International Baccalaureate

MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes

Christos Nikolaidis

TOPIC 2
FUNCTIONS

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS) …………………………………………………………… 1

2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS) ………………………………………. 7

2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH ……………………………………………… 16

2.4 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog …………………………………………………….. 30

2.5 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ………………………………………………………………. 35

2.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS …………………………………………………. 44

2.7 ASYMPTOTES ………………………………………………………………………………………… 52

2.8 EXPONENTS - THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax ……………………………… 57

2.9 LOGARITHMS - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax ……………………. 64

2.10 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS …………………………………………………………………... 75

Only for HL

2.11 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ……………………………………………………………………. 85

2.12 SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS …………………………………………………………… 94

2.13 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS – PARTIAL FRACTIONS ………………………………… 98

2.14 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL INEQUALITIES …………………………………… 104

2.15 MODULUS EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES …………………………………….. 108

2.16 SYMMETRIES OF f(x) - MORE TRANSFORMATIONS ………………………… 112

November 2024
TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS)

 BASIC NOTIONS ON COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Given two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)

y2 B

y1
A

O x1 x2

 The gradient or slope of line segment AB is given by

Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

This indicates the inclination of the line segment AB. As we are

moving along the positive direction of the x-axis, if the line
segment is
increasing ( ⁄ ) then m>0
decreasing ( \ ) then m<0
horizontal (— ) then m=0
vertical (| ) then m is not defined

 The distance between A and B is given by

dAB= ( Δx ) 2  ( Δy ) 2 = (x 2 - x 1 ) 2  (y 2  y1 ) 2

 The coordinates of the midpoint M(x,y) of the line segment AB

are given by
x1  x 2 y1  y 2
x y
2 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

a) Given two points A(1,4) and B(7,12)

Δy 12 - 4 4
The slope of the line segment AB is m=  
Δx 7 1 3

The distance between them is d  (7 - 1) 2  (12  4) 2  10

1  7 4  12
The midpoint is M( , ) that is M(4,8)
2 2
b) Given two points A(1,8) and B(5,8)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same y-coordinate:

The slope of the line segment AB is m=0 (horizontal)

The distance between them is d=5-1=4

The midpoint is M(3,8)

c) Given two points A(1,5) and B(1,7)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same x-coordinate:

The slope m of the line segment AB is not defined (vertical)

The distance between them is d=7-5=2

The midpoint is M(1,6)

The notion of the function will be formally introduced later on, in

paragraph 2.3. However, we will start by presenting two families of
already known functions

Linear functions: y=mx+c or f(x) = mx+c

Quadratic functions: y=ax2+bx+c or f(x) = ax2+bx+c

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 THE EQUATION OF A LINE

Equation of a (straight) line: y=mx+c

m = gradient or slope c = y-intercept

y=mx+c
c

NOTICE:
 A horizontal line has equation y=c (slope m=0)
 A vertical line has equation x=c (there is no slope)
(in fact, a vertical line is not a function, that is why the
equation x=0 is not a particular case of y=mx+c)

 m=tanθ, where θ is the angle between the line and x-axis

EXAMPLE 2
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x and L2: y=-2x

In fact, the slope shows the rise of the line per each unit
Line L1: slope is 2 (y increases 2 units per each x-unit)
Line L2: slope is -2 (y decreases 2 units per each x-unit)
In both cases c=0 (since the function passes through the origin)

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EXAMPLE 3
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x+3 and L2: y=-2x+3

Line L1: slope is 2 Line L2: slope is -2

In both cases the y-intercept is 3

EXAMPLE 4
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=5 and L2: x=5

 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Consider two lines: L1: y=m1x+c1 and L2: y=m2x+c2

Parallel lines: L1 // L2 if m1= m2

Perpendicular lines: L1  L2 if m2=-1/m1

For example,
The lines y=3x+5 and y=3x+8 are parallel
1
The lines y=3x+5 and y=  x+8 are perpendicular
3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 AN ALTERNATIVE FORMULA FOR A LINE

A more general formula for a line is

Equation of a line: Ax+By=C

If B≠0, we can solve for y and obtain the form y=mx+c

If B=0, we obtain a vertical line of the form x=c
If A=0, we obtain a horizontal line of the form y=c

EXAMPLE 5
 From Ax+By=C into the usual form
The line 2x+3y=5 may be expressed as 3y=-2x+5 and finally
2 5
y x
3 3
 From the usual form into Ax+By=C
a) The line y=-3x+7 may be expressed as
3x+y=7
1 2
b) The line y  x may be expressed as
2 3
1 2
- xy
2 3
We usually require the coefficients A,B,C to be integers.
Multiplying by 6 we obtain
-3x+6y=4
c) The line y=5 may be expressed as 0x+y=5
d) The line x=5 may be expressed as x+0y=5

 GIVEN: A POINT AND A SLOPE

The line which
 passes through point P(x0,y0)
 has slope m
is given by

y-y0 = m(x-x0)

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EXAMPLE 6
The line which passes through point P(1,2), with slope m=3 is
y-2 = 3(x-1)

 Express in the form y=mx+c

y-2 = 3(x-1)  y=3x-3+2  y=3x-1
 Express in the form ax+by=c or ax+by+c=0
y=3x-1  3x-y=1 or 3x-y-1=0

 GIVEN: TWO POINTS

The line which passes through the points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2)
has slope
Δy y2  y1
m= 
Δx x 2  x1

and its equation is again given by the formula

y-y1 = m(x-x1)

EXAMPLE 7
Find the line which passes through the points P(1,2) and Q(4,7).
Express your answer in the form ax+by=c where a,b,cZ (integers).
Solution
Δy 72 5
The slope is m=  
Δx 4 1 3
The equation of the line is
5
y-2 = (x-1)
3
 3y-6 = 5(x-1)
 3y-6 = 5x-5
and finally
-5x+3y = 1

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2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS)

 THE SIMPLEST QUADRATIC: y=x2

Consider the function y=x2. Let us find some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=x2 … 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 …

Notice that x can take any value in R. We say that

the domain of the function is xR

The result, i.e. the value of y, is always positive or 0. We say that

the range of the function is [0,+) (or simply y≥0).

The curve of this function is known as parabola.

We can easily see that the graph of the function y=-x2 is

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 THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION

A quadratic function has the form

y=ax2+bx+c

The graph of a quadratic is always a parabola. The basic

characteristics of its graph as shown below:

y-intercept

roots

vertex

1) a≠0. The sign of a shows the concavity of the function:

If a>0 the graph looks like If a<0 the graph looks like

(concave up) (concave down)

2) Discriminant: Δ=b2-4ac. It determines the number of roots

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

-b Δ
3) x-intercepts (or roots): x1,2= , (only if Δ≥0)
2a
4) y-intercept: for x=0 we obtain y=c

-b
5) axis of symmetry: x= (it’s also the x-coordinate of the vertex)
2a
x1  x 2
If we know the two roots x1,x2 the vertex is at x=
2

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6) According to Δ, the graph looks like

Δ>0: 2 roots Δ=0: 1 root Δ<0: No real roots

EXAMPLE 1
Consider y=2x2-12x+10

 a=2 (+tive), so the graph looks like U (concave up)

-b Δ
 Δ= b2-4ac = 64>0, thus two roots: x1,2= = 1 and 5
2a
 y-intercept: y=10
-b 15
 Axis of symmetry: x= i.e. x=3. (Or otherwise x= 3)
2a 2
For x=3, we obtain y=-8. Hence, the vertex is V(3,-8)

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NOTICE FOR THE GDC (Casio)

We can find the roots 1 and 5 in

Equation – Polynomial (degree 2)

We can find more characteristics in Graph mode: G-Solv (F5)

Options in our example

F1 (ROOT): for the roots 1 and 5

F2 (MAX) or F3 (MIN): for the vertex (3,-8)

F4 (YCEPT): for y-intercept 10

 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

They have the form

ax2+bx+c>0 or ax2+bx+c≥0

ax2+bx+c<0 or ax2+bx+c≤0

If we find the roots, the graph of the function gives a clear picture
of the solutions.

For example, for

2x2-12x+10 > 0

the roots are 1 and 5, the function is concave up, so it looks like

1 5

So it’s positive for x<1 or x>5. We can also write x]-,1[  ]5,+[

The inequality
2x2-12x+10 ≤ 0

has solutions x[1,5].

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:

If we are given that

ax2+bx+c >0 for any xR
or ax2+bx+c <0 for any xR

the graph does not intersect the x-axis, that is the quadratic has
no real roots. Thus, Δ<0

EXAMPLE 2
Let f(x)=2x2-4x+k. Find the values of k in each case below:
a) f(x)=0 has exactly one root (or two equal roots)
b) f(x)=0 has exactly two roots
c) f(x)=0 has no real roots
d) f(x)=0 has real roots
e) f(x)>0 for any x R
f) f(x)≥0 for any x R
Solution
All cases depend on the discriminant Δ=16-8k
a) Δ=0.
Hence, 16-8k=0  8k=16  k=2
b) Δ>0.
Hence, 16-8k>0  16>8k  k<2
c) Δ<0.
Hence, 16-8k<0  16<8k  k>2
d) Δ≥0. [in this case we have either one or two roots]
Hence, 16-8k≥0  16≥8k  k≤2
e) Since f(x) is always positive, it has no real roots. Thus, Δ<0.
Hence, 16-8k<0  16<8k  k>2
f) Since f(x) is always positive or zero, it has either exactly one root
or no real roots at all. Thus, Δ≤0.
Hence, 16-8k≤0  8k≥16  k≥2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 FORMS OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

1) Traditional form: y=ax2+bx+c

2) Factorization form: y=a(x-r1)(x-r2) [r1,r2 roots]
3) Vertex-form: y=a(x-h)2+k [(h,k) vertex]

NOTICE

 If we know the form y=ax2+bx+c the vertex is at

-b
x=
2a
 If we know the form y=a(x-r1)(x-r2), that is the roots r1,r2
the vertex is at their mid-point, that is
r  r2
x= 1
2

Since we know the x-coordinate of the vertex, that is h, we can

also find the y-coordinate of the vertex, that is k. Thus we can
derive the vertex form y=a(x-h)2+k.

EXAMPLE 3

We consider again
y=2x2-12x+10 (1)

We find the roots: 1 and 5. Therefore, the factorization is

y=2(x-1)(x-5) (2)

- b 12 r  r2 1  5
The vertex is at x= = =3 (or otherwise at x= 1 = =3)
2a 4 2 2
For x=3, it is y=-8, hence the vertex is (3,-8)

Therefore, the vertex-form of the quadratic is

y=2(x-3)2-8 (3)

We may easily verify that forms (2) and (3) give (1).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Indeed,
y=2(x-1)(x-5) = 2(x2-x-5x+5) = 2(x2-6x+5) = 2x2-12x+10

and
y=2(x-3)2-8 = 2(x2-6x+9)-8 = 2x2-12x+18-8 = 2x2-12x+10

 JUSTIFICATION OF THE VERTEX-FORM y=a(x-h)2+k

1) The point (h,k) is the vertex, i.e. a minimum or a maximum:

 If a>0, then
a(x-h)2 ≥ 0 (equality holds when x=h)
 a(x-h)2+k ≥ k
 y ≥ k
Therefore, at x=h we obtain the minimum value y=k.

 If a<0, then
a(x-h)2 ≤ 0 (equality holds when x=h)
 a(x-h)2+k ≤ k
 y ≤ k
Therefore, at x=h we obtain the maximum value y=k.

2) Any quadratic can be expressed in the vertex form, by the

“completing the square” method.

For example, for the quadratic in EXAMPLE 3 above, we can work

as follows
y = 2x2-12x+10 = 2(x2-6x) +10 [only the first 2 terms]

= 2(x2-6x+9-9)+10 [complete the square]

= 2(x-3)2-18+10
= 2(x-3)2-8

However, it is preferable to obtain the vertex-form as in example 3

above, that is by finding the vertex (h,k) and then expressing the
quadratic as y=a(x-h)2+k.

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EXAMPLE 4
Let
y=-3x2-15x+42 (1)
By using the GDC,
we find the roots: -7 and 2. Thus the factorization is

y=-3(x+7)(x-2) (2)

we find the vertex: V(-2.5, 60.75). Thus the vertex form is

y=-3(x+2.5)2+60.75 (3)

Notice: if you expand (2) or (3) you will obtain (1)

EXAMPLE 5
Consider f(x)=3x2+12x. Find both analytically and by GDC
a) the roots and the factorization.
b) the equation of the axis of symmetry
c) the minimum value of y and the coordinates of the vertex.
d) the vertex form of f(x).
Solution
a) Analytically:
The factorization is y = 3x2+12x = 3x(x+4)
So the roots are x=0, x=-4
By using GDC – Graph mode
The roots are x=0 and x=-4
So the factorization is y=3(x-0)(x+4), that is y=3x(x+4)
- b - 12
b) x= = =-2. That is x=-2.
2a 6
c) Analytically:
For x=-2, it is y=3(-2)2+12(-2)=-12. Thus ymin =-12
Thus the vertex is V(-2,-12)
By using GDC - mode: ymin =-12 and V(-2,-12).
d) f(x) = 3(x+2)2-12

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 VIETA FORMULAS

Consider the quadratic

y=ax2+bx+c

Given that the real roots are r1 and r2, we define

S = the sum of the roots = r1+r2

P = the product of the roots = r1r2

Then, the Vieta formulas hold:

b
S = 
a
c
P =
a
Conversely, if we know the sum and the product of the roots, we
can find a corresponding quadratic.

y = x2-Sx+P

EXAMPLE 6

Consider again the quadratic function

y=2x2-12x+10
The roots are 1 and 5 and indeed
b 12
their sum is S = 
= =6
a 2
c 10
their product is P = = =5
a 2
Conversely, if we know that S = 6, and P = 5, the corresponding
quadratic is
x2-Sx+P
that is
x2-6x+5
or any multiple of this, for example 2x2-12x+10.

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2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH

 DEFINITION
Let us formally introduce the notion of the function:

f: X → Y

A function f from a set X to a set Y assigns

to each element x of X
a unique element y of Y

We write: We say:
f(x)=y f maps x to y
f: x ֏ y y is the image of x

EXAMPLE 1
Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}. The following is a function f: X → Y

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Indeed, each element of X has a unique image in Y.

We say
f maps 1 to a or a is the image of 1
2 to b b is the image of 2
3 to d d is the image of 3
We write
f(1)=a , f(2)=b , f(3)=d
or f: 1 ֏ a f: 2 ֏ b f: 3 ֏ d

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EXAMPLE 2

Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}

 The following is a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we do not mind if two elements of X have the same image)

 Notice though that the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “each x of X”, but here 3 has no image)

 Finally, the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “unique y of Y”, but 2 has two images)

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 DOMAIN AND RANGE

For a function f: X → Y,

The set of all x’s involved is called DOMAIN

The set of all y’s involved (only the images) is called RANGE

Consider again the function f: X → Y given by

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Then DOMAIN : xX={1,2,3}

RANGE : y{a,b,d}

We usually denote the domain by Df and the range by R f .

The range is not necessarily the whole set Y, it may be part of Y.

Here, the sets X and Y are subsets of R, the set of real numbers.

Our functions usually have a specific pattern. For example, consider

the function f which maps
1 ֏2 2 ֏4 3 ֏6 4 ֏8 and so on
in other words f maps each value x to its double 2x.

We say that the function f: R→ R, is given by

f: x ֏ 2x
or f(x)=2x
or y=2x

Thus the formula of the function gives any possible result, e.g.
f(15)=30, f(2.4) = 4.8 etc

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If we restrict the function f from R to the interval X=[0,10], we

still have the function f: X→ R, given by
f(x)=2x, 0≤x≤10
but now
DOMAIN : x[0,10]
RANGE : y[0,20] (why?)

 GRAPH

We know that the pairs (x,y) that satisfy the equation of the
function y=f(x) can be represented as points (x,y) on the Cartesian
plane and form the graph of the function.

The graph clearly shows the DOMAIN and the RANGE of the
function. For example,

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DOMAIN: Projection on the x-axis, i.e. Df : x[1,8]

RANGE: Projection on the y-axis, i.e. R f : y[2,6]

We may observe, for example, that the points

(1,2), (5,3), (7,6), (8,5) lie on the curve.

That implies

f(1)=2 f(5)=3 f(7)=6 f(8)=5

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We have already studied the graphs of two families of functions;

linear and quadratic functions. The graphs are straight lines and
parabolas respectively.

EXAMPLE 3
 f(x)=2x, or otherwise y=2x is represented by the graph

x 0 1 2 3

2 y 0 2 4 6

x
0 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : yR

 f(x)=x2, or otherwise y= x2 is represented by the graph

4
x -2 -1 0 1 2

y 4 1 0 1 4

x
-2 -1 1 2

Here Df : xR R f : y[0,+∞)

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EXAMPLE 4
x 2 , 2 x  0
Consider the function f(x)  
x , 1 x 5
The graph is given below

5
4
3
2
1

x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Clearly, Df : x[-2,0][1,5] and R f : y[0,5]

NOTICE:
The graph also shows if we have a function or not

x
1 2 3 4 5

This is not a function, since f(3) for example is not unique!

Vertical line test:

Any vertical line intersects the graph at most once.

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 AN “AGGREEMENT” FOR THE DOMAIN

Usually, a function is simply given as a formula of the form y=f(x),

where x and y are real variables.

If the domain of the function is not given, we agree that

Df is R
or Df is the largest possible subset of R

For example,

 if f is given by f(x)=2x, we assume that xR

2
 if f is given by f(x)= , we assume that xR-{0} =R*
x
(we may also write Df : x≠0)

We mainly deal with the following cases

1. f(x) is a function with no restrictions on x,

for example a polynomial [say f(x)=2x3+3x2+1], then

Df = R

Α
2. f(x) = , then B cannot be 0, thus
Β

Df = R – {roots of the equation B=0}

3. f(x) = Α , then A  0.

Df = the solution set of the inequality A  0

4. f(x) = logA or f(x)=lnA, then A>0. 1

Df = the solution set of the inequality A>0

5. f(x) = is a combination of all the above.

We find the subset of R where all our restrictions hold.

1
The functions f(x)=logx and f(x)=lnx are not known yet. They will be introduced
later on within this topic.

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EXAMPLE 5

a) f(x) = 3x-9. Clearly, Df : xR

5
b) f(x) = . Restriction: 3x-9  0
3x - 9

Solve: 3x-9=0  3x=9  x = 3

Thus, Df : xR-{3}. We may also write Df : x≠3

c) f(x) = 3x - 9 . Restriction: 3x-9  0

Solve: 3x-9  0  3x  9  x  3

Thus, Df : x[3,+  ). We may also write Df : x  3

d) f(x) = ln(3x - 9) . Restriction: 3x-9>0

Solve: 3x-9>0  3x>9  x > 3

Thus, Df : x(3,+  ). We may also write Df : x>3

x2
e) f(x) = 2
Restriction: x2-3x+2  0
x  3x  2

Solve: x2-3x+2=0  x=1 or x=2

Thus, Df : xR-{1,2}

f) f(x) = x 1  2 x Restrictions: x-1  0 and 2-x  0

Solve: x-1  0  x  1

2-x  0  x  2

Thus, Df : x[1,2] We may also write Df : 1  x  2

1  x2
g) f(x) = Restrictions: 1-x2  0 and x  0
x

Solve: 1-x2  0  x2  1  -1  x  1

Thus, Df : x[-1,0)  (0,1]

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 SPECIFIC POINTS ON A GRAPH

y
y-intercept
max

max
x

min

x-intercepts
Roots

For y=f(x)
 y-intercept: We set x=0 and find y
 x-intercepts (roots): We solve the equation f(x)=0
 local max-min: (as shown above)

When we have two graphs y=f(x) and y=g(x), it also useful to know
the intersection points of the two graphs

y
f(x)

g(x)

Intersection points

These points (x,y) can be found by solving the equation f(x)=g(x) to

obtain x and then using either y=f(x) or y=g(x) to obtain y.

All notions above, namely y-intercept, x-intercepts (or roots), max,

min, intersection points can be easily found in GDC – Graph mode.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 6

Consider the functions f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

For f :
y-intercept: for x=0, we obtain y=5
x-intercepts or roots: We solve (x-3)2-4=0
(x-3)2-4=0  (x-3)2= 4  x-3 = ±2  x = 2+3 or x =-2+3
Hence x=5 or x=1
max-min: for this particular function (quadratic), we know that
there is only a minimum.
We have a min at the vertex, i.e. at point (3,-4)
We say: We have a min at x=3. The min value is y=-4

For intersection points of f and g :

f(x)=g(x)  (x-3)2-4=x-5  x2-6x+9-4=x-5  x2-7x+10=0
 x=2 or x=5
By using either f(x) or g(x) we find y=-3, y=0 respectively.
Hence, the curves intersect at points (2,-3) and (5,0)

Indeed, the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are as follows

Remark: Confirm all the results by using GDC – Graph mode.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 SOVING EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES BY USING GRAPHS

We can solve
 equations of the form f(x)=g(x)
 inequalities of the form f(x)>g(x) or f(x)≥g(x)

by using GDC - graph mode

METHOD A: we find the intersection points of the graphs

y1 = f(x)
y2 = g(x)
Solutions of f(x)=g(x): x-coordinates of intersection points
Solutions of f(x)>g(x): intervals where y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x)

METHOD B: we find the roots of the graph

y1 = f(x)-g(x)

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)=0: the roots of the graph

Solutions of f(x)-g(x)>0: intervals where y1=f(x)-g(x) is positive

EXAMPLE 7
Consider again the functions of Example 6
f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

a) Solve the equation f(x)=g(x).

METHOD A: Look at the graphs of y1=f(x) and y2=g(x)
(see Example 6). The intersection points occur at x=2, x=5
METHOD B: The equation can be written
f(x)-g(x) = (x-3)2- 4 - (x-5) =0
Look at the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC). Roots: x=2, x=5

b) Solve the inequality f(x)>g(x).

METHOD A:the graph of y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x) (see Example 6)
when x<2 or x>5
METHOD B: the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC) is positive
outside the roots, that is when x<2 or x>5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation 2x = 2x+3.
(a) by using the function SolveN of your GDC
(b) by considering the graphs of
y1=2x
y2=2x+3.

(c) by considering the graph

y=2x – (2x+3)
Solution
(a) SolveN gives two roots:
x = -1.29643  -1.30
x = 3.24702  3.25

For the following we need the diagrams

diagram 1 (for (b)) diagram 2 (for (c))

(b) Intersection points in diagram 1: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

(c) Roots of the function in diagram 2: x  -1.30 and x  3.25

Further question: (d) Solve the inequality 2x < 2x+3

Solution
According to either diagram 1, or diagram 2

-1.30 < x < 3.25

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 ONE-TO-ONE vs MANY-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS (mainly for HL)

Consider again the two functions below.

X Y X Y
a a
1 1
b b
f 2 f 2
c c
3 3
d d

this function is one-to-one this function is many-to-one

The formal definition for a one-to-one function says that different

elements of X map to different elements of Y, that is

A function f: X → Y is one-to-one if for any x1,x2 in X

x1≠x2  f(x1)≠f(x2)
or equivalently (the contrapositive statement)
f(x1)=f(x2)  x1=x2

(the contrapositive definition is more practical for exercises).

Graphically, it is easy to confirm that the function is one-to-one:

Horizontal line test:

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once.

EXAMPLE 9
Look at the functions of Example 3.
 the function f(x)=2x is one-to-one, since
f(x1)=f(x2)  2x1=2x2 x1=x2

OR, since any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once.

 the function f(x)=x2 is many-to-one, since different elements

may map to the same image, e.g. f(2)=4 but also f(-2)=4.

OR, since a horizontal line may intersect the graph twice.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 ONTO FUNCTIONS (only for HL – optional but good to know)

Consider the following two functions

X Y X Y
a a
1 1
b b
f 2 f 2
c
3 3
d

As you see, in the second example the range of f is coincides with Y.

In other words, any element of Y is an image of some element of X.

We say that
f maps X onto Y or simply f is onto

Notice though, that this property is “recoverable”. Just ignore the

elements of Y that are not images and the function becomes onto.

EXAMPLE 10
 the function f:R → R, given by f(x)=2x is onto, since the range
of this function is R.
 the function f:R → R, given by f(x)=x2 is not onto, since the
range of this function is [0,+∞), which is a proper subset of R.
However, if the function is given as f:R → [0,+∞), it is onto.

 1-1 AND ONTO FUNCTIONS (only for HL - optional)

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
b
f 2
3 c

This is one-to-one and onto.

The function f:R→R, given by f(x)=2x, as well as any linear

function, is one-to-one and onto.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.4 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog

 DISCUSSION

Consider the function f(x)=x2

Notice that
f(5) = 52
f(a) = a2
f(3a+5) = (3a+5)2
f(3x+5) = (3x+5)2

In the last case the input value for f is another function of x.

In this way, we combine two functions,

f(x)=x2 and g(x)= 3x+5

and create a new function y=(3x+5)2.

This new function is denoted by fog.

 DEFINITION

For two functions f and g, the composite function fog is a new

function defined by

(fog)(x)=f(g(x))

The operation is called composition.

We say that fog is the composite function of f and g.

For the functions f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5 given above, we find

(fog)(x) as follows

(f0g)(x) = f(g(x))

= f(3x+5)

= (3x+5)2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

In the same way we define the composite function (g0f)(x). It is

given by
(g0f)(x) = g(f(x))

= g(x2)

= 3x2+5

That is
(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2 while (g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

NOTICE:
 In general
fog ≠ g0f

 It is not necessary to write the answer so analytically. You can

answer directly. Look again:

f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5

For fog you just plug g into f.

(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2

For gof you just plug f into g.

(g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

 For three functions

f(x)=x2, g(x)=3x+5, h(x)= x

we can define (f0g0h)(x).

We just plug h into g, to obtain

(g0h)(x)= 3 x  5

and the result into f to obtain

(f0g0h)(x)= (3 x  5) 2

We can easily verify that

f0(g0h)=(f0g)0h

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=2x2-1 and g(x)=x+1. Find

(a) (fog)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (fog)(1) (d) (g0f)(1)

Solution

(a) (fog)(x) = 2(x+1)2-1

(b) (g0f)(x) = (2x2-1)+1 = 2x2

(c) From (a), we have

(fog)(1)=7

(d) From (b), we have

(g0f)(1) = 2

Notice for questions (c) and (d)

For (fog)(1) and (g0f)(1), it is not necessary to find (fog)(x) and

(g0f)(x) first. Alternatively, we can directly apply the definition as
follows

(c) (fog)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(2) = 7 [since g(1)=2]

(d) (g0f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(1) = 2 [since f(1)=1]

We may also define the function fof in the obvious way:

(fof)(x) = f(f(x))

That is, we plug f into itself.

For example, if f(x)=2x-1, then

(fof)(x) = f(2x-1) = 2(2x-1)-1 = 4x-3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
x 1
Let f(x)= and g(x)= x
2
Find (a) (fog)(x) (b) (gof)(x)

(c) (fof)(x) (d) (gog)(x)

(e) (fofof)(x) in two ways: as fo(fof) and as (fof)of

Solution

x 1 x 1
(a) (fog)(x) = (b) (gof)(x) =
2 2

x 1 x 3
1
x 3
(c) (fof)(x) = 2 = 2 =
2 2 4

(d) (gog)(x) = x= 4
x

x 3 x 7
1
x 7
(e) (fofof)(x) = [fo(fof)](x) = 4 = 4 =
2 2 8

x 1 x 7
3
x 7
Or = [(fof)of](x) = 2 = 2 =
4 4 8

 THE IDENTITY FUNCTION i(x)

It is the simple function that maps x to itself

i(x)=x or i: x ֏ x

Notice that

(foi)(x) = f(i(x)) = f(x)

(iof)(x) = i(f(x)) = f(x)

That is
foi = f and iof = f

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 PRESUPPOSITION FOR fog AND gof (Mainly for HL)

Let f: A→B and g: B→C.

Then
f g
A B C

x f(x) g(f(x)

gof

That is in gof, f is applied first and then g

Notice also that gof can be defined only if the Range of f is inside
the Domain of g.

Similar observations may be done for fog. Thus,

Function Observation Presupposition

fo g g is applied first and then f Rg  Df

gof f is applied first and then g Rf  Dg

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.5 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

 DISCUSSION

Consider the function f(x)=x+10. It maps

0 ֏ 10
1 ֏ 11
2 ֏ 12 etc.

The “inverse” procedure is also a function:

10 ֏ 0
11 ֏ 1
12 ֏ 2 etc.

It is called the inverse function of f and it is denoted by f-1.

Obviously

f-1(x)=x-10

In fact, f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

 FORMAL DEFINITION

Let f:R→R

The inverse function f-1 is a new function such that

f(x)=y  f-1(y)=x.

 HOW DO WE FIND f-1 ?

Steps Example
f is given f(x) = x+10

1. Set f(x)=y x+10 = y

2. Solve for x x = y-10

3. Keep the solution but replace y by x f-1(x)=x-10

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
1. The inverse function of f-1 is f itself. That is

(f-1)-1 = f

2. The domain of f becomes range of f-1 and vice-versa:

Df -1 = Rf Rf -1 = Df

3. It holds

(f-1of)(x) = x = (fof-1)(x)

For example, for f(x) = x+10 and f-1(x)=x-10 :

(fof-1)(x)=f(f-1(x))=f(x-10)=(x-10)+10=x

(f-1of)(x)= f-1(f(x))=f(x+10)=(x+10)-10=x

In other words, f-1of=i and fof-1=i, where i is the identity function.

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=3x+5. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(11)

Solution
(a) We follow the three steps:
 Set 3x+5=y
y5
 3x+5=y  3x = y-5  x =
3
x 5
 f-1(x)=
3
x 5
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is f-1(11) = 2
3
Alternatively: It is not necessary to find f-1(x).
If f-1(11)=x then f(x)=11. Hence

3x+5 = 11  3x = 6  x=2.

Thus, f-1(11) =2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Remark:

Verify that
x 5
the inverse function of f-1(x)= is f(x)= 3x+5.
3
x 5
 Set = y
3
x 5
 = y  x-5 = 3y  x = 3y+5
3
 The inverse function is y = 3x+5

In other words f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

EXAMPLE 2

Let f(x)=2x2-1 where x≥0. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(49)

Solution

(a) We follow the three steps:

 Set 2x2-1=y
y1 y1
 2x2-1=y  2x2 = y+1  x2 = x=
2 2
x 1
 f-1(x)=
2
x 1
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is
2

f-1(49) = 25 = 5

or again

f-1(49)=x implies f(x)=49

 2x2-1= 49  x2=25  x=5

So f-1(49) = 5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 3
x 1
Let f(x)=
x2
2x + 1
(a) Show that f-1(x)=
x 1

(b) Verify that fof-1 is the identity function [that is (fof-1)(x)=x]

(c) Find the domain and the range of the functions f and f-1

Solution
x 1
(a) = y  y(x-2) = x+1
x2

 yx-2y = x+1

 yx–x = 2y+1

 x(y-1)=2y+1
2y + 1
 x=
y1

2x + 1
Hence, f-1(x)=
x 1

2x + 1 2x + 1  x- 1 3x
1
3x
(b) (fof-1)(x) = x- 1 = x- 1 = x- 1 = = x
2x + 1 2x + 1- 2x + 2 3 3
2
x- 1 x- 1 x- 1

That is (fof-1)(x)=x (identity function)

[ In a similar way we can show that (f-1of)(x)=x ]

(c) The domain of f corresponds to the range of f-1 and vice versa:

Df Rf
x ≠ 1 y ≠ 2
Df -1 Rf -1
x ≠ 2 y ≠ 1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
1
Let f(x)=1-2x and g(x)= . Find
x

(a) (f0g)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (g0f-1)(x)

(d) (f0g-1)(x) (e) (f0g)-1(x) (f) (f-10g-1)(x)

Solution
1 1 2
(a) (f0g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f( ) = 1-2 = 1-
x x x
1
(b) (g0f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(1-2x) =
1- 2x

(c) We firstly need f-1. Since f(x)=1-2x

1- y 1- x
1-2x = y  1-y = 2x  x = . Hence f-1(x)=
2 2
2
Now (g0f-1)(x) =
1- x
1
(d) We firstly need g-1. Since g(x)=
x
1 1 1
= y x = . Hence g-1(x)= [ that is g-1 = g ]
x y x

2
Then, (f0g-1)(x) = 1-
x
2
(e) We are looking for the inverse function of (f0g)(x) = 1-
x
2 2 2 2
1- =y  1-y = x = . Thus , (f0g)-1(x) =
x x 1- y 1- x
1
1-
(f) (f-10g-1)(x) = x = x- 1
2 2x

NOTICE:
Notice that (f0g)-1 ≠ f-10g-1 . In fact it holds

(f0g)-1 = g-10f-1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 GRAPH OF f-1

The graph of f-1 is a reflection of f about the line y=x

y
y=x
f

f-1

EXAMPLE 5

If f(x)=x2 , for x≥0, then f-1(x)= x . Their graphs are

Notice: if f is increasing then f and f-1 may intersect only on the

line y=x. Thus, in order to find the intersection points, instead of
f(x) = f-1(x)
we can solve
f(x) = x
Here, f(x)=x  x2 = x  x2-x = 0  x(x-1)=0  x=0 or x=1

The intersection points are (0,0) and (1,1).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
We say that the function f is self-inverse if f-1=f.
Then it also holds
(f0f)(x)=x
i.e. f0f is the identity function I.
The graph of a self-inverse function is symmetric about y=x.

1 1
The simplest example is f(x)= , since f-1 (x)= .
x x
2x - 6
Another example is f(x)= (please confirm!)
x- 2

 PRESUPPOSITION FOR f-1 (Mainly for HL)

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3

The inverse function f-1 doesn’t exist, since f-1(b) is not uniquely
determined (is it 2 or 3?). Hence, for f-1 to exist, different values of
x should map to different values of y:

X Y X Y
f f-1
x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2 x2 y2

In other words, the function has to be one-to-one

(in fact, it has to be one-to-one and onto!)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE: Remember that

a function must satisfy the vertical line test.
a “1-1” function must also satisfy the horizontal line test

Horizontal line test

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once

EXAMPLE 6
(a) The function f(x)=3x+1 is “1-1” since it is a straight line and
satisfies the horizontal line test.

More mathematically:

f(x 1 )  f(x 2 )  3x1+1=3x2+1  3x1=3x2  x1=x2

Hence f is “1-1” and f-1 exists.

x- 1
We can easily find f-1(x)=
3

(b) The function f(x)=x2 is not “1-1”

Indeed, f does not satisfies the horizontal line test, as two different
values may map to the same image, for example f(-2)=4=f(2).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

However,
 if we consider
f(x)=x2, x≥0
then f is “1-1” (horizontal line test) and f-1 exists.
f-1(x)= x (look at example 5)

 Similarly, if we consider the restriction

f(x)=x2, x≤0
then f is “1-1” (horizontal line test) and f-1 exists. then
f-1(x)= - x

In this case the graphs of f and f inverse are as follows

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

 DISCUSSION

Consider a function f(x).

f(x)

Let’s think of the new function g(x)=f(x)+2

In fact, we add 2 units to any value of y=f(x), thus the whole graph
of f(x) moves 2 units up.

g(x)
+2

f(x)

We say that this is a vertical translation of the graph.

In a similar way we can describe other transformations of f(x), not

only in a vertical direction (applied on y) but also in a horizontal
direction (applied on x).

Let us present the most important transformations in a concise

way!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS

Consider the original function y=f(x).

(In the following tables we assume a>0 and b>1)

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

vertical translation
f(x)+a a g(x)=x2+2
a units up 2

vertical translation
f(x)-a a g(x)=x2-2 2
a units down
vertical stretch
bf(x) x b g(x)=2x2 x2

with scale factor b

vertical stretch with
f(x)/b ÷b g(x)=x2/2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
reflection
-f(x) g(x)=-x2
in the x-axis

Now, as far as the horizontal transformations below are concerned,

we obtain, perhaps, the opposite of what we expect!

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

horizontal translation
f(x+a) a g(x)=(x+2)2 2
a units to the left
horizontal translation
f(x-a) a g(x)=(x-2)2 2
a units to the right
horizontal stretch with ÷b
f(bx) g(x)=(2x)2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
horizontal stretch x2
f(x/b) b
x
g(x)=(x/2)2
with scale factor b
reflection
f(-x) g(x)=(-x)2
in the y-axis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1

Let us observe the basic transformations of the function

f(x) = x2, 0≤x≤2

in connection with the two tables above.

Let us see the vertical transformations first

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=x2+2 f(x)=x2-2
[original function] [2 units up] [2 units down]

y 6

4 y

2 2

x x x
0 2 2 2

-2

f(x)=2x2 f(x)=x2/2 f(x)=-x2

[vertical stretch, s.f. 2] [vertical stretch s.f. ½ [reflection in x-axis]
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y y

0 2

2
-4
x x
0 2 0 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Next, we observe the horizontal transformations

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=(2x)2
[original function] [horizontal stretch, s.f. ½
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y

4 4

x x
0 2 0 1

f(x)=(x+2)2 f(x)=(x/2)2
[2 units to the left] [horizontal stretch, s.f. 2]

y y

4 4

x x
-2 0 0 4

f(x)=(x-2)2 f(x)=(-x)2
[2 units to the right] [reflection in y-axis ]

y y

4 4

x x

2 4 -2 0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2

Let A(6,10) be a point on the curve of y=f(x).

Let us present some basic transformations as well as the

corresponding images of the point A.

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Image of A

vertical translation
f(x)+2 2 A΄(6,12)
2 units up
vertical translation
f(x)-2 2 A΄(6,8)
2 units down
vertical stretch
2f(x) x 2 A΄(6,20)
with scale factor 2
vertical stretch with
f(x)/2 ÷2 A΄(6,5)
scale factor 1/2 (shrink)
reflection
-f(x) A΄(6,-10)
in the x-axis

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

horizontal translation
f(x+2) 2 A΄(4,10)
2 units to the left
horizontal translation
f(x-2) 2 A΄(8,10)
2 units to the right
horizontal stretch with ÷2
f(2x) A΄(3,10)
scale factor 1/2 (shrink)
horizontal stretch
f(x/2) 2
x
A΄(12,10)
with scale factor 2
reflection
f(-x) A΄(-6,10)
in the y-axis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE:
The horizontal translation by a units (to the right or to the left)
a 
is also denoted by the translation vector  
0
A vertical translation by b units (up or down)
0
is also denoted by the translation vector  
b 
a
The combination of those two translations is denoted by  
b 

Of course we may have a combination of several simple

transformations.

For example, 2f(x-3)+5 implies

a vertical stretch with scale factor 2, followed by

a horizontal translation 3 units to the right, followed by

a vertical translation 5 units up

NOTICE:
Remember the vertex form of a quadratic function

y=a(x-h)2+k

This is a combination of transformations of the simple quadratic

function y=x2
Indeed, If a>0

x2 original function
ax2 vertical stretch by scale factor a
a(x-h)2 horizontal translation by h units
a(x-h)2+k vertical translation by k units

(if a<0, we also have a reflection about x-axis)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

h 
The two translations by   imply that the initial vertex (0,0) of
k 
the function x2 moves

h units horizontally, and

k units vertically,
thus its new position is (h,k)

vertex
k

 THE INVERSE FUNCTION TRANSFORMATION

We have already seen that f-1(x) causes a reflection in the line y=x.

f(x)=x2 f-1(x)= x
[initial function] [reflection about the line y=x]

y y

x x
0 2 0 4

The image of the point A(2,4) is A΄(4,2).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 CORRECT ORDER OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Suppose that we are looking for the image of point A(8,8) under a
sequence of transformations. Pay attention to the order!
For two consecutive transformations, we distinguish three cases.

 Case A: vertical – horizontal

One does not affect the other, so any order is correct!

Example order image or order image

f(x) (8,8) f(x) (8,8)
2f(x+3) 2f(x) (8,16) f(x+3) (5,8)
2f(x+3) (5,16) 2f(x+3) (5,16)

 Case Β: vertical – vertical

The order matters! Changes affect, the whole expression

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2f(x)+6 2f(x) we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,16)
2f(x)+6 we add 6 to the whole expression (8,22)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
2[f(x)+3] f(x)+3 we add 3 to the whole expression (8,11)
2[f(x)+3] we multiply the whole expression by 2 (8,22)

 Case C: horizontal – horizontal

This is the most confusing case! At each step, only x changes

Example 1 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2x+6) f(x+6) x changes to x+6 (2,8)
f(2x+6) x changes to 2x (1,8)

Example 2 order description image

f(x) (8,8)
f(2(x+3)) f(2x) x changes to 2x (4,8)
f(2(x+3)) x changes to x+3 (1,8)

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2.7 ASYMPTOTES
1
Look at the graph of the function f(x)=
x

x
- 0 +

Notice: as x tends to + the value of y tends to 0 (the x-axis)

Also as x tends to - the value of y approaches 0 (the x-axis)
We say that
the x-axis (that is the line y=0) is a horizontal asymptote
Moreover,
for values of x near 0 (y-axis), the value of y tends to + or +
We say that
the y-axis (that is the line x=0) is a vertical asymptote

1
Similarly, for g(x)=  2 (f moved 1 unit right and 2 units up).
x- 1

1
x

Now the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

the line x=1 is a vertical asymptote

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In general,

For Vertical Asymptotes: we are looking at points x=a where the

function is not defined
For Horizontal Asymptotes: we observe what happens if x tends to
+ or -. If the function approaches the line y=b we say that y=b is
a horizontal asymptote!

In the following graph:

2
x
- -4 0 1 +

The function is not defined at x=-4 and x=1, so

the lines x=-4 and x=1 are vertical asymptotes

As x tends to + or - the graph approaches the line y=2, so

the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

In this section we concentrate on rational functions of the form

Αx  Β
f(x)=
Cx  D
and their asymptotes. It can be shown that such a function can be
derived from original function
1
f(x)=
x
by a sequence of transformations.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Αx  Β
 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FORM f(x)= ,
Cx  D
These functions possess one vertical and one horizontal asymptote.
For example, the function
4x  1
f(x)=
2x - 6
looks like

1) Vertical Asymptotes: x=a

At points where the function is not defined.
We solve
2x-6=0  x=3
Hence
The line x=3 is a vertical asymptote

2) Horizontal Asymptotes: y=b

The line
Α
y= is a horizontal asymptote
C
(we consider only the leading coefficients!)
For our example,
4
y= = 2,
2
Hence

The line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Notice
The domain is x≠3 while the vertical asymptote is x=3.

The range is y≠2 while the vertical asymptote is y=2.

Two short explanations for the horizontal asymptote:

 The function can be written as follows:

4x  1 2(2x  6)  13 2(2x  6) 13 13
f(x)= = = + = 2+
2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6
13
As x tends to + or - the fraction approaches 0.
2x - 6

 If we divide everything by x we obtain:

1
4
4x  1 x
f(x)= =
2x - 6 6
2-
x
1 6
As x tends to + or - the fractions and approach 0.
x x

In both cases f(x), that is the value of y, approaches 2.

EXAMPLE 1

Look at some rational functions and their asymptotes:

Vertical Asymptotes Horizontal Asymptote

Function
(denominator = 0) (divide leading coefficients)
3x  7
f(x)= x=5 y=3
x 5
3x  7 5 3
f(x)= x= y=
2x  5 2 2
8x  7
f(x)= x=-2 y=4
2x  4
7
f(x)= x=5 y=0
x 5
7
f(x)= +3 x=5 y=3
x 5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 2
3x  2
Let f(x)=
x- 4
4x  2
We can easily find that the inverse function is f -1 (x) =
x- 3
Notice what happens with the asymptotes:

Domain Range V.A. H.A

f(x) x≠4 y≠3 x=4 y=3
f-1(x) x≠3 y≠4 x=3 y=4

 SELF-INVERSE FUNCTIONS

A function is said to be self-inverse if f-1(x)=f(x)

Such a function is symmetric in the line y=x.

1
For example f(x)= is a self-inverse function.
x
y

1 1 1
Indeed, y  x hence, f 1 (x) 
x y x

Several rational functions are self-inverse. For example

2x  3
f(x) = = f -1 (x)
x- 2

The asymptotes for those two functions are x=2 and y=2.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

2.8 EXPONENTS - THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax

 THE EXPONENTIAL 2x

Let us define the power 2x, as x moves along the sets

N = {0,1,2,3,…} Natural numbers

Z = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…} Integers
m
Q = {fractions | m,nZ, n≠0} Rational numbers
n
R = Q + irrational numbers† Real numbers

1) If x=nN, then

20 = 1

2n = 2.2.2…2 (n times)

For example 23=8

2) If x=-n, where nN, then

1
2-n =
2n

Thus we know 2x for any xZ.

1 1
For example 2-3= =
23 8
m
3) If x= , where m,nZ, n≠0, then
n

m
2n= n
2m

Thus we know 2x for any xQ

2 2 1
For example, 2 3 = 3 2 2 = 3 4 , 2 3 = 23 = 8 , 22 = 2

† That is numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions, eg π, 2, 3, 5

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4) If x=irrational, then

2 x = given by a calculator!

The definition is beyond our scope, thus we trust technology!

Thus we know 2x for any xR

For example, 2π = 8.8249779

In general, if a>0 we define

a0 =1

an =a.a.a…a (n times)
1
a-n =
an
m
a n = n am

a x = given by a calculator!

NOTICE
 If a<0, ax is defined only for x=nZ
 Ox=0 only if x≠0
 00 is not defined

 PROPERTIES

All known properties of powers are still valid for exponents xR

(1) axay = ax+y (3) (ab)x =axbx (5) (ax)y = axy

x
ax a ax
(2) y
= ax-y (4)   = x
a b b

Here a,b>0 and x,yR

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 1
1 1
 5-2 = 2
=
5 25
2
1 1
   = - 2 = 52 =25
5  5
2 2
3 5  25
   =   =
5  3 9
2 2 2 (2 )
 8 3
= 3
82 = 3 64 = 4 or 8 3
= (2 3 ) 3
= 23 3
= 22 = 4
4 4 4
3 4 1  1   1  1 1
 27-4/3 = 27 = 3 = 3   = 3   =  =
27 4  27   27  3 81

 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION f(x)=ax (where a>0)

Consider f: R  R

f(x)=2x

Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 1/8 1/4 1/2 0 1 4 8 …

Domain: xR
Range: y>0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

Consider now g: R  R
x
1 1
g(x)=0.5x [that is g(x)=   = x ]
2 2
Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 8 4 2 0 1/2 1/4 1/8 …

Domain: xR
Range: y>0

NOTICE

1) f(x)=ax is always positive (even if x<0)

x
1 1
2) g(x)=   = x = a-x. Thus, g(x) is a reflection of f(x)=ax about the
a a
y-axis [look at the graphs of f(x) and g(x) above]

3) if a>1, then f(x)=ax increases (the graph looks like that of 2x)
if a<1, then f(x)=ax decreases (the graph looks like that of 0.5x)
if a=1, then f(x)=1x=1 is constant

4) if a≠1, function f(x)= ax is “one-one”, i.e.

ax=ay  x=y

This property helps us to solve exponential equations!

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EXAMPLE 2

Solve the following equations

(a) 23x-1 = 2x+2 (b) 23x-1 = 4x+2 (c) 43x-1 = 8x+2

1
(d) 3x-1
= 4x+2 (e) 2 3x-1 = 4x+2
2

Solution

Our attempt will be to induce a common base in both sides

(a) We have already a common base. Thus

23x-1 = 2x+2  3x-1 = x+2  2x = 3

 x=3/2

(b) We can write 4=22. Thus

23x-1 = 4x+2  23x-1 = 22x+4  3x-1 = 2x+4

 x = 5

(c) We can write 4=22 and 8=23. Thus

43x-1 = 8x+2  26x-2 = 23x+6  6x-2 = 3x+6

 3x=8  x = 8/3

1
(d) We apply the property =2-n. Thus
2n
1
3x-1
= 4x+2  2-3x+1 = 22x+4  -3x+1 = 2x+4
2

 5x = -3  x=-3/5
1
(e) We apply the property 2 2 2
. Thus
3x-1
3x - 1
2 3x-1 = 4x+2  2 2
= 22x+4  = 2x+4
2

 3x-1= 4x+8  x=-9

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 THE NUMBER e

There is a specific irrational number

e=2.7182818…

which plays an important role in mathematics. The number e is

almost as popular as the irrational number π=3.14…

An approximation of e is given below. Consider the expression

n
 1
1  
 n

For n=1 the result is 2

For n=2 the result is 2.25

For n=10 the result is 2.5937424…

For n=100 the result is 2.7048138…

For n=1000 the result is 2.7169239…

For n=106 the result is 2.7182804…

As n tends to + this expression tends to e=2.7182818…

 THE EXPONENTIAL ex

The exponential function f(x)=ex appears in many applications. The

graph looks like any function of the form f(x)=ax. We present the
graphs of

f(x) = ex f(x)=e-x

1
1

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 ASYMPTOTES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Observe the exponential functions (a>0, a≠1)

f(x)=ax f(x)=ax+c

horizontal asymptote: y=0 horizontal asymptote: y=c

y-intercept: y=1 y-intercept: y=c+1

EXAMPLE 3
Function Horizontal Asymptote y-intercept

f(x)=2x line y=0 y=1

f(x)=2-x line y=0 y=1

f(x)=ex line y=0 y=1

f(x)=e3x line y=0 y=1

f(x)=3ex line y=0 y=3

f(x)=-3ex line y=0 y=-3

f(x)= ex+5 line y=5 y=6

f(x)=3ex+5 line y=5 y=8

f(x)=ex-2 line y=0 y=e-2

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2.9 LOGARITHMS - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax

 DISCUSSION

Let us compare the equations of the form x 2 = a and 2 x = a

Quadratic equation Exponential equation

x2 = a 2x = a

Some equations are straightforward Some equations are straightforward

2
x = 4  x = 2 2x = 4  x = 2
x 2 =9  x = 3 2 x =8  x = 3
x 2 = 16  x = 4 2 x = 16  x = 4

but what about x 2 =7 ? but what about 2 x =7 ?

We don’t know an exact answer We don’t know an exact answer!
Mathematicians invented the Mathematicians invented the
symbol and called the solutions symbol log2 and called the solution
 7 log27

Similarly, the solution of x 3 =7 is Similarly, the solution of 3x =7 is

denoted by denoted by

3
7 log37

Let us introduce this new notion more formally.

 THE LOGARITHM log2x

This number is called logarithm of x to the base 2. It is connected

to the exponential 2x. The definition is given by

log2x = b  2b =x

For example,

log28 = 3, since 23=8

log216 = 4, since 24=16

etc.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For example, for the value of log28, we think in the following way:

2what exponent gives 8? The answer is 3

Hence log28=3

Working in the same way, let us find log232

It is log232=5 [since 25=32]

However, for log27=?, we should think:

2what exponent gives 7? Well, this is not easy to answer!

Our GDC gives log27=2.80735…

This implies that

2 2.80735……=7

EXAMPLE 1
U

Look at the following results:

 log264=6

 log22=1 in general, logaa=1 for any base a.

 log21=0 in general, loga1=0, for any base a

 log225=5

 log22100=100 In general log22x=x

 log221453=1453

 THE LOGARITHM logax

In the same way, for any base a>0, a≠1 we define

logax = b  ab =x

For example, log39 = 2 (since 32=9)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

NOTICE
U

Once upon a time log10x has been the most popular logarithm!!!

Due to its popularity, for this particular logarithm the base 10 is

usually omitted

We write logx instead of log10x

For example,
log100 = 2, since 102=100
log1000 = 3, since 103=1000
log10000 = 4, since 104=10000

Use your GDC to confirm these results!

Also notice that
log10=1 and log1=0
U

EXAMPLE 2

 log1000000 = 6,

 log107=7 In general log10x=x

 log101453=1453

But also, for very small numbers

 log 0.001 = -3,

 log 0.000001 = -6.

 THE NATURAL LOGARITHM lnx

We will frequently use the special logarithm to the base

e=2.7182818…

Instead of logex, we denote it by lnx.

Hence,

lnx=b  eb=x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION f(x)=logax

A new function is defined

f(x) =loga x

In fact, this is the inverse of the exponential function y=ax

If f(x)=ax then f -1 (x) = loga x

Indeed, ax=y  x= loga y , hence f -1 (x) =log2 x

If a>1 (for example if a=2), the graphs of these two functions look
like
y=ax

y=logax

Observations:

 For y=ax: Domain: xR Range: y>0

 For y=logax: Domain: x>0 Range: yR

 The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of y=ax

 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of y=logax

 y=ax always passes through (0,1)

 y=logax always passes through (1,0)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 BASIC PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

For any base a (a>0, a≠1)

 loga1 = 0  logaax = x
 logaa = 1  alogax = x

These results can be obtained by the definition of logarithm!

 THREE ALGEBRAIC LAWS

For simplicity reasons, we use log instead of loga.

1) log xy = logx + logy  logx + logy = log xy

x or x
2) log = logx - logy  logx - logy = log
y y
3) logxn = nlogx  nlogx = logxn

These laws hold for any base a.

Remark: The 3 lows are respectively derived from the properties
am
am an  am+n  am-n (am )n  anm
an
since for all of them aLHS  aRHS and thus LHS=RHS.

NOTICE
The first two laws can be combined to obtain:

ABD
logA+logB-logC+logD = log
C

If we also have coefficients, we obtain

A 2B 3D 5
2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD = log
C4

In this way, we collect many logs into one log.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For example,
32 43
2log3 + 3log4 - 4log2 = log = log36
24

Apparently, this works for ln as well:

32 43
2ln3 + 3ln4 - 4ln2 = ln = ln36
24

Look at also the opposite direction

A 2B 3D 5
log = 2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD
C4

In this way, we split one log into many logs.

For example,

log15 = log(35) = log3 + 2log5

9 32
log 2 = log 2 = 2log 2 3- log2 5
5 5

ln72 = ln(89) = ln 2332 = 3ln2 + 2ln3

EXAMPLE 3
Suppose lnx=a, lny=b, lnz=c.
Express the following logarithms in terms of a, b, c.

lnxy = lnx+lny = a+b

lnx2 = 2lnx = 2a

y
ln = lny-lnz = b-c
z
x 3y
ln = 3lnx+lny-2lnz = 3a+b-2c
z2
1 1
ln = ln1–lnx = 0-a = -a or ln = lnx-1 = -lnx = -a
x x
1
1 a
ln x = ln x 2 = lnx =
2 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

EXAMPLE 4
5
Suppose log3 =m, log3 5=n. Express the following in terms of m, n.
2
5
log3 10, log3 50, log3 , log3 2.5
2
Solution

 log3 10 = log3 (2×5) = log3 2 + log3 5 = m+n

 log3 50 = log3 (2×52) = log3 2 + 2 log3 5 = m+2n

2
 log3 = log3 2 – log3 5 = m-n
5
5
 log3 2.5 = log3 = log3 5 - log3 2 = n-m
2

NOTICE (Just for information, you may skip it!)

The logarithm to the base 10 indicates the size of a number!

Any n-digit number has a logarithm between n-1 and n.

Indeed, since log100=2 and log1000=3

any 3-digit integer, (that is between 100 and 999 inclusive)

has a logarithm within the interval [2,3)

For example, log173 = 2.238 …

Similarly, any 10-digit number has a logarithm within [9,10)

For example, log1234567890 = 9.091 …

Question: how many digits does the number 2100 have?

This is a huge number! The GDC cannot show all its digits.

However, log2100 = 100log2 = 30.1

which implies that the number 2100 has 31 digits!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

 SIMPLE LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

They have the form

log a x  b

We use the definition to solve them:

x  ab

EXAMPLE 5

Solve the logarithmic equations

(a) log 2 (x  2)  3 (a) log(x  2)  3 (c) ln(x  2)  3

Solution

(a) x  2  23  x  2  8  x  6

(b) x  2  10 3  x  2  1000  x  998

(c) x  2  e3  x  e3  2

Notice
Of course the solutions may be obtained by a GDC.

For (a) and (b), SolveN gives the exact solutions x=6 and x=998
For (c) it gives an approximation x  18.1
(this is not the exact solution, it is the approximate value of e 3  2 ).

Furthermore, if the equation contains a parameter, for example

log 2 (x  a)  3

we cannot use GDC. The solution must be expressed in terms of a:

x  a  23  x  8  a

In paper 2 (GDC allowed) we can use our calculator to solve more

complicated logarithmic equations’

In paper 1 (GDC not allowed) we have to present the analytical

solution for equations which involve more than one logarithms.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS Christos Nikolaidis

For an equation that involves more than one logarithms, our target
will be to bring it in one of the forms

 logA = logB so that A = B

 logbA=c so that A=bc by definition

The resulting equations will be easier to deal with.

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equations
(a) log2x+log2(x+2)= log23
(b) log2x+log2(x+2)= 3
3
(c) log2x+log2(x-2)-log2(x- )=log23
4
Solutions
(a) log2x+log2(x+2)= log23  log2x(x+2)= log23
 x(x+2)=3
 x2+2x-3=0
The solutions are x=1 and x=-3
The second solution is rejected since x>0 by the original equation.
Therefore x=1.

(b) log2x+log2(x+2)= 3  log2x(x+2)= 3

 x(x+2)=23
 x2+2x-8=0
The solutions are x=2 and x=-4 (rejected)
Therefore x=2.
3 x(x - 2)
(c) log2x+log2(x-2)-log2(x- )=log23  log2 = log23
4 3
(x - )
4
x(x - 2) 9 9
 =3  x2-2x=3x-  x2-5x+ =0
3 4 4
(x - )
4
The solutions are x=4.5 or x=0.5

The second solution is rejected since x>2. Therefore, x=4.5

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 CHANGE OF BASE

Using our GDC we find that

log2 3  1.58496...

log3 ln3
Look at also the values of and . We find the same result!
log2 ln2

log* 3
In fact, we can express log2 3 in the form using any base we
log* 2
like, that is

log3 ln3 log7 3

log2 3 = = = = …
log2 ln2 log7 2

logb
In general, we can change logab into , using any base we like.
loga
The formula

logcb
logab=
logca

is known as “change of base”.

EXAMPLE 7
Suppose log2 x = a, log2 y = b, log2 z = =c. Express the following in
terms of a,b,c.
log4 x , logy x , logx yz , logy 2xz
Solution
log2 x a
 log4 x = =
log2 4 2

log2 x a
 logy x = =
log2 y b

log2 yz log2 y +log2 z b + c

 logx yz = = =
log2 x log2 x a

log2 2xz 1 + a + c
 logy 2xz = =
log2 y b

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EXAMPLE 8
Suppose ln2=m, ln5=n. Express the following in terms of m, n.

log5e, log453

Solution

lne 1
 log5e = =
ln5 n
ln5 ln5 n
 log45 = = 2
=
ln4 ln2 2m

We may need the change base formula for an equation as well.

EXAMPLE 9
Solve the equation
1
log4(x+12) = 1 + log2x
2

Solution
We have to change base 4 to 2.
log 2 (x  12) 1
=1 + log2x
log 2 4 2
log 2 (x  12) 1
 = 1 + log2x
2 2
 log2(x+12) = 2 + log2x
 log2(x+12) - log2x = 2
x  12
 log2 = 2
x
x  12
 = 4
x
 x+12 = 4x
 3x = 12
 x = 4

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2.10 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

In these equations the unknown x is in the exponent. The simplest

exponential equation has the form

ax = b (*)

The definition of the logarithm gives the solution: x=logab.

Another technique is to apply on both sides of (*) the same

logarithm:

apply loga a x = b  logaa x = logab  x = logab (in fact, the definition)

logb
apply log a x = b  loga x =logb  xloga = logb  x =
loga
lnb
apply ln a x = b  lna x = lnb  xlna = lnb  x =
lna
logcb
apply logc a x = b  logca x = logcb  xlogca = logcb  x =
logca

Notice: the first row gives the result of the definition; the other
rows give alternative expressions.
In fact, the results justify the change of base formula!

Let us keep in mind the following two expressions for the solution:

x = logab
ax = b lnb
x=
lna

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation 2(5x) = 9.
Solution
ln4.5
2(5x) = 9  5x = 4.5  x = log5 4.5 or otherwise x =
ln5

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For exponential equations of base e, we anyway use ln( ).

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equation 10e2x = 85

Solution

We first divide by 10:

ln8.5
10e2x = 85  e2x = 8.5  lne2x =ln8.5  2x =ln8.5 x=
2

EXAMPLE 3
lna
Solve the equation 5x = 2x+1. Express the result in the form .
lnb
Solution
Method A: Let us apply ln on both sides
5x = 2x+1  ln5x = ln2x+1
 xln5 = (x+1)ln2
 xln5 = xln2+ln2
 xln5 - xln2 = ln2
 x(ln5-ln2) = ln2

ln2 ln2
 x =  x =
ln5 - ln2 5
ln
2

Method B: Simplify the equation to the form ax=b; then apply ln

5x = 2x+1  5x = 2x2
5x
 = 2
2x
x
5 
   = 2
2
ln2
 x =
5
ln
2

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Remarks
 This is the exact answer. If we are looking for an answer to
3sf, the calculator gives x=0.756.

 We can use any logarithm instead of ln( ), for example log( ).

 If an expression in the form logab is required, the answer is

x
5 
  = 2  x = log 5 2
2 2

 EXPONENTIAL MODELLING (GROWTH OR DECAY)

In many applications a quantity increases or decreases

exponentially according to time.

Suppose that a population P at time t (years after a certain time)

is given by the formula

P=Poekt

 If k>0, the population increases (e.g. P=1000e0.2t)

 If k<0, the population decreases (e.g. P=1000e-0..2t)

Question 1: What is the initial population (at starting time)?

Initial means t=0. Since e0=1

P=Po

Thus, the coefficient Po is always the initial value of P.

Let us consider the case where the initial population is 1000 and P
is given by

P=1000e0.2t

Question 2: What is the population after 3 years?

For t=3

P=1000e0.23=1822

Question 3: The population after t years is 2500. Find t.

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1000e0.2t =2500  e0.2t= 2.5

 lne0.2t = ln2.5
 0.2t = ln2.5
ln2.5
 t = = 4.58 years
0.2
(OR directly by GDC, t = 4.58 years)

Question 4: The population doubles after t years. Find t.

It’s the same as in Question 3. We set P=2000, or in general P=2P0

Sometimes the constant k is not known. We are given some

information to find its value. Suppose

P=Poekt

Question 5: Given that the population doubles every 4 years, find k.

For t=4, P=2Po,

P0ek4 =2Po  e4k =2

 4k = ln2
ln2
 k = = 0.173
4
Let us see an example of decay.

EXAMPLE 4
The mass m of a radio-active substance at time t hours is given by
m = 4e–kt
(a) The mass is 1 kg after 5 hours. Find k.
(b) What is the mass after 3 hours?
(c) The mass reduces to a half after t hours. Find t.

Solution

(a) For t=5, m=1, thus

4e–k5 =1
1 ln4
 e–5k =  e5k = 4  5k=ln4  k = ( 0.277)
4 5

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Therefore,
m = 4e–0.277t
(b) For t=3,
m = 4e-0.277  3 = 1.74

(c) For m=2,

4e–0.277t = 2
ln0.5
 e–0.277t = 0.5  –0.277t = ln0.5 t = = 2.50 hours
-0.277

This time (the quantity reduces to a half) is known as half-life time.

 MORE EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS (mainly for HL)

Let us look at some additional examples

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation
6x7x-1 = 3x-2
lna
Express the result in the form
lnb
Solution
Although we can apply ln( ) on both sides and obtain

xln6 + (x-1)ln7 = (x-2)ln3

which is a linear equation and can be solved as usual, I will

recommend the quicker method: to simplify first the equation to
the form ax=b;
6 x7 x 3 x
6x7x-1 = 3x-2   2
7 3
x x
6 7 7
  2
3x 3
7
 14 x 
9
ln(7/9)
(now apply ln)  x =
ln14

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Notice:
Mind the following (common mistake)
A B = C does not imply lnA  lnB = lnC
it only implies ln(A  B) = lnC

If an equation that ivolves a sum of exponentials, it doesn’t help to

apply a logarithm, as log(a x  b x ) cannot be simplified.

For example, the equation: 2 x  3 x =7 cannot be solved analytically.

Only by using GDC-SolveN, we can obtain the solution x=1.356…

If you see such an equation in paper 1, it is highly likely to be a

hidden quadratic!

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equations:
12
(a) 6e x  x  17 (b) 6(102x)+12=17(10x)
e
Solution
(a) Let y=ex. Then
12
6y   17  6y2-17y+12=0
y

3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , ex =  x=ln
3 3 3
(b) Let y=10x. Then
6y2-17y+12=0
3 4
There are two solutions: y= , y=
2 3
3 3 3
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
2 2 2
4 4 4
 For y= , 10x =  x=log
3 3 3

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EXAMPLE 7
Solve the system of equations
1 y
2(3x)-3(2y)=-22 and 5(3x)+ (2 )=9
2
Solution
Let A=3x and B=2y. Then
1
2A-3B=-22 and 5A+ B=9
2
The solution is A=1, B=8. Hence,

3x=1  x=log31  x=0 and 2y=8  y=log28  y=3

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ONLY FOR

HL

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2.11 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS (for HL)

 DEFINITION

A polynomial function, or simply a polynomial is an expression of

the form

f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0

where an ≠ 0, all ai R and nN.

The highest power of x is called degree of the polynomial. We write

deg f(x) = n

For example

f(x) = 5x4+3x2-7x+2 deg f(x)=4

g(x) = x5-2x3+5x-7 deg g(x)=5

We also use the following terminology for polynomials of a

particular degree:

deg f(x) =0 f(x)=a (constant function)

deg f(x) =1 f(x)=a x+b (linear function)

deg f(x) =2 f(x)=a x2+bx+c (quadratic function)

deg f(x) =3 f(x)=a x3+bx2+cx+d (cubic function)

deg f(x) =4 f(x)=a x4+bx3+cx2+dx+e (quartic function)

Notice though that the degree of the zero polynomial f(x)=0 is

undefined‡

‡ In some books the degree of the zero polynomial is defined to be -1 or -∞.

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 ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

When we add or multiply polynomials the result is also a

polynomial. We perform these operations in the obvious way!.

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x) = 3x2-2x+5 and g(x)= 2x3-7x+1

Then

f(x)+g(x) = (3x2-2x+5)+(2x3-7x+1) = 2x3+3x2-9x+6

f(x)g(x) = (3x2-2x+5)(2x3-7x+1)

= 6x5-21x3+3x2-4x4+14x2-2x+10x3-35x+5

= 6x5-4x4-11x3+17x2-37x+5

Here, deg f(x)=2, deg g(x)=3 while

deg[f(x)+g(x)]=3 deg[f(x)g(x)]=5

In general

If deg f(x)=n, def g(x)=m with n>m (i.e max degree = n)

deg[f(x)+g(x)] = n deg[f(x)g(x)] = n+m

If deg f(x)=n, def g(x)=n (equal degrees)

deg[f(x)+g(x)] ≤ n deg[f(x)g(x)] = 2n

NOTICE
Look at the last line: it is not deg[f(x)+g(x)] = n since f(x) and g(x)
may have opposite leading coefficients; for example

f(x)=3x2+7x, g(x)= -3x2+2 (n=2)

Then
f(x)+g(x)= (3x2+7x)+(-3x2+2)=-7x+2 deg=1<2

f(x)g(x)= (3x2+7x)(-3x2+2)=-9x4-21x3+6x2+14x deg=4

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 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

Since (2x)(3x+1)=6x2+2x, we can derive that

6x 2  2x
 3x  1
2x

But how can we divide polynomials in general?

a
REMEMBER When we divide two integers, say a:b or , we obtain
b
a=bq+r

where q=quotient and r=remainder (0≤r<b)

For example 23:5 gives quotient=4 and remainder=2, so

23=5.4+2

The same applies for polynomials

If we divide two polynomials, f(x) by g(x), we obtain two

polynomials
the quotient q(x)
the remainder r(x)
such that
f(x)=g(x)q(x)+r(x)
where
r(x)=0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x)

Let us describe the process of the so-called long division by using an

example.

EXAMPLE 2
We will divide f(x)=2x3-4x2+5x-1 by g(x)= x2+3x+1

[As the way of dividing varies in different countries we present two

methods: the left to the right and the right to the left division]

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left to the right method instructions right to the left method

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 1

x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 2 2x

divide x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x
2x3:x2 = 2x

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 3 2x

multiply x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x 2x
2x by g(x) 2x3+ 6x2+ 2x

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 4 2x

subtract x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x 2x
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2+3x-1

repeat with -10x2+3x-1 and x2+3x+1

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 5 2x-10

x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x 2x-10 divide
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x
-10x2:x2=-10
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2+3x-1

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 6 2x-10

multiply x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x 2x-10
-10 by g(x) 2x3+ 6x2+ 2x
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2-30x-10
-10x2-30x-10

2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1 x2+3x+1 step 7 2x-10

subtract x2+3x+1 2x3- 4x2+ 5x-1
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x 2x-10
2x3+ 6x2+ 2x
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2+3x-1
-10x2-30x-10
-10x2-30x-10
33x+ 9 33x+ 9

Hence, q(x)=2x-10, r(x)=33x+9 and

2x3-4x2+5x-1 = (x2+3x+1)(2x-10) + (33x+9)

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NOTICE
a r
In number theory, the division a=bq+r also gives q
b b
23 3
For example 4 .
5 5
Similarly, the division of polynomials gives
f(x) r(x)
 q(x) 
g(x) g(x)
In our example
2x 3  4x 2  5x  1 33x  9
2
 2x - 10  2
x  3x  1 x  3x  1

If r(x)=0, then f(x)=g(x)q(x). Then we say that

f(x) is divisible by g(x)

or g(x) divides exactly f(x)
or g(x) is a factor of f(x)

EXAMPLE 3
Let us divide f(x)=2x3+2x2-x-1 by g(x)=2x2-1
We present the long division in one step:

left to the right method right to the left method

2x3+2x2-x-1 2x2-1 x+1
2x3 -x x+1 2x2-1 2x3+2x2-x-1
2x3 -x
2x2 -1
notice that the 2x2 -1
2x2 -1
remainder 2x2 -1
0
r(x) is 0 0

Therefore,
2x3+2x2-x-1 = (2x2-1)(x+1)
or otherwise
2x 3  2x 2 - x  1
 x 1
2x 2  1

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 THE FACTOR THEOREM

f(x) is divisible by (x-a)  f(a) = 0

or otherwise
(x-a) is a factor of f(x)  a is a root of f(x)
Proof
() If f(x) is divisible by (x-a) then f(x)=(x-a)q(x) for some q(x)

then f(a)=0

() Let f(a)=0. We divide f(x) by (x-a) and obtain

f(x)=(x-a)q(x)+r (r must be constant)

But then, f(a)=0  r =0. That is

f(x)=(x-a)q(x)
ie f(x) is divisible by (x-a)

 THE REMAINDER THEOREM

When f(x) is divided be (x-a) the remainder is f(a)

Proof
We divide f(x) by (x-a). Suppose f(x)=(x-a)q(x)+r. Then f(a) = r

EXAMPLE 4

Let f(x)=x3+x2-x+2. Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by

(x-1), (x+1), (x-2), (x+2)

f(1)=3, hence the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x-1) is 3

f(-1)=3, hence the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x+1) is 3

f(2)=12, hence the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x-2) is 12

f(-2)=0, hence f(x) is divisible by (x+2), ie (x+2) is a factor of f(x)

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EXAMPLE 5 (the factor theorem for quadratics)

Let f(x)=ax2+bx+c be a quadratic with two roots p and q, that is

f(p)=0 and f(q)=0

Then f(x) is divisible by (x-p) and (x-q). Indeed, we know that

f(x) = a(x-p)(x-q)

EXAMPLE 6

Solve the equation x3+x2-x+2=0.

If we know one root then we may use division to find the

remaining roots.

In Example 4, we saw that -2 is a root. Hence (x+2) is a factor.

We divide x3+x2-x+2 by (x+2) and get q(x)= x2-x+1 (left as exercise)

The equation takes the form

(x+2)(x2-x+1)=0

However, the quadratic x2-x+1 has no real roots, so our equation

has only one root, ie x=-2.

EXAMPLE 7

Let f(x) = x3-6x2+11x-6. Solve the equation f(x) = 0.

Solution
We can easily observe that x=1 is a solution since f(1)=0.

We divide f(x) by the factor (x-1) and find the quotient (x2-5x+6).

(it is left as exercise!)

The equation takes the form

(x-1)(x2-5x+6)=0

But the quadratic (x2-5x+6) has two roots, x=2 and x=3. Thus the
equation has three solutions, namely 1,2 and 3.

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Notice also that the full factorization of the cubic equation gives

x3-6x2+11x-6=0

 (x-1)(x-2)(x-3)=0

 x=1 or x=2 or x=3

REMARK (useful for guessing roots)

Consider the polynomial

f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0 where aiZ

We may look for roots among the following

Potential integer roots: ± factors of a0

factor of a 0
Potential rational roots: ±
factor of a n

EXAMPLE 8

Let f(x) = 2x3-7x2-17x+10.

Potential integer roots: ±1, ±2, ±5, ±10

1 5 2 10
Potential rational roots: ± , ± (± and ± are integers)
2 2 2 2
Among those, we can verify that

f(-2)=0, f(5)=0, f(1/2)=0.

We could also find the first root, say x=-2, and then divide f(x) by
the factor (x+2) to obtain the remaining quadratic factor.

Indeed, the long division will give

2x3-7x2-17x+10 = (x+2)(2x2-11x+5)

and the quadratic factor has two roots, x=5 and x=1/2.

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 THE GRAPH OF A CUBIC FUNCTION

Consider a cubic function

f(x) = ax3+bx2+cx+d

The leading coefficient a determines the behavior of the graph

towards the right end:

 If a>0, for large values of x, f(x)+∞ and the graph looks like

+∞

 If a<0, for large values of x, f(x)-∞ and the graph looks like

-∞

The factorization of the cubic function determines the position of

the graph in relation to the x-axis:

f(x) a>0 a<0

a(x-r1)(x-r2)(x-r3)

a(x-r1)2(x-r2)

a(x-r1)3

a(x-r1)(x2-px+qx)
irreducible

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2.12 SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS (for HL)

The fundamental theorem of algebra states that a polynomial of

degree n has n roots (real or complex§). Here, we denote by

S = r1+r2+ … + rn the sum of the roots

P = r1r2…rn the product of the roots

 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
We have seen that for a quadratic function

f(x) = ax2+bx+c (1)

there are always two roots r1 and r2 (real or complex).

We may have
 r1,r2 real, r1≠r2
 r1,r2 real, r1=r2
 r1,r2 conjugate complex roots

In any case, the factorization over C is

f(x) = a(x-r1)(x-r2)
Thus
f(x) = a(x2-r1x-r2x+r1r2)

= ax2-a(r1+r2)x+ar1r2x (2)

By comparing (1) and (2) we obtain

b=-a(r1+r2) and c= ar1r2

and finally

b c
S= r1+r2=  P = r1r2=
a a

These relations are known as Vieta formulae.

§ Don’t worry if you haven’t seen complex numbers yet. Just accept that there are n
roots!

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 CUBIC FUNCTIONS

Consider now the cubic function

f(x) = ax3+bx2+cx+d (1)

According to the fundamental theorem of algebra the factorization

of f(x) over C is

f(x) = a(x-r1)(x-r2)(x-r3)

The constant term is

- ar1r2r3

Thus, by (1)
d
d= - ar1r2r3  r1r2r3 = 
a
The coefficient of x2 is
-ar3-ar2-ar1 = -a(r1+r2+r3)

Thus, by (1)
b
b= -a(r1+r2+r3)  r1+r2+r3 = 
a
Hence,

b d
S= r1+r2+r3=  P = r1r2r3= 
a a

Notice

Usually a cubic function is expressed in the form

f(x) = a3x3+a2x2+a1x+a0

The Vieta formulae take the form

a2 a0
S= r1+r2+r3=  P = r1r2r3= 
a3 a3

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 THE GENERAL CASE

Consider the general form of a polynomial function

f(x) = anxn+an-1xn-1+…+a1x+a0 (1)

According to the fundamental theorem of algebra the factorization

of f(x) over C is

f(x) = an(x-r1)(x-r2)…(x-rn)

The constant term is

( 1) n a n r1r2 ⋯rn

Thus, by (1)
a0
a0= ( 1) n a n r1r2 ⋯rn  r1r2 ⋯rn = (1) n
an

The coefficient of xn-1 is

 a n r1 - a n r2  ⋯  a n rn =  a n (r1  r2  ⋯  rn )

Thus, by (1)
an-1
a n-1 =  a n (r1  r2  ⋯  rn )  r1  r2  ⋯  rn = 
an
Hence,

a n-1 a0
S= r1  r2  ⋯  rn =  P = r1r2 ⋯rn = (1) n
an an

NOTICE (just for information!)

By considering the coefficients of xn-2, xn-3 etc we similarly obtain

a n- 2
The sum S2 of all possible pairs ri r j is
an
an-3
The sum S3 of all possible triples ri r jrk is 
an

and so on.

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EXAMPLE 1
Let f(x)=2x3+ax2+bx+c
The sum of the roots is 3.5, the product of the roots is -5 and the
polynomial is divided by (x+2). Find the values of a,b and c.
Solution
a2 a
S    3.5  a = -7
a3 2

a0 c
P  ( 1) 3    -5  c = 10
a3 2

By the factor theorem

f(-2)=0  -16+4a-2b+c = 0
 -16-28-2b+10 = 0
 b=-17

EXAMPLE 2
Let f(x)=ax4-10x3+bx+c
The sum of the roots is 2, the product of the roots is -5. and the
polynomial is divided by (x-1). Find the values of a,b and c.
Solution
a3 10
S  2  a = 5
a4 a

a0 c
P  ( 1) 4   -5  c = -25
a4 a

By the factor theorem

f(1)=0  a-10+b+c = 0
 5-10+b-25 = 0
 b=30

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2.13 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS – PARTIAL FRACTIONS (for HL)

 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

A rational function has the form

p(x)
f(x)=
q(x)

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.

For example
2x  5
f(x)= 2
x  4x  3

We have already seen rational functions of the form

Αx  Β
f(x)=
Cx  D

and their asymptotes.

Again, for the asymptotes of a rational function in general, we

work as follows:

1) Vertical Asymptotes: x=a

At points where the function is not defined. Thus, we solve the

equation q(x)=0.
For example,
2x  5
f(x)= 2
x  4x  3
we solve
x2-4x+3=0  x=1 or x=3
Hence
The lines x=1 and x=3 are vertical asymptotes

2) Horizontal Asymptotes: y=b

We only consider the leading coefficients of p(x) and q(x).

We distinguish three cases:

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leading coefficient of p(x)

 degp(x)= degq(x), y=
leading coefficient of q(x)
 degp(x)<degq(x), y=0

 degp(x)>degq(x), there is no horizontal asymptote

For example,

4x 2  3x  1
f(x)= The line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote
2x 2  7x - 6
3x  1
f(x)= The line y=0 is a horizontal asymptote
2x 2  7x - 6
4x 2  3x  1
f(x)= There is no horizontal asymptote
2x - 6

Notice also that,

p(x)
if f(x)= has a horizontal asymptote y=b,
q(x)
p(x)
then g(x)= +c has a horizontal asymptote y=b+c
q(x)

as g(x) is the function f(x) shifted c units up.

EXAMPLE 1
Vertical Asymptotes Horizontal Asymptote
Function
(denominator = 0) (divide leading coefficients)
2
7x  5x  1
f(x)= x=1, x=2 y=7
x 2 - 3x  2
7x 2  5x  1
f(x)= x=1, x=2 y=7/2
2x 2 - 6x  4
 5x  1
f(x)= 2 x=1, x=2 y=0
x - 3x  2
- 5x  1
f(x)= 2 +8 x=1, x=2 y=8
x - 3x  2
7x 2  5x  1
f(x)= x=2 none
- 3x  6

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EXAMPLE 2

Find the intercepts the domain and the asymptotes of the function

x 2  6x  8
f(x)=
x 2 - 4x  3
Use your GDC to sketch the graph of f(x) and hence find its range.
Solution
It is

x 2  6x  8 (x  2)(x  4)
f(x)= 
x 2 - 4x  3 (x  1)(x  3)
x-intercepts (or roots): x=2, x=4
y-intercept: For x=0, y=8/3
Domain: x≠1, x≠3
VA: x=1, x=3
HA: y=1

According to the graph the range is yR

Notice: that the value of the asymptote y=1 is not excluded from
the range.

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EXAMPLE 3
Find the intercepts the domain and the asymptotes of the function
x 2  3x  4
f(x)=
x 2 - 4x  3
Use your GDC to sketch the graph of f(x) and hence find its range.
Solution
It is
x 2  3x  4 (x  1)(x  4)
f(x)= 
x 2 - 4x  3 (x  1)(x  3)

x-intercepts (or roots): x=-1, x=4

y-intercept: For x=0, y=-4/3
Domain: x≠1, x≠3
VA: x=1, x=3
HA: y=1

By using the GDC, we find that:

there is a local min at (2.1,5.95) and a local max at (11.9,1.05)
According to the graph the range is y ]-∞,1.05]U[5.95,+∞[

Later on we will be able to find the local min and the local max
without a GDC, by using derivatives!

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 OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTES
We have seen that for a rational function of the form
ax 2  bx  c
f(x)=
dx  e

there is no horizontal asymptote. But there is an oblique asymptote.

If the division of the two polynomials gives the quotient
q(x)  Ax  B and the remainder r, then

ax 2  bx  c r
f(x)=  (Ax  B) 
dx  e dx  e

As x→±∞, the last fraction tends to 0 and thus f(x) → Ax+B.

That is the graph of y=f(x) approaches the oblique line y=Ax+B.

EXAMPLE 4
4x 2  2x  1
f(x)=
2x - 6
 The vertical asymptote is x=3.
 There is no horizontal asymptote.
 As 4x 2  2x  1 divided by 2x - 6 gives q(x)=2x+5 (and r=31)
the oblique asymptote is y=2x+5.

y=2x+5

x=3

4x 2  2x  1 31
Justification: f(x)=  2x  5  → 2x+5 as x→±∞
2x - 6 2x  6

p(x)
Notice. The same situation occurs for a rational function f(x)=
q(x)
where deg q(x) is one less than deg p(x).

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 PARTIAL FRACTIONS (only the easiest case)

We only consider rational functions of the form

a a x  b 
f(x)= 2
and f(x)=
ax  bx  c ax 2  bx  c

If the denominator ax 2  bx  c has two roots, say x  r1 and x  r2 ,

we can express the functions in the form of partial fractions:
A B
f(x)= 
x  r1 x  r2
We will demonstrate the way by using an example.

EXAMPLE 5
3x  5
f(x)= 2
.
x  4x  3
The denominator has two roots: x=1, x=3. Thus
A B
f(x)= 
x 1 x 3
Method 1
A B A(x - 3)  B(x - 1) (A  B)  (3A  B)
 = =
x 1 x 3 (x  1)(x - 3) (x  1)(x - 3)

Comparing with the numerator of the original function

A+B = 3
3A+B = 5
The solution of the system gives A=1 and B=2.
Method 2
3x  5 A B
= 
x  4x  3 x  1 x  3
2

Multiply by (x-1)(x-3):
A(x-3)+B(x-1) = 3x-5
For x=3 we obtain: 2B=4B=2
For x=1 we obtain: -2A=-2A=1
Therefore,
1 2
f(x)= 
x 1 x 3

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2.14 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL INEQUALITIES (for HL)

Let f(x) be a polynomial. By factorizing f(x) we can easily sketch a

graph and thus solve the polynomial inequalities

f(x)>0 f(x)<0 f(x)≥0 f(x)≤0

When we factorize f(x) we may find

 linear factors of the form (x-a)

 irreducible quadratic factors of the form (x2+bx+c) [with Δ<0]

Only the roots of the linear factors affect the inequality. We can
sketch a graph of the polynomial, having in mind that
in a single root the graph crosses the x-axis
in a double root the graph just touches the x-axis
In general, for a root which is repeated n times
if n is odd it behaves as a single root (change of sign)
if n is even it behaves as a double root (no change of sign)

For example, if
f(x) = a(x-r1)(x-r2)2(x-r3)(x-r4)3(x-r5)
and a>0 the graph looks like

r1 r2 r3 r4 r5

The sign of a shows the behavior of the curve towards +∞.

Now the signs of the function are shown in the table below

x -∞ r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 +∞
f(x) + - - + - +

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EXAMPLE 1
Solve the inequality
2x3-7x2-17x+10 > 0

Solution

We have seen earlier that this cubic function has three single roots,
-2, 0.5 and 5. Thus the inequality becomes
2(x+2)(x-0.5)(x-5) > 0
We obtain
x -∞ -2 0.5 5 +∞
f(x) - + - +

Hence, the solution is x ]-2,0.5[  ]5,+[

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the inequalities
(a) 3(x-1)2(x-5) > 0
(b) 3(x-1)2(x-5) ≥ 0
(c) 3(x-1)2(x-5)(x2+1) ≥ 0

Solution
The quadratic factor x2+1 in (c) has no real roots (irreducible). It is
always positive so it doesn’t affect the sign of the polynomial.
We obtain
x -∞ 1 5 +∞
f(x) - - +

Hence, the solutions are

(a) x>5
(b) x=1 or x≥5
(c) x=1 or x≥5

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f(x)
For a rational function of the form remember that
g(x)
f(x)
 0  f(x)g(x)  0
g(x)

Therefore, by factorizing f(x) and g(x) we can think of the

polynomial f(x)g(x) and thus solve the rational inequalities

f(x) f(x) f(x) f(x)

>0 <0 ≥0 ≤0
g(x) g(x) g(x) g(x)

In case the inequality is either ≥ or ≤, remember to include the

roots of the numerator f(x) and exclude the roots of the
denominator g(x).

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the inequalities
(x - 1)(x - 3) 2 (x - 1)(x 2  x  1)
(a) ≤ 0, (b) ≥ 0
(x - 2)(x 2  x  1) (x - 3) 2 (x  2)
(factorization is already given).
Solution
Notice that the same factors appear in both inequalities. If we
multiply all factors we obtain the polynomial

(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) 2 (x 2  x  1)

We obtain
x -∞ 1 2 3 +∞
f(x) + - + +

Hence, the solutions are

(a) x [1,2[  {3}
[we exclude the root x=2 of the denominator]

(b) x ]-,1]  ]2,3[  ]3,+[.

[we exclude the roots x=2 and x=3 of the denominator]

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Mind the difference between equations and inequalities.

EXAMPLE 4
x 1 x 1
Solve (a)  x 3 (b)  x 3
x2 x2
x 1
(a)  x 3  x+1=(x-2)(x-3)
x2
 x+1= x 2  5x  6

 x 2  6x  5  0
 x  1 or x  5

(b) we present two solutions, one without GDC, one by GDC.

Solution without GDC (analytical)

Now we cannot cross multiply! We move everything to the LHS:

x 1 x  1- (x - 3)(x - 2)
 ( x  3)  0  0
x2 x2
x  1- x 2  5x - 6
 0
x2
- x 2  6x - 5
 0
x2
- (x  1)(x - 5)
 0
x2
We obtain

x -∞ 1 2 5 +∞
f(x) + - + -

Hence, the solution is x ]-∞,1]  ]2,5]

Solution by GDC
x 1
We sketch the graph of f(x)=  ( x  3)
x2
We construct a table as above with all the critical values:
 the roots of the function: x=1, x=5
 the values where the function is not defined: x=2
Based on the graph we complete the signs on the table as above

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2.15 MODULUS EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES (for HL)

Remember that, if a is a positive constant,

|x| = a  x=a or x=-a

|x| < a  -a<x<a

|x| > a  x<-a or x>a

In this way we can solve easy equations or inequalities involving

only one absolute value.

EXAMPLE 1

(a) |2x-3|=5  2x-3=5 or 2x-3=-5

 2x=8 or 2x=-2

 x=4 or x=-1

(b) |2x-3|<5  -5<2x-3<5

 -2<2x<8

 -1<x<4

(c) |2x-3|>5  2x-3<-5 or 2x-3>5

 2x<-2 or 2x>8

 x<-1 or x>4

EXAMPLE 2

x- 1 x- 1 x- 1
(a) =5  =5 or =-5
x- 2 x- 2 x- 2

 x-1=5x-10 or x-1=-5x+10

 4x=9 or 6x=11

 x=9/4 or x=11/6

The inequality here is more complicated.

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x- 1 x- 1
(b) <5  -5< <5
x- 2 x- 2

We solve separately,
x- 1 x- 1 x - 1- 5x  10 - 4x  9
<5  -5 <0  <0  <0
x- 2 x- 2 x- 2 x- 2
We obtain
x -∞ 2 9/4 +∞
f(x) - + -

Thus x<2 or x> 9/4 (1)

Similarly
x- 1 x- 1 x - 1  5x  10 6x  11
>-5  +5 >0  >0  >0
x- 2 x- 2 x- 2 x- 2
We obtain
x -∞ 11/6 2 +∞
f(x) + - +

Thus x<11/6 or x> 2 (2)

(1) and (2) together give: x<11/6 or x>9/4

Alternative solution:

Since both sides of the inequality are positive

2
x- 1 x- 1
<5  <52  (x - 1) 2 <25 (x - 2) 2
x- 2 x- 2
 x 2  2x  1  25(x 2  4x  4)

 24x 2  98x  99  0
 24(x  9/4)(x - 11/6)  0

 x<11/6 or x>9/4

Things become even more complicated when more that one

absolute values are involved or there is a variable outside the
absolute value. We have to find first the zeros of the absolute values
and investigate the different cases.

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EXAMPLE 3

(a) x - 1 =3x+2

We find the zeros: x-1=0  x=1

CASE 1: x<1

x - 1 =3x+2  -x+1 = 3x+2  4x=-1 x=-1/4 (accepted)

CASE 2: x>1

x - 1 =3x+2  x-1 = 3x+2  2x=-3 x=-3/2 (rejected)

Final answer (the union of the two cases): x=-1/4

(b) x - 1 <3x+2

We find the zeros: x-1=0  x=1

CASE 1: x<1

x - 1 <3x+2  -x+1 < 3x+2  4x>-1 x>-1/4

Thus x>-1/4

CASE 2: x>1

x - 1 <3x+2  x-1 < 3x+2  2x>-3 x>-3/2

Thus x>1

Final answer (the union of the two cases): x>-1/4

Alternative graphical solution for x - 1 -3x-2<0

We can easily sketch the graph of f(x)= x - 1 -3x-2

We know that the graph consists of linear parts.

For x=1, f(1)=-5

For x=0 (before 1): f(0)=-1
For x=2 (after 1): f(2)=-7

We sketch the graph and observe which part is negative.

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EXAMPLE 4

|x-1|+|x-2|=x

We find the zeros of the absolute values: x=1 and x=2

CASE 1: x<1
-x+1-x+2=x  3x = 3  x=1 (rejected)

CASE 2: 1≤x<2
x-1-x+2=x  x=1 (accepted)

CASE 3: x≥2
x-1+x-2=x  x=3 (accepted)

Final answer (the union of the three cases): x=1 or x=3

EXAMPLE 5

Sketch the graph of f(x)=|x-1|+|x-2|-x

We find the zeros of the absolute values: x=1 and x=2

We know that the graph consists of linear parts. Thus we need 4

points on the graph, the two values above, one before, one after:

f(1)=0, f(2)=-1, f(0)=3, f(4)=1

We just connect them:

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2.16 SYMMETRIES OF f(x) - MORE TRANSFORMATIONS (for HL)

 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

A function is said to be even if

f(-x)=f(x)

Such a function is symmetric in y-axis.

For example f(x)=x2 is an even function.

A function is said to be odd if

f(-x)=-f(x)

Thus a function is symmetric about the origin.

For example f(x)=x3 is an odd function.

y

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EXAMPLE 1

Investigate whether the following functions are even or odd.

a) f(x)=x4+|x| b) g(x)=x-x3 c) h(x)=x+x2

Solution

(a) f(-x) = (-x)4+|-x|

= x4+|x|

= f(x)

hence the function is even.

(b) g(-x) = (-x)-(-x)3

=-x+x3

=-(x-x3)

=-g(x)

hence the function is odd.

(c) h(-x) = (-x)+(-x)2

= -x+x2

hence the function is

neither even nor odd.

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 THE ABSOLUTE VALUE TRANSFORMATIONS

Consider the initial function f(x).

(a) The new function |f(x)|

 preserves any positive part of f(x)

 reflects any negative part of f(x) in x-axis
[this is because f(x)<0 implies that |f(x)|=-f(x) ]

(b) The new function f(|x|)

 ignores f(x) for x<0

 reflects f(x), x≥0 in y-axis
[this is because x<0 implies that f(|x|) =f(-x) ]

EXAMPLE 2

Let f(x) have the graph

Then

|f(x)| f(|x|)

y y

x x

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EXAMPLE 3
Let f(x)  2x 2  8x  6

Then f(x)  2x 2  8x  6 has the graph

2
while f( x )  2 x  8 x  6 has the graph

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1
 THΕ RECIPROCAL FUNCTION
f(x)

1
Another transformation of the function f(x) is g(x)=
f(x)

We notice the following:

 If x=a is a root of f(x) then g(x) is not defined at x=a (V.A.)

 If x=a is vertical asymptote of f(x) then x=a is a root of g(x)
1
 Any y=a concept (H.A., y-intercept etc) becomes y=
a
1
Thus, in order to sketch the graph of the reciprocal function
f(x)
we follow the rules:

1) V.A. become roots and roots become V.A.

1
2) H.A. y=a becomes H.A. y=
a
1
3) Any characteristic point (x, y) becomes (x, )
y

max at (x, y) becomes min at (x, 1/y ) (and vice versa)

y-intercept (0, y) becomes y-intercept (0, 1/y ), etc.

4) If f(x) is positive/negative, g(x) is also positive/negative

5) If f(x) is increasing, g(x) is decreasing (and vice versa)

NOTICE
 In fact, the V.A. x=a becomes not exactly a root but a point of
1
discontinuity on x axis, since g(x)= ≠0. The graph looks like
f(x)
y

x
a

 If y=0 is a HA, in the reciprocal y tends to +∞ or -∞ accordingly.

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EXAMPLE 4
2x - 4
Consider the function f(x)=
x- 3

Observations on f(x) 1
Conclusions for
f(x)
Root: x=2 V.A: x=2
V,A,: x=3 Root: x=3
H.A.: y=2 H.A.: y=1/2
y-intercept y=4/3 y-intercept y=3/4

1 x- 3
For (i.e. ) we indicate roots, asymptotes and carry on
f(x) 2x - 4

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 THΕ TRANSFORMATION y  f(x)

2

Consider the function y=f(x)

What about the function y  f(x) ?
2

(1) Whatever lies on the line y=1 remains the same

(2) Whatever lies on the line y=-1 goes to y=1.
(3) For the positive part of the function:
We stretch everything above y=1: 2 becomes 4 etc
We shrink everything below y=1: 1/2 becomes 1/4 etc
(4) The negative part becomes positive and behaves as in 3

The easy example of f(x)=x is indicative.

We obtain

which is the known curve of y=x2 

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