+ θ θ→0+

sin θ
lim =1
θ→0+ θ
sin θ
Note that θ is an even functions. Hence

sin θ sin θ
lim− = lim+ =1.
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ
To find the inequalities aabove, compare the areas of the following triangles and circular sector:

C
Area of △OAB < Area of circular sector OAB < Area of △OAC B
tan θ
1 1 1
sin θ < θ < tan θ sin θ
2 2 2 θ
O A
sin θ 1
cos θ < <1
θ

sin kθ
Example 26. Using lim = 1 for any non-zero constant k, we have
θ→0 kθ
 
tan 2θ sin 2θ 2 sin 2θ 2
(i) lim = lim · = lim · lim = 1·2 =2
θ→0 θ θ→0 2θ cos 2θ θ→0 2θ θ→0 cos 2θ

sin 3x sin 3x 3 3
(ii) lim = lim · =
x→0 2x x→0 3x 2 2
cos h − 1 −2 sin2 h
2 h sin h
(iii) lim = lim = − lim sin · lim h 2 = 0 · 1 = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 2 h→0 2

47
4.6. SUMMARY OF SOME BASIC LIMITS MATH1012 Calculus IA

(Identity: cos h = 1 − 2 sin2 h2 )

x
Example 27. Given the inequality ex ≥ x + 1 for all x, show that lim = 0.
x→∞ ex

2 x2
Noting that ex = ex/2 ≥ ( x2 + 1)2 = 4 + x + 1, we have for x > 0 the inequalities
x x
0< ≤ x2
ex 4 +x+1

x x 1
0 ≤ lim ≤ lim = lim x 1 =0
x→∞ ex x→∞ x2
+ x + 1 x→∞
4 4 +1+ x
x
lim =0.
x→∞ ex

xn
More generally, lim = 0 for any positive integer n.
x→∞ ex

Exercise Show that lim+ x ln x = 0 by letting x = e−t .

x→0

x2 (ln t)2
Exercise Show that lim = 0, and hence lim = 0 by letting x = ln t.
x→∞ ex t→∞ t

4.6 Summary Of Some Basic Limits

4
y y
y = ex y
3
1 3
y = x 4
y = x+1 y = tan x
2
y = x−1 2
1
y = ln x 1
2
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

x −π π
−1
−π π
2 2
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 −1
−2

−2
−3
−2
−3
−4

1 1
lim =0 lim =0
x→∞ x x→−∞ x
1 1
lim =∞ lim = −∞
x→0 x
+ x→0− x
lim ex = ∞ lim ex = 0
x→∞ x→−∞

lim ln x = ∞ lim ln x = −∞
x→∞ x→0+

lim tan x = ∞ lim tan x = −∞

x→ π
2
− x→− π
2
+

π π
lim tan−1 x = lim tan−1 x = −
x→∞ 2 x→−∞ 2

48