EI6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS DEPARTMENT OF EIE

UNIT 1
OPTICAL FIBER AND THEIR PROPERTIES
1.1 Introduction
An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber
optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber optic communications,
which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates)
because light has high frequency than any other form of radio signal than other forms of
communications. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This
causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference,
which is caused by thunderstorm. Fibers are also used for illumination and are wrapped in
bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially
designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.

1.2 Construction of optical fiber cable

An optical fiber is a very thin strand of silica glass in geometry quite like a human hair.
In reality it is a very narrow, very long glass cylinder with special characteristics. When light
enters one end of the fiber it travels until it leaves the fiber at the other end. An optical fiber
consists of two parts: the core and the cladding. The core is a narrow cylindrical strand of glass
and the cladding is a tubular jacket surrounding it. The core has a (slightly) higher refractive
index than the cladding. Light travelling along the core is confined by the mirror to stay within it
even when the fiber bends around a corner.
A fiber optic cable has an additional coating around the cladding called the jacket. The
jacket usually consists of one or more layers of polymer. Its role is to protect the core and
cladding from shocks that might affect their optical or physical properties. It acts as a shock
absorber. The jacket also provides protection from abrasions, solvents and other contaminants.
The jacket does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation of light within
the fiber optic cable.

1.2.1Guiding mechanism in optical fiber

Light ray is injected into the fiber optic cable on the right. If the light ray is injected and
strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than an entity called the criticalangle
then it is reflected back into the core. Since the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of
reflection the reflected light will again be reflected. The light ray will then continue this
bouncing path down the length of the fiber optic cable. If the light ray strikes the core-to-
cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle then it passes into the cladding where it
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is attenuated very rapidly with propagation distance. Light can be guided down the fiber optic
cable if it enters at less than the critical angle. This angle is fixed by the indices of refraction of
the core and cladding and is given by the formula
( )
The critical angle is measured from the cylindrical axis of the core. By way of example, if n1
= 1.446 and n2 = 1.430 then a quick computation will show that the critical angle is 8.53
degrees, a fairly small angle.

Of course, it be noted that a light ray enters the core from the air outside, to the left of Figure.
The refractive index of the air must be taken into account in order to assure that a light ray in
the core will be at an angle less than the critical angle. This can be done fairly simply.
Suppose a light ray enters the core from the air at an angle less than an entity called the
external acceptance angle It will be guided down the core.
1.2.2Basic component of optical fiber communication
1 Transmitters - Fiber optic transmitters are devices that include an LED or laser source, and
signal conditioning electronics, to inject a signal into fiber. The modulated light may be
turned on or off, or may be linearly varied in intensity between two predetermined levels.
2 Fiber – It is the medium to guide the light from the transmitter to receiver.
3 Receivers – Fiber optic receivers are instruments that convert light into electrical signals.
They contain a photodiode semiconductor, signal conditioning circuitry, and an amplifier
at the receiver end.

Figure:-The basic components of an optical fiber communication

Process of Optical Fiber Communication :

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A serial bit stream in electrical form is presented to a modulator, which encodes the data
appropriately for fiber transmission.

A light source (laser or Light Emitting Diode - LED) is driven by the modulator and
the light focused into the fiber.
The light travels down the fiber (during which time it may experience dispersion
and loss of strength).
At the receiver end the light is fed to a detector and converted to electrical form.
The signal is then amplified and fed to another detector, which isolates the
individual state changes and their timing. It then decodes the sequence of state
changes and reconstructs the original bit stream.
The timed bit stream so received may then be fed to a using device
BASICS:
 Optical fiber is basically a solid glass rod. The diameter of rod is so small that it
looks like a fiber.
 Optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide. The light travels like an electromagnetic wave
inside the waveguide. The dielectric waveguide is different from a metallic waveguide
which is used at microwave and millimeter wave frequencies.

 In a metallic waveguide, there is a complete shielding of electromagnetic radiation but in

an optical fiber the electromagnetic radiation is not just confined inside the fiber but also
extends outside the fiber.

 The light gets guided inside the structure, through the basic phenomenon of total
internal reflection.

 The optical fiber consists of two concentric cylinders; the inside solid cylinder is called
the core and the surrounding shell is called the cladding. (See Fig )

Figure :Schematic of an optical fiber

 For the light to propagate inside the fiber through total internal reflections at interface,
the refractive index of the core must be greater than the core – cladding refractive
index. that is n1>n2

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1.3 SIMPLE RAY MODEL

Figure (optical fiber with core, cladding and total internally reflected ray) For propagation of light inside the
core there are two possibilities.

A light ray is launched in a plane containing the axis of the fiber. We can then see the light ray after total
internal reflection travels in the same plane i.e., the ray is confined to the plane in which it was launched and
never leave the plane. In this situation the rays will always cross the axis of the fiber. These are called the
Meridional rays.
The other possibility is that the ray is not launched in a plane containing the axis of the fiber.
For example if the ray is launched at some angle such that it does not intersect the axis of the fiber, then after
total internal reflection it will go to some other plane. We can see that in this situation the ray will never
intersect the axis of the fiber. The ray essentially will spiral around the axis of fiber. These rays are called the
Skew rays.
So it can be concluded that if the light is to propagate inside an optical fiber it could be through two types of
rays
Meridional rays: The rays which always pass through the axis of fiber giving high optical intensity at
the center of the core of the fiber.

Skew Rays: The rays which never intersect the axis of the fiber, giving low optical intensity at the center and
high intensity towards the rim of the fiber.

1.3.1 Propagation of Meridional Rays

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1. Let us consider figure 3. A ray is launched from outside (air) at an angle 0 , from the
axis of the fiber.
The question is, under what conditions the ray is ultimately guided inside the core due to
total internal reflections at the core cladding boundary?
2.Let the ray makes an angle 1 with the axis of the fiber inside the core, and let the ray
make an angle 1 with core -cladding interface. Let 2 be the angle of refraction in the
cladding.
3.If 1< critical angle the ray is refracted in cladding. The ray which goes to
cladding is lost and is not useful for communication. The ray which is confined to the
core is useful for optical communication.
4.Now as we increase the launching angle 0 , the angle 1 also increases.
Since , 11π,

(i) 1 decreases and at some point becomes less than the critical angle. When 1
equals the critical angle, 2 equals  / 2 . The maximum launching angle then
corresponds to
2   / 2 .

(ii) Let us apply Snell’s law at the launching point and at the core-cladding interface
for the maximum launching angle 0max . For this case let 1  1 and 1  1
' '

we then have
n1sin1’=n2(since 2’=π/2)

now,

sin  0 max  n1 cos 1 = n1 1  sin 2 1'

'

n22
= n1 1  2  n12  n22
n1

So the sine of the maximum angle at which the ray will be guided inside the fiber is
given by square root of the difference of squares of the refractive indices of the core and
cladding. The quantity sin 0 max is called the NUMERICAL APERTURE of an optical fiber.
The NA is a measure of the power launching efficiently of an optical fiber.

(i)Numerical Aperture: This parameter tells us that if we take an optical fiber and put it in
front of an optical source then how much light is collected by the fiber from the source. Smaller
the
value of N.A, smaller the value of 0 max (maximum launching angle) and smaller is the power
accepted by the fiber. In other words, if the light is available from various directions from the
source, only a portion of light is accepted by an optical fiber and the remaining part of the light is
rejected by it.
(ii).If we want good light launching efficiency then 0 max should be as large as possible.since
sin0max is related to the difference of the squares of the refractive indices of the core and the
cladding, the difference of squares of the refractive indices should be as large as possible.So, for
good launching efficiency, n12 should be large compared to n 22 . Since the material for the optical
fiber has been chosen as glass, the refractive index of the core is practically fixed toabout1.5.The
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only choice therefore we have is to reduce the refractive index of the cladding for good
launching efficiency. Since n1=1 (i.e., no cladding) is the minimum possible value, it suggests
that the cladding is an undesirable feature. In the first look it then appears that the cladding is
only for mechanical support.

1.4 Different types of fibers and their properties

GLASS AND PLASTIC FIBERS

Based on materials in which the fibers are made it is classified into two types as follows:

Glass fibers
If the fibers are made up of mixture of metal oxides and silica glasses are called glass
fibers.Examples:-
(i)Core: SiO2;cladding: P2O3– SiO2
(ii) Core: GeO2– SiO2;cladding: SiO2
Plastic fibers
If the fibers are made up plastics which can be handled without any care due to its toughness
and durability it is called plastic fiber.
Examples:-
The plastic fibers are made by any one of the following combinations of core and cladding.
(i) Core:Polymethylmethacrylate; cladding: co-polymer
(ii) Core: Polystyrene; cladding: Methyl methacrylate

1.4.1 Single and multimode fibers

Mode is described by the nature of propagation of electromagnetic waves in a wave guide.
Based on the modes of propagation the fibers are classified into two types viz.
(i) Single mode fibers(ii) Multi mode fibers

(i) Single mode fibers

1. It has very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of propagation and
hence called single mode fibers.
2. The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter.
3. Thus in the case of a single mode fiber, the optical loss is very much reduced.

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Core diameter: 5 – 10 μm
Cladding diameter : Around 125 μm
Protective layer: 250 to 1000 μm
Numerical aperture: 0.08 to 0.10
Band width: More than 50 MHz km

(ii) Multi-mode fibers:

1. Here the optical dispersion may occur.
2. They are made by multi-component glass materials.
3. The core diameter is larger than the diameter of the single mode fibers, so that it can
allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as multimode fibers.

Structure:
Core diameter:50 – 350 μm
Cladding diameter: 125 – 500 μm
Protective layer: 250 to 1100 μm
Numerical aperture: 0.12 to 0.5
Band width:Less than 50 MHz km

1.4.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN SINGLE MODE FIBRE AND MULTIMODE FIBRE:

S.No SINGLE MODE FIBRE MULTIMODEFIBRE

1. It has one mode or path for the light It has large number of modes or paths
ray to travel. for the light rays to travel.
2. There is no dispersion or signal Signal distortion is present due to
distortion of signals during material dispersion and multimode
propagation. dispersion
3. It has smaller core diameter The core diameter and the relative
10µm and difference between refractive index difference is large.
refractive indices of core and
cladding is very small.
4. It is very costly because of difficult Fabrication is less difficult and so it not
fabrication cheap
5. Launching of light rays and joining Launching of light rays and joining of
of two fibres are very difficult two fibres is easy.
6. Application: Application:
Long distance communication Used in local area network.
(since the information transmission
capacity in optical fibre is inversely
proportional to dispersion)

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1.4.3 Step index and graded index fibers:-

Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and the cladding, the fibers are
classified into two types, viz.
(i) Step index fiber (ii) Graded index fiber
STEP INDEX FIBER

Here the refractive indices of air, cladding and core vary step by step and hence it is called as
step index fiber.Thereare two types of step index fibers. They are,
1. Step index single mode fiber –there is dispersion will occur.
2. Step index multi modefiber -- there is intermodal dispersion will occur.

GRADED INDEX FIBER

Here the refractive index of the core varies radically from the axis of the fiber. The
refractive index of the core is large along the fiber axis and it’s gradually decreases thus
it is called as graded index fiber. Here the refractive index becomes small at the core –
cladding interface. In general the graded index fibers will be of multimode system. The
multimode graded index fiber has very less intermodal dispersion compared to
multimode step index fiber.

Figure 6 Graded Index Profile

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1.4.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN STEP INDEX FIBRE AND GRADED INDEX FIBRE:

S. No STEP INDEX FIBRE GRADED INDEX FIBRE

1. The refractive index of the core is uniform Refractive index of core is made to vary
throughout the core and it undergoes an abrupt in the parabolic manner such that
are sep change at the cladding boundary. maximum refractive index is present at
the centre of the core
2. Diameter of the core: Diameter of the core:
Multimode fibre - 50 to 200 µm Multimode fibre – 50 µm
Single Mode fibre - 10 µm
3. The light rays travel in the form of Meridional The light rays travel in the form of skew
rays. or helical rays
4. Bandwidth: Bandwidth: 200 to 600 MHz Km
Multimode fibre – 50 MHz Km
Single Mode fibre – greater than 1000 MHz Km
5. Attenuation is more for Multimode step index Attenuation is less.
fibre and less for Single Mode step index fibre.
6. Numerical Aperture: Numerical Aperture is less.
Multimode fibre – More
Single Mode fibre – Very less
7. Signal distortion is more in multimode step Signal distortion is very low because of
index fibre since the rays reflected at high self focusing effect. Here, the light rays
angles or higher order modes travel a greater travel at different speeds in different paths
distance than the rays reflected at low angles or of the fibre because the refractive index
the lower order modes to reach the exit end of varies throughout the fibre. As a result,
that fibre. So high angle rays arrive later than light rays near the outer edge travel faster
the low angle rays. Hence, the signal pulses are than the light rays near the centre of the
broadened out (dispersion) and distortion takes core. In effect, light rays are continuously
place. But, this distortion does not take place in refocused as they travelled down the fibre
single mode step index fibre. and almost all the rays reach the exit end of
the fibre at the same time due to the helical
path of the light propagation.

1.5 Fiber characteristics

1.5.1 Mechanical characteristics

1. Strength
2. Static fatigue
3. Dynamic fatigue

1. Strength

The cohesive bond strength of the constituent atoms of a glass fiber governs its
theoretical intrinsic strength. Maximum tensile strength of 14 GPa is observed in short length
glass fibers. This is closed to the 20 GPa tensile strength of steel wire. The difference
between glass and metal is that, under an applied stress. The difference between glass and
metal is that, under an applied stess, glass will extend elastically up to its breaking strength
whereas metal can be stretched plastically well beyond their elastic range
Eg: Copper wires can be elongated plastically
2. Static fatigue
It refers to the slow growth of the existing flaws in the glass fiber under humid
conditions and tensile stress. This gradual flaw growth causes the fiber to fail at a lower
stress level than that which could be reached under a strength test. The flaw shown
propagates through the fiber because of chemical erosion of the fiber material at the flaw tip.
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The primary cause of this erosion is the presence of water in the environment which reduces
the strength of SiO2 bbonds in glass. The speed of the growth reaction is increased when the
fiber is put under test. Fused silica offers the most resistance of glasses in water. In general,
coating are applied to the fiber immediately during the manufacturing process which affords
a good degree of protection against environmental corriosion.
3. Dynamic fatigue:
When an optical cable is being installed on a duct, it experiences repeated stress
owing to surging effects. The surging is caused by varying degrees of friction between the
optical cable and the duct or guiding tool on a curved route. Varying stress also arises in
aerial cables that are set into transverse vibration by the wind. Theoritical and
experimental investigation have shown that the time to fail under these conditions is
related to the maximum allowable stress by the same life time parameter that are in the
cases of statics stress that increases at a constant rate.

1.5.2 Transmission characteristics

1. Attenuation

Figure:-6. Fiber Infrared Absorption Spectrum

The lower curve shows the characteristics of a single-mode fiber made from a glass
containing about 4% of germanium dioxide (GeO2) dopant in the core. The upper curve is for
modern graded index multimode fiber. Attenuation in multimode fiber is higher than in
singlemode because higher levels of dopant are used. The peak at around 1400 nm is due to
the effects of traces of water in the glass.
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in
intensity of the light beam with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium.
Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/kmthrough the medium due to
the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. Attenuation
in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses.
Attenuationis the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal
attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po).
Optical input power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source. Optical output
power is the power received at the fiber end or optical detector.

Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and fiber structure.

However, loss is also present at fiber connections i.e. connector, splice, and coupler losses.

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2.Absorption losses
Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material
The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties
The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules
or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into
the glass fiber.

Intrinsic Absorption.- Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber material properties. If an

optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption
would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption

Extrinsic Absorption.- Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber
material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, OH ions are introduced
into the fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of
these metal ions from one energy level to another

1.6 Scattering losses

Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density
fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured. During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density
areas, relative to the average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the
fiber interacts with the density areas as shown in Light is then partially scattered in all
direction.

Figure: - 7(Scattering process)

1.6.1 Linear scattering losses

1. Rayleigh scattering

It occurs because the molecules of silicon dioxide have some freedom when adjacent
to one another. Thus, setup at irregular positions and distances with respect to one another
when the glass is rapidly cooled during the final stage of the fabrication process. Those
structural variations are seen by light as variations in the refractive index, thus causing the
light to reflect – that is, to scatter – in different directions

Rayleigh scattering is a scattering of light by particles much smaller than the wavelength of
the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules.

Rayleigh scattering is a process in which light is scattered by a small spherical volume of

variant refractive index, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation.

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As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the core. Rayleigh
scattering is the result of these elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica
molecules in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96 percent of attenuation in
optical fiber

Causes of Rayleigh Scattering:

It results from non-ideal physical properties of the manufactured fiber.

It results from inhomogeneities in the core and cladding.

Because of these inhomogeneities problems occur like –

a) Fluctuation in refractive index

b) density and compositional variations.

Minimizing of Rayleigh Scattering:

Rayleigh scattering is caused due to compositional variations which

can be reduced by improved fabrication.

Equation of Rayleigh Scattering:

Light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a dimensionless size
parameter, α which is defined as
Α = πDp/ λ
where πDp is the circumference(The boundary line of a circle) of a particle and λ is the
wavelength of incident radiation. Based on the value of α, these domains are:
α<<1: Rayleigh scattering (small particle compared to wavelength of light)
α≈1: Mie scattering (particle about the same size as wavelength of light)

2. Mie scattering

Non perfect cylindrical structure of the fiber and imperfections like irregularities in
the core-cladding interface, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles may create linear
scattering which is termed as Mie scattering

Mie scattering is a scattering of light by particles approximately equal to the

wavelength of the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules.
Causes of Mie Scattering:

Occurred due to inhomogeneities in the composition of silica. (i.e.

inhomogeneities in the density of SiO2 )
Irregularities in the core-cladding interface,
Difference in core cladding refractive index,
Diameter fluctuations
Due to presence of strains and bubbles.

The scattering caused by such inhomogeneities is mainly in the forward direction depending
upon the fiber material, design and manufacture.

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Minimizing of Mie scattering

Mie scattering is mainly caused by inhomogeneities which can be minimized by

Removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing process

Carefully controlled extrusion(To push or thrust out) and coating of the fiber

Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering (elastic scattering is also
called Linear scattering) processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and frequency)
of the light is not substantially changed.

1.6.2 Nonlinear scattering losses

Specially at high optical power levels scattering causes disproportionate attenuation, due
to non linearbehavior. Because of this non linear scattering the optical power from one mode
is transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at
different frequencies. The two dominant types of non linear scattering are :
a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering and
b) Stimulated Raman Scattering.

a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering:

This is defined as the modulation of light through thermal molecular vibration within the
fiber. The scattered light contains upper and lower side bands along with incident light
frequency. An incident photon produces a scattered photon as well as a photon of acoustic
frequency. The frequency shift is maximum in the backward direction and it is reduced to
zero in the forward direction. The threshold optical power for Brillion scattering is
proportional to
d2λ2αB
where, d:fiber core diameter
:operating wavelength
αB:Brillouin scattering loss coefficient

b) Stimulated Raman Scattering:

Here, the scattered light consists of a scattered photon and a high frequency optical photon.
Further, this occurs both in the forward and backward direction in the optical fiber. The
threshold optical power for Raman scattering is about three orders of magnitude higher than
the Brillouin threshold for the given fiber, The threshold optical power for Raman scattering
is proportional to
d2λ2αR
where d:core diameter
:operating wavelength
αR: Raman scattering loss coefficient

1.7 Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when a pulse of light is spread out during transmission on the fiber. A
short pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind, making recovery
of a reliable bit stream impossible. (In most communications systems bits of information
are sent as pulses of light. 1 = light, 0 = dark. But even in analogue transmission systems
where information is sent as a continuous series of changes in the signal, dispersion
causes distortion.)

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1.7.1 Types of dispersion

There are many kinds of dispersion, each of which works in a different way, but the
most important three are discussed below:

1.Material dispersion (chromatic dispersion):-

Both lasers and LEDs produce a range of optical wavelengths (a band Of light) rather than a
single narrow wavelength. The fiber has different refractive index characteristics at different
wavelengths and therefore each wavelength will travel at a different speed in the fiber. Thus,
some wavelengths arrive before others and a signal pulse disperses (or smears out).

2. Intermodal dispersion (Mode Dispersion):-

When using multimode fiber, the light is able to take many different paths or “modes” as it
travels within the fiber. The distance traveled by light in each mode is different from the
distance travelled in other modes. When a pulse is sent, parts of that pulse (rays or quanta)
take many different modes (usually all available modes). Therefore, some components of the
pulse will arrive before others. The difference between the arrival times of light taking the
fastest mode versus the slowest obviously gets greater as the distance gets greater.

3. Waveguide dispersion:-
Waveguide dispersion is a very complex effect and is caused by the shape and index profile
of the fiber core. However, this can be controlled by careful design and, in fact; waveguide
dispersion can be used to counteract material dispersion. Dispersion in different fibers:
Mode dispersion > .material dispersion > waveguide dispersion

1.8.1 Types of splicing

. There are two types of splices. They are (i). Mechanical splices (ii). Fusion splices.

Mechanical splices
a. Elastomeric splice
It is made by an elastomer material. It consists of a hole, so that we have to insert the two
fibers from two ends for rigid hold. The elastomer is covered by a glass sleeve with ends in
sucha way that it aligns the fibers into the elastomeric splice. The gel has the same refractive
index is used as an adhesive. Thus the fibers are connected.

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b. Four Rod Splices:

The four glass rods are attached with one end of the fiber to hold another fiber
firmly.Initially the rods curve slightly outward, so that the fiber can be easily inserted into it.
By a suitable mechanical pressure the rods are made to be tightly clamping the two
fibers.Here also gel is used for adhesion.
c. Fusion Splices: Here two ends of the fiber is fused together with the help of a special
equipment, using a high voltage electric arc. Hence, these splices are called fusion splices.
Here the losses are minimized due to self-alignment system.

1.9 Connectors and fiber termination

(i) Butt-joint connectors
It is made up of a special type of material called ferrule, composing of metal/glass/plastic
materials. The fiber is send into the drilled hole of the ferrules and is aligned properly with
the help of the alignment sleeve. The distance between the fibers is minimized by adjusting
the alignment sleeve and the guide ring, and is used to match the ends of the fibers. Once the
matching was done, the light from one fiber can be easily coupled to the other fiber with
minimum losses.

(ii) Expanded beam connectors:

It consists of a collimating lens at the end of transmitting fiber and focusing lens at
entrance of the receiving fiber. Light coming out from the transmitting fiber is made to
fall over the collimating lens. The collimating lens makes the beam parallel and is
focused into the focusing lens. After passing through the focusing lens, the light is
coupled into the receiving fiber without any loss. Thus the loss is minimized.

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1.10 Optical sources

1.10.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Principle:

It’s a device used to convert the electrical energy into light energy.
When it is forward biased, the majority charge carriers of electrons from n-type and
holes from p-type are diffuse into each other.
At the junction the electron hole recombination process takes place and energy is
emitting in the form of visible light and IR region.
Construction:
The light emitting diode is made by Gallium Arsenide semiconductors.
First the PN Junction is formed by epitaxial growth technique.
Si+Ga=n-type; Si+As=p-type.
The thickness of the n-layer is always larger than the p-layer, because of increasing
the radiative recombination.
Proper electric connection (forward bias) given to the semiconductor through
aluminiumcontact. P-jn is slightly open for outcoming light rays.

Working:
When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, the barrier width is reduced, raising
the potential energy on the n-side and lowering that on the p-side.
The free electrons and holes have sufficient energy to move into the junction region.
If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines and releases a photon.
Thus, light radiation from the LED is caused by the recombination of holes and
electrons that are injected into the junction by a forward bias voltage.
Advantages of LED
1. Very small in size
2. Less cost and long life time.
3. It needs less voltage for operate

Disadvantages of LED
1. It requires high power.
2. Its preparation cost is high.

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SJCE DEPT OF EIE
EI6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS

1.11 Photo detectors

1.11.1 PIN Diode
Principle:

This is a device used to convert the light energy into electrical energy.
Under the reverse bias condition, if the light ray is incident over the intrinsic region,
then it will produce the electron hole pair.
The accelerated electron-hole pair charges carrier
produce the photo-current.
Construction:
It consists of three layerssuch as p, n and intrinsic
region with proper biasing.
The P and N region are heavily doped.
The intrinsic layer is slightly larger than both the p-
type and n-type for receive the light photons.
Working:
The PIN diode is heavily reverse biased.
When a photon of higher energy is incident over the
larger width intrinsic semiconductor layer, then the
electron hole pairs are created.
The mobile charges are accelerated by the applied
voltage, which gives rise to photo current in the
external circuit.
It is a linear device because the photo-current is directly proportional to the incident
optical power on the PIN photo-diode.

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SJCE DEPT OF EIE