See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/293011466

Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-Revenue Water:

Case of Arusha Municipality

Article in Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science · January 2015

DOI: 10.11648/j.wros.20150406.12

CITATION READS

1 913

1 author:

Joseph Saria
Open University of Tanzania (OUT)
23 PUBLICATIONS 71 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

effect of climate change and variability in managing Africa terrestrial transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Joseph Saria on 24 February 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science
2015; 4(6): 86-91
Published online November 23, 2015 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/wros)
doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20150406.12
ISSN: 2328-7969 (Print); ISSN: 2328-7993 (Online)

Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-

Revenue Water: Case of Arusha Municipality
Josephat Alexander Saria
The Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies, The Open University of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Email address:
[email protected]

To cite this article:

Josephat Alexander Saria. Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-revenue Water: Case of Arusha Municipality. Journal of
Water Resources and Ocean Science. Vol. 4, No. 6, 2015, pp. 86-91. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20150406.12

Abstract: Utilities can no longer tolerate inefficiencies in water distribution systems and the resulting loss of revenue
associated with underground water system leakage. Increases in pumping, treatment and operational costs make these losses
prohibitive. Chronic water losses have been the hallmark of Tanzania especially AUWSA water management over the decades.
The aim of this research was to assess effects of water pipe leaks on water quality and on non revenue water. Out of 140
respondents it was found out that unauthorized connections (illegal and by pass) account to 24%, while 30% of respondents
identified leakages from water system (transmission mains, distribution mains, utility’s reservoirs, service connections); 16%
due to stopped/malfunctions water meters (Bulk and customer water meters), whilst 14% respondents enumerated that is
caused by other reasons like corruption and bribery among meter readers. The combination of both leakage and low pressure is
a source of contamination of pipe water because it allows contaminants to siphon into the water system hence bacterial
contamination (TC averaged to 67.5 CFU/100ml and FC averaged to 4.0 CFU/100ml while pH range from 6.5 – 7.7 ).
Community awareness programmes about NRW to all consumers must be conducted to ensure that customer confidence in the
utility‘s services is maintained. A key element in this is open communication like public should be able to easily contact the
utility to report burst pipes, leakages, or other concerns.
Keywords: Non Revenue Water, EWURA, Faecal Coliform, AUWSA, Arusha

formal water supply network and access water from

1. Introduction neighbors, protected wells or boreholes [4].
Improving access to water supply and sanitation services Rapid population growth and urbanization in Tanzania
(WSS) has been an issue on the development agenda to exerts enormous pressure on the delivery of water supply and
most of developing countries and still these services does sanitation services to her citizens [5]. Since Tanzania is not in
not reach a significant proportion of the world’s population. a position to meet the costs of maintaining and improving
Every year, this becomes more of a challenge due to factors water supply and sanitation services from public revenues,
such as rapid population growth and increasing urbanization this has led to the introduction of a commercial approach to
[1]. Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania is the provision of these services on which they must be paid
characterized by low levels of access, in particular in urban for, rather than a free right. Regulation of water supply and
slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in sanitation services is particularly important since water
the form of irregular water supply [2,3]. Determining data entities which provide water supply and sanitation services
on access is difficult because different definitions and do not face competitive pressures that would otherwise
sources are used, which results in significant discrepancies. ensure the quality of service provision to consumers is
According to a report, household surveys regularly return adequate.
lower rural water supply coverage than estimates by the Water quality and the Non-Revenue Water (NRW) are the
Ministry of Water (which is collected by district water big challenges to the water industry in general and it openly
engineers and urban water and sanitation authorities). For affects the level of income realized from water billings,
urban areas, survey data are consistently higher because service level and consumer satisfaction to meet the water
they also include households that are not connected to the demand from consumers which in turn affects service
sustainability in water sector [6]. One of the major issues
87 Josephat Alexander Saria: Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-revenue
Non
Water: Case of Arusha Municipality

affecting water utilities in the developing world is the and conference centre. Arusha City Council has a population
considerable difference between the amount of water put into of 416,442 (199,524 male and 216,918 female) [5].
the distribution system and the amount of water billed to
consumers. High levels of NRW reflect huge volumes of
water being lost through leaks, not being invoiced to
customers, or both [6].
A lack of understanding of the magnitude and sources of
NRW is one of the main reasons for insufficient NRW
reduction efforts around the world. Only ly by quantifying
NRW and its components and calculating appropriate
performance indicators can the NRW situation be properly
understood, cost estimates be made, and a fair contract model
be developed [7,8,9]. It is also of utmost importance to have
good pressure
ressure and supply time data, as those have a
fundamental impact on leakage levels and its
reduction/increase potential.
The existence of NRW is contributed by a number of
reasons, depending on the technological development level
and its purpose in the industry [7].. The developed countries
have managed to control the level of NRW to the lower level
like Singapore with 5% and Vitens in the Netherlands with 6%
and below, while the developing countries including
Tanzania with an average of 35.2% of NRW for regional reg
UWSAs [8].. In Tanzania, for instance the suggested level is
20% or below as per the regulator’s (EWURA),
(EWURA) but none of
the water Authorities has ever met that level [7]. This
research aims to examine the factors causing Non-Revenue
Non
Water (NRW) in Arushaa Urban Water supply and Sewerage Figure 1. A Map of Study Site: Tanzania Locating Arusha City.
City
Authority (AUWSA) as well as quality of pipe water
supplied in Arusha city. 2.2. Population and Sampling Procedures
It is the intention of this study to determine the knowledge
and understanding of NRW for Arusha Urban Water Supply Multistage sampling technique was used to select, one
Authority management in relation on with poor management hundred and forty (140) respondents. Questionnaires were
system, equity and quality of potable water supply in rapid distributed to some of AUWSA employees (Management
growth of city like Arusha Municipality. We intend to team, Assistants/Supervisors, Technicians/Meter Readers,
develop strategy for management ment of non revenue water Normal staff) and customers of different categories
(NRW) to gain a better understanding of the reasons for (Domestic, Commercial, Industrial and Parastatal). The
NRW and the he factors which influence its components. Then choice of these units of inquiry is made basing on their
techniques and procedures can be developed and tailored to involvement, knowledge, experience and number of years
the specific characteristics of the network and local stayed in AUWSA. Out of 140 people 21 (15%) were
influencing factors, to tackle each of the components in order interviewed and 119 (85%) responded through questionnaire
of priority. This diagnostic approach, roach, followed by the as shown in Table 1.
practical implementation of solutions which are practicable Table 1. Sampling Frame.
Frame
and achievable, can be applied to any water company,
anywhere in the world, to develop a strategy for NRW Unity of Inquiry Sample Size
Percent
management. AUWSA Intervie
Questionnaires Total (%)
Employees wed
Management team 6 0 6 100
2. Methodology Assistants/Supervis
6 0 6 100
ors
2.1. Description of Arusha City Technicians/Meter
10 5 15 100
Readers
o o
Arusha City is located between 2 and 6 S as well as Normal staff 35 8 43 100
longitude 34.5o and 38o E. The City is also located on the Domestic 46 6 52 87
southern slopes of Mount Meru lying at a height between Parastatal 6 2 8 80
1160m to 1450m above sea level (Figure 1). It lies on the Institutions 5 0 5 100
Great North road at the center between Cairo and Cape Town. Industrial 5 0 5 100
Arusha City is an industrial, international trading, tourism Total 119 21 140 89
 Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2015; 4(6): 86-91 88

The main tools for data collection were review of relevant lost from the distribution system without authorization [11].
literature, household survey with a structured questionnaire, When required to identify the main causes of Non-Revenue
semi-structured interviews with key informants within the Water in Arusha Urban Water Supply and Sewerage
study areas. Data analysis was carried out using the Authority, the results for respondents are as shown on the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16.0) figure 2.
as well as content analysis for qualitative data.
2.3. Microbiological Analysis

Total and Faecal bacteria were analysed using membrane

techniques as described in American Health Public
Association [10] whereby 100 ml of undiluted and diluted (1
- 10 times) water sample were filtered through 0.45 µm pore
size membrane filters. The filters were transferred to two
selective media where FC was grown on m-FC broth and TC
was grown on m-Endo broth. Plates for Faecal coliform (FC)
bacteria were incubated at 44.5 ± 0.5 Cº for 24 hrs. FC
colonies appeared blue while plates for total coliform (TC)
bacteria incubated at 37 ± 0.5 Cº for 24 hours were reddish in Figure 2. Reasons for an Increase in Non Revenue Water
color. Environmental parameter (pH), were measured in situ
at each station using a multi-parameter water quality checker 3.1. Water Leakage
(HoribaU-10, Japan).
Physical losses can occur along the entire distribution
system, from storage reservoirs and the primary network to
3. Results and Discussion the smallest service connections. Sometimes, when people
think about leakage, they normally think of big and
In this development water authorities faced a number of
spectacular pipe bursts. These often cause a lot of damage but
challenges like water production which does not meet
are insignificant in volume compared to all the other leaks
demand and old infrastructures resulting to water losses that
that do not come to the surface.
lessen financial capability of the water utilities hence poor
In Arusha municipality leakage of water pipes is estimated
services. For many years, the most widely used performance
to be around 30% [12]. When management were interviewed
indicators in the World and Tanzania is not exception for
they identified it is due to different reasons including old and
Non-Revenue Water and Real (Physical) losses have been
poorly constructed pipelines, inadequate corrosion protection,
percentages loss. Water produced and delivered to the
poorly maintained valves, mechanical break and high
distribution system is intended to be sold to the customer not
pressure (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Pipe Bust Due to High Pressure in the Water System.

89 Josephat Alexander Saria: Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-revenue
Water: Case of Arusha Municipality

Figure 2 revealed that, 24% of respondents pointed out that wrong data capturing, improper customers records, water
the main causes of NRW in Arusha Water Supply and meter reversal, wrong water meter installations and unread
Sewerage Authority was caused by unauthorized connections water meters) and 16% of respondents mentioned that NRW
(illegal and by pass); 30% of respondents pointed out that was caused by overflow from storage tanks and break
NRW in AUWSA was caused by leakages from water system pressure tanks.
due to age of the water supply system (Figure 4). The most commonly used indicator to measure NRW is the
percentage of NRW as a share of water produced. When
losses in terms of absolute volume are constant the
percentage of NRW varies greatly with total water use, i.e. if
water use increases and the volume of losses remains
constant the percentage of NRW declines. This problem can
be eliminated by measuring NRW not as a share, but in terms
of absolute losses per connection per day, as recommended
by other researchers [9]. Nevertheless, the use of percentage
figures to compare levels of NRW remains common despite
its shortcomings. Losses per kilometer of network are more
appropriate to benchmark real losses, while losses per
connection are more appropriate to benchmark apparent
losses. On average, Arusha WSSA continued to have the
Figure 4. Aged Water Pipe Broken.
highest NRW (m3 lost per km per day) which was 60.2m3 of
About 16% of respondents mentioned that the causes of water per day in a kilometer length of the distribution
water losses caused by stopped/unfunction water meters network. Previously in 2011/12, Arusha WSSA had the
(bulk and customer water meters), whilst 14% respondents highest volume of 54.48 m3 of water lost per km per day
enumerated that non- revenue water was caused by other (Figure 5).
reasons like corruption and bribery among meter readers,

Figure 5. NRW Measured in a Kilometer Length of the Pipe Network in One Day [7].

Apart from Arusha Municipality having high volume of

water lost per kilometer in a day, also Arusha WSSA 3.2. Unhygienic Water Supply
continued to have the highest water connection density in a Non Revenue Water gives negative impact on the quality
kilometer of the water distribution network with 132 of the national water supply services. It reflects the problem
connections per kilometer of water distribution network. of instability of water supply infrastructure. Damaged pipes
Meanwhile, Lindi WSSA remained with the lowest reported network, water supply interruption to the consumers and
water connections density of 15 connections per kilometer. quality of treated water supplied are among the subject that
All these are the big source of NRW. shall be given attention in ensuring high quality of water
 Journal of Water Resources and Ocean Science 2015; 4(6): 86-91 90

supply service.
The water runs through AUWSA pipe network is generally
of poor quality not only with regards to taste, smell,
appearance and temperature but also from a public health
point of view. The last is the worst, the consumer can be
misled, because the water can look clean and taste pleasant
and yet still contain pathogenic microorganisms. In the
interview with AUWSA officials they indicated
“…the main pipelines have been installed in phases
parallel with development of water works and matched with
the past consumer patterns in the different areas of Arusha
city, without regard to the development prognosis”.
This was inline with other study [13] which indicated
many of the main pipelines in the developing countries city Figure 6. Issues Identified by Customers on the Quality of Water.
today are of wrong dimensions causing many areas to suffer
from high pressure, too low or completely lack of water 3.3. Unauthorized Connection and Meter by-Passing
pressure. The combination of both leakage and low pressure
is a source of contamination of pipe water because it allows The urban poor are often blamed for high levels of NRW,
contaminants to siphon into the water system hence bacterial especially due to illegal connections. On the other hand, the
contamination (Table 2). poor are significantly affected by high water losses. While
theft of water in low-income communities is certainly a
Table 2. Analysis of Tape Water Samples (N = 10). reality in many African cities, its impact must be put in the
Sampling Site T.C. CFU/100ml F.C. CFU/100ml pH proper perspective. Poor connections and meter bypassing
Njiro 74 05 6.7- 7.2 (Figure 7) has been a major issue of concern and is
Naura 61 03 6.5 – 7.7 implicated a significant number of the corporation’s staff
involved in helping customers to carry out illegal
The responses showed that water from the taps is seen consumption in form of meter bypasses, meter
dirty (muddy) when there is a burst or broken pipe which tempering/reversal and under-reading. In addition, the
creates a leakage somewhere in the network allowing mud to corporation uses a set of forgiveness calls for both its
get into the network (Figure 6). Sometimes mud is seen in the employees and customers to, willingly, disclose illegal
taps when there is a new water connection made somewhere consumption. In one of the branches where illegal
in the neighbourhood. consumption was uncontrolled, more than 20% of the
The highest number of respondents more than 60% customer accounts were voluntarily surrendered as suspected
indicated that they have seen rubbishes like charcoal, muddy illegal connections by staff [11, 14].
and sand coming from their pipes.

Figure 7. Poor Connections and Meter By-Passing.

91 Josephat Alexander Saria: Effects of Water Pipe Leaks on Water Quality and on Non-revenue
Water: Case of Arusha Municipality

In the discussion with AUWSAs management and the [3] Thompson, J.; Porras, I.T.; Wood, E.; Tumewine, J.K.;
Annual reports the number of unauthorized connections Mujiwahuzi, M.R.; Katui -Katua, M. And Johnstone, N.
(2000), Waiting at the Tap: Changes in Urban Water use in
increased from 129 during financial year 2009/2010 to 304. East Africa Over Three Decades, Environment and
All these seem to be a big issue in having high NRW in Urbanization, 12(2) 37-52.
Arusha Municipality.
[4] Mukoyogo, S. M. (1987), Planning and Budgeting for O&M
of Rural Water Supplies, Seminar, Regional and District Water
4. Conclusion Committees.

Community awareness programmes about NRW to all [5] URT (2012), National Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of
consumers must be conducted to ensure that customer Finance, Tanzania in Figures, htt/www.nbs.go.tz .
confidence in the utility‘s services is maintained. A key [6] Farley, M. and Trow, S. (2003), Losses in Water Distribution
element in this is open communication. For example, the Networks, IWA Publishing.
public should be able to easily contact the utility to report
[7] URT (2013a), EWURA, Water Review Report 2012/13.
burst pipes, leakages, or other concerns. Water customers
must be sensitized by the AUWSA on the water loss on the [8] URT (2013b), Arusha Urban Water Supply and Sewerage
supply network. It was discovered that AUWSA conduct very Authority (AUWSA) (2013), Status of Water Supply and
few water customer awareness meeting and the few meetings Waste Water Disposal Services in Arusha City, Arusha,
Tanzania.
are conducted to very few customers during the National
Annual Water Week starting from 16th to 22nd March of every [9] Lambert, A. (2001), What do we know about Pressure:
year which is not enough. Leakage Relationships in Water Distribution Systems? IWA
Conference System Approach to Leakage Control and Water
Distribution Systems Management, Brno, Czech Republic.
Acknowledge
[10] APHA, (2005), Standard Methods for the Examination of
The author is extending his acknowledgements to the Water and Wastewater, 18th Ed., American Public Health
Arusha Water Supply and Sewerage Authority Management Association (APHA), American Water Works Association
(AWWA) and Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF),
team, DAWASCO management as well as Arusha city water Washington, D.C.
customers who participated in this study and all those who
participated in one way or another. Also I would like to [11] Farley M., Wyeth G., Ghazali Z.B.M., Istandar A., and Signh
extend my acknowledgement to Dr G. F. Mhando (MD) who S. (2008), The Manager’s Non-Revenue Water Handbook, A
Guide to Understanding Water Losses.
has being constantly encouraging me to study about bacterial
contamination due to wide spread of cholera in Tanzania. [12] AUWSA (2013), Non Revenue Water Management Project for
AUWSA - Arusha Urban Water Supply and Sewerage
Authority.
References [13] Thornton, J., Shaw, M., Aguiar, M. and Liemberger, R. (2005),
“How Low Can You Go? A Practical Approach to Pressure
[1] United Nations (2003), The UN World Water Development Control in Low Pressure Systems,” Conference Proceedings,
Report - Water for People, UNESCO and Berghan Books, IWA Leakage 2005 Conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Barcelona. Canada.
[2] WHO (2003), The Global Water Supply and Sani4tation [14] Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006), The
Assessment 2000 Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water in Developing
[http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globass Countries—How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at
essment/GlobalTOC.htm], (accessed on 04/08/14). Performance-Based Service Contracting, World Bank, Paper
No. 8, Dec 2006.

View publication stats