CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the practical file submitted by Aakanksha Singh (19033513003) in
partial fulfilment of the requirement of degree B.A (Honours) in Geography for the paper
‘GIS’ (Practical) (12291502) to the Department of Geography, Kalindi College, University of
Delhi, is a record of the student prepared under the supervision of Mr.Akhilesh Mishra.

Mr. Akhilesh Mishra

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
SIGNATURE
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I, take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to our principal
madam Dr. Naina Hasija and T.I.C, Dr. Seema Sahdev and our Professor Mr. Akhilesh
Mishra for their exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout
the course of this GIS practical, the blessings, help and guidance given by them shall carry
me a long way in the journey of life.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to my classmates for their
cordial support, valuable information and suggestions which helped me in completing this
task through various stages.

I would also thank the authorities of Kalindi College and the University of Delhi for
introducing such a valuable subject in our curriculum. It has been a great scope of study
which will help me throughout my life. I would also like to thank Mr. Rakesh Yadav, our lab
attendant who has helped me with the essential material needed for the practical file like
books, instruments and other equipment.

Last, I would extend my gratitude to my parents and all those people who have been
knowingly or unknowingly involved in my study.

Date: Ms. Aakanksha Singh

Contents
EXERCISE 3

GIS
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM

1.Introduction
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based information system used to
digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth surface and the
events that takes place on it. The meaning to represent digitally is to convert analog into a
digital form. "Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the fundamental
key of associating any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is a collection of information
about things and their relationship to each other, and 'geo- referencing' refers to the location
of a layer or coverage in space defined by the co-ordinate referencing system. Evolution of
GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners, engineers’ managers etc.
conduct the database management and analysis.

2.Defining GIS
A GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organizations, and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analysing and disseminating information about areas of
the earth. It is also defined as an information system designed to work with data referenced
by spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with
specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working
with the data. A Geographic Information System is a computer- based system which is used
to digitally reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the events that take
place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as it
is denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can
represent the given data geographically. The three perspectives of GIS are:

2.1 GIS as a Toolbox

GIS as a toolbox: if so, then what kind of tools? This is classification based on functional
tasks of GIS like
1. Tools for automating spatial data (data capture via digitizing, scanning, remote sensing,
satellite geo-position system)
2. For storing spatial data (data bases and data structures)
3. For spatial data management/retrieval
4. For analysis (overlay, buffering, proximity, network functions, spatial statistics)
5. For display of spatial data and analysis results

2.2 GIS COMPONENTS

A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and
methods.
A. Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
stand-alone or networked configurations. Hardware consists of the technical equipment
needed to run a GIS efficiently. It includes computer/s (standalone / networked) with good
configuration – good processing capability to run the GIS software, enough hard disk space
to store large spatial data, and input and output devices such as scanners, printers, etc.

B.Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyse, and display
geographic information.
Key software components are:

• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

• A database management system (DBMS)

• Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization

• A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

GIS software helps to store, analyse, and display geographic information in the form of
maps and reports. It provides a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for easy display and
access to tools for input, visualizing, processing, editing, analysing and querying
geographic data. Data is accessed and managed through Data Base Management
System (DBMS).

C. Data
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related
tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS
will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data. The most
important GIS component is the data – how it is managed and accessed. Data is stored as
geographic data (spatial data) and related tabular data (non-spatial data). Data comes in
various formats, and GIS integrates such spatial data and non-spatial data by using DBMS. It
is the key functionality of GIS that helps in organizing, managing and accessing data.
Documentation of GIS datasets is known as metadata. Metadata contains such information
as the coordinate system, when the data was created, when it was 34 last updated, who
created it and how to contact them and definitions for any of the code attribute data.There
are many ways that GIS data can be collected. Head up digitizing (the process of tracing GIS
data directly on the screen), LiDAR, drones, GPS, and satellites are some of the ways GIS
data is created.

D. People
People in GIS are technical persons (GIS managers, database administrators, specialists,
analysts, and programmers) who design and maintain the GIS work and those who use
it. They are the ones who make GIS work. People in GIS can be categorized into:
viewers – the people who just use GIS for reference; general users – who use GIS for
business, services, and making decisions such as planners, scientists, engineers, etc; GIS
specialists: who is the backbone of GIS and maintain, process and analyse geographic
data. They provide technical support to the users.

E. Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. To make a GIS
system work properly requires not only the necessary investments in hardware,
software and data, but also requires knowledge to utilize the GIS technology. The
methods are the procedure followed to answer the question need to be resolved.
Method in GIS includes how the data will be accessed, stored, managed, processed,
analysed, and finally presented as output for application.
CHAPTER – 1
1.1 EVOLUTION OF GI
SCIENCE
GI SCIENCE Introduction

Definition:

GI Science (Geographic Information Science) is a scholarly discipline that addresses

fundamental issues surrounding the use of a variety of digital technologies to handle
geographic information; namely, information about places, activities and phenomenon
on and near the surface of the Earth that are stored in maps or images.

GI Science includes the existing technologies and research areas of GIS (Geographic
Information Systems), cartography, geodesy (measurement of the Earth itself),
surveying, global positioning system and many more. GI Science therefore includes
questions of spatial data structure, meaning, cognition, visualization & many more and
thus overlaps with the domains of several traditional disciplines that are concerned
with how humans interact with machines. It is important to make a distinction
between GIS and GI Science.

o While GIS is concerned primarily with the hardware and software for capturing,
manipulating and representing geographic data & information, GISCIENCE is
essentially the “science behind GIS” or “the science behind the systems.”

EVOLUTION:
Computer-based GIS technology revolutionized the processes of recording and disseminating
geographic information and invoked new possibilities to represent, analyse and compute
geography. Since its conception, the term “GIS” was often referenced exclusively to computer-
based GIS. Coppock & Rhind (1991) characterized the early development of computerised GIS into
four phases from 1960 to1990.

A place of
Pioneers
(1960-75)

A phase of A phase of
user National
dominance EVOLUTION drivers
1990s (1973-80s)

A phase of
commercial
dominance
1980s

EDUCATION IN GI SCIENCE:

As the adoption of GIS technology and the principle increase across academic,
government and commercial sectors, these has been an increasing emphasis on
ensuring an adequately trained and educated workforce in GI Science. Each year the
demand by university students for courses not only in GIS but also in GI Science has
increased, as has the demand for this coursework by geospatial professionals. Further,
the advances in the technology & the research have spawned a national demand for
sequences of courses external to degree programs, hence the proliferation of
certificates in GIS, in remote sensing, in surveying and the like.
The paper highlighted scientific problems unique to geographical data and established
the topical content for GI Science. Since then, many organizations and journals
adopted the term GI Science over GIS. Efforts of the academic community with most
participants from Geography, established the University Consortium for
Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) in 1994 and through community efforts
defined GI Science as “the development and use of theories, methods, technology and
data for understanding geographic processes, relationships and patterns. The
transformation of geographic data into useful information is central to geographic
information science.” – (UCGIS, 2002, Mark, 2003).

INSTITUTIONS AND GI DATA SHARING

Data sharing is the practice of making data used for scholarly research available to other
investigators. Many funding agencies, institutions, and publication venues have policies
regarding data sharing because transparency and openness are considered by many to be
part of the scientific method.

A number of funding agencies and science journals require authors of peer-reviewed

papers to share any supplemental information (raw data, statistical methods or source
code) necessary to understand, develop or reproduce published research. A great deal of
scientific research is not subject to data sharing requirements, and many of these
policies have liberal exceptions. In the absence of any binding requirement, data sharing
is at the discretion of the scientists themselves. In addition, in certain situations
governments and institutions prohibit or severely limit data sharing to protect
proprietary interests, national security, and subject/patient/victim confidentiality. Data
sharing may also be restricted to protect institutions and scientists from use of data for
political purposes. If you have ever read my blog, I’m sure you’ve seen this Venn
diagram: what is data science statistics coding business domain knowledge I show it
quite often — and it’s really important. It says that if you want to be a data scientist, you
have to be good at three things:

 Statistics

 Coding

 Business

Coding
Business
Usually, you will use your data for 3 major things in your data science projects:
Data analysis (e.g. reporting, optimization, etc.)
Predictive analytics (predicting the future)
To build a data-based product (e.g. a self-teaching chatbot, a recommendation system,
etc.)
The word data analysis refers to the most conventional way of using your data. You run
analyses to understand what happened in the past and where are you now. Let’s say you
have this chart outlining the first 16 months of your product sales:
Governments, industry leaders, academics, and nongovernmental organizations trust us
to connect them with the analytic knowledge they need to make the critical decisions
that shape the planet. For more than 40 years, Esri has cultivated collaborative
relationships with partners who share our commitment to solving earth’s most pressing
challenges with geographic expertise and rational resolve. Today, we believe that
geography is at the heart of a more resilient and sustainable future. Creating responsible
products and solutions drives our passion for improving quality of life everywhere.
1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL

INFORMATION SYSTEM:

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION-
Geographical Information System is a system of computer software, hardware
and data that makes it possible to enter, manipulate, analyse and present data and
information that is tied to a location on the earth’s surface. There are different
definitions for GIS, each developed from a different perspective or disciplinary
origin. Defining a GIS can be done either by explaining what it can
do(functions) or by looking at the components. Both are important to really
understand a GIS and use it optimally. An analysis of the three letters of the
acronym. GIS gives a clear picture of what is it all about:

G: Geographic- Implies an interest in the spatial identity or locality of certain

entities on, under or above the surface of the earth.

I: Information- Implies the need to be informed in order to make decisions.

Data or raw facts are interpreted to create information that is useful for decision
making.

S: System- Implies the need for staff, computer hardware and procedures, which
can produce the information on topics required for decision making that is data
collection, processing and Presentation.
 ⮚ A GIS is a computer- assisted system for the collection, storage,
management, analysis and representation of Geo- referenced data to
support decision- making.
⮚ A GIS is a computer-based tool for mapping and analysing things that
exist and events that happen on earth. GIS technology integrates common
database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique
visualisation and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps-
Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI).

COMPONENTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM

HARDWARE

METHODS SOFTWARE

PEOPLE DATA

There are 5 Components of a working GIS:

1. HARDWARE
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
standalone or networked configurations.

2. SOFTWARE
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyse, and display
geographic information. Key software components are:
✔ A database management system (DBMS)
✔ Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
✔ Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
✔ A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.

3.PEOPLE
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and to
develop plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system, to those who use it to help them do their everyday work.

4. METHODS
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

5. DATA
Maybe the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related
tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider. Most
GIS employ a DBMS to create and maintain a database to help organize and manage
data. The data that a GIS operates on consists of any data bearing a definable
relationship to space, including any data about things and events that occur in nature. At
one time this consisted of hard-copy data, like traditional cartographic maps, surveyor’s
logs, demographic statistics, geographic reports, and descriptions from the field.
Advances in spatial data collection, classification, and accuracy have allowed more and
more standard digital base-maps to become available at different scales.
CHAPTER 2

2.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING

SYSTEM (GPS)-

2.2 PRINCIPLES AND USES

INTRODUCTION

GPS is Global Positioning System. A network of satellites that continuously transmit coded
information, which makes it possible precisely identify location on earth by measuring
distance from the satellites. GPS is funded by and controlled by the U. S. Department of
Defense (DOD). While there are many thousands of civil users of GPS world-wide, the
system was designed for and is operated by the U. S. military. GPS provides specially coded
satellite signals that can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to compute
position, velocity and time. Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions in three
dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock.

PRINCIPLES OF GPS

The functioning or action of Global Positioning System is based on the mathematical

principle of ‘Trilateration’. ‘Trilateration’ can be defined as the process of determining
absolute or relative locations of points by measurement of distances, using the geometry
of circles, spheres finding our position on earth once the location of GPS satellite
orbiting the earth and their distance from our location are known.

In the early 1970s, the United States department of Defence proposed a Global
Positioning System (GPS) called NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite Timing and ranging).
The first NAVSTAR satellite was launched by the U.S. Air Force in the early 1978 for
military use. In the 1980s it was expanded for civilian use.

➢ Each satellite is built to last 10 years, while replacements are built constantly.

➢ The satellites are powered by solar panels (primary service).

➢ There are small rocket boosters that keep the satellite flying on a correct and
predicted path.

➢ Each satellite has 4 atomic clocks of which only one is used. The clocks are very
precise and enable GPS to provide the most accurate timing system.
Uses of GPS
The Global Positioning System has 5 users

1. Location- determining a position

2. Navigation- getting from one location to another

3. Tracking- monitoring object or personal movement.

4. Mapping- creating Maps of the world
5. Timing- making it possible to take precise time measurements

1.LOCATION-

The GPS receiver gets a signal from each GPS satellite. The satellite transmits the exact time the
signals are sent. The GPS tells how far it is from each satellite by subtracting the time, the signal
was transmitted from the time the signal was received. The GPS receiver that determines our
position in three dimensions- East, North and altitude by the travel time of the GPS signals from
four or more satellite and their exact position in the Sky.

2.NAVIGATION-

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites. The
NAVSTAR and GLONASS systems use the principle of trilateration, which means the user's
receiver determines the distance from the user to each of several satellites. Since the positions of
the satellites are known, either through previous reporting or as part of the satellites broadcast
information the user's position can be calculated. Display of the position vehicle can be taken on
an instrument of the size of a mobile phone. a service providing central station can then observe
the position.

3.TRACKING-

GPS tracking is a method of working out exactly where is something. a system may be placed in
a vehicle, on a cell phone or other device. a GPS tracking system uses the GNNS network, rich
subsumes a range of satellites that use microwaves signals that are transmitted to GPS devices to
give information on location, vehicle, speed, time and direction.
4.TIMING-

Each GPS satellite contains multiple atomic clocks that contributes very precise time data to
GPS signals. the receivers he called these signals, and effectively synchronize each receiver to
the atomic clocks.

2.3 MILITARY USES FOR GPS

The system made its public debut to rave reviews in the 1991 Gulf War. U.S. troops
used it for navigation on land, sea, and in the air, for targeting of bombs, and for on-
board missile guidance. GPS allowed U.S. ground troops to move swiftly and accurately
through the vast, featureless desert of the Arabian Peninsula. GPS receivers were used
in several aircraft, including F-16 fighters, KC-135 aerial refuelers, and B-2 bombers
Navy ships used them for rendezvous, minesweeping, and aircraft operations. GPS has
become important for nearly all military operations and weapons systems. In addition, it
is used on satellites to obtain highly accurate orbit data and to control spacecraft
orientation.

2.4 GPS USES IN EVERYDAY LIFE

The GPS system was developed to meet military needs of the Department of Defence,
but new ways to use its capabilities are continually being found. Today, GPS is saving
lives, helping society in many other ways.
1.Aircraft, Shipping and Automobile navigation
Airlines have saved millions of dollars by using GPS to hone their flight plans. GPS can
be used for instrument landing at small, as well as large, airports and is making new air-
avoidance systems possible. GPS not only makes flying safer, but also more efficient.
And GPS saves fuel and extends an aircraft`s range by ensuring pilots don`t stray from
the most direct routes to their destinations. GPS accuracy will also allow closer aircraft
separations on more direct routes, which in turn means more planes can occupy our
limited airspace. Shipping companies equip their tankers and freighters with GPS for
navigation and to record and control the movement of their-vessels. Automobile
manufacturers are offering moving-map displays guided by GPS receivers as an option
on new vehicles so that drivers not only can find out where they are but also can be
given directions on display screens. In Japan, 500,000 automobiles have already been
equipped with a GPS-based navigation system.

2. Transportation and Emergency

Vehicle tracking is one of the fastest-growing GPS applications. GPS-equipped fleet
vehicles, public transportation systems, delivery trucks, and courier services use
receivers to monitor their locations at all times and to speed deliveries. GPS is also
helping to save lives. any police, fire, and emergency medical service units are using
GPS receivers to determine the police car, fire truck, or ambulance nearest to an
emergency, enabling the quickest possible response in life-or-death situations. And they
use GPS to pinpoint destinations and map their routes.

3. Mapping
Mapping is the art and science of using GPS to locate items, then create maps and
models of everything in the world. Because it is not affected by force of gravity, GPS
can be used to draw map accurately. And GPS is applied to many kinds of
measurement. because it can grasp a wide region quickly and exactly.

4. Surveying
In the field of wildlife management, threatened species such as the Mojave Desert
tortoise are being fitted with GPS receivers and tiny transmitters to help determine
population patterns and possible sources of disease. GPS-equipped balloons are
monitoring goals in the ozone layer over the polar regions, and air quality is being
monitored using GPS receivers. Buoys tracking major oil spills transmit data using GPS.
Also, earth scientists use GPS to monitor earthquakes and the shifting of the earth`s
tectonic plates. And GPS can help recover from the effects of the earthquake. And
Satellite builders use GPS receivers to track the positions of their satellites.

5. Clocks for computer time synchronization

GPS is also used to disseminate precise time, time intervals, and frequency. Knowing
that a group of timed events is perfectly synchronized is very important. GPS makes the
job of "synchronizing our watches" easy and reliable. Telecommunications companies
increasingly rely on GPS to synchronize their land-based digital networks, comparing
their reference clocks directly with GPS time.

6. Construction
During construction of the tunnel under the English Channel, British and French crews
started digging from opposite ends: one from Dover, England, one from Calais, France.
They relied on GPS receivers outside the tunnel to check their positions along the way
and to make sure they met exactly in the middle. Otherwise, the tunnel might have been
crooked. Using GPS, construction workers can accurately measure and align. It is now
possible to accurately measure any point in three dimensions anywhere on the site. So
GPS allow surveyors to easily stakeout designs of roads, bridges and tunnels.

7. Agriculture
GPS farming systems provide precise guidance for field operations, or collection of map
data on tillage, applications, planting, weeds, insect and disease infestations, cultivation
and irrigation. Machine Control systems automate equipment to save time and costs
associated with field operators. Field data can be used to analyse management practices
and determine optimal strategies for infield operations. For example, a farming GIS
database might include layers on field topography, soil types, surface drainage,
subsurface drainage, soil testing results, rainfall, irrigation, chemical application rates,
and crop yield. 8. And so forth - general leisure (mountaineering, fishing), management
of forest.

CONCLUSION

The future of GPS appears to be virtually unlimited. Technological fantasies abound.

The system provides a novel, unique, and instantly available address for every square
yard on the surface of the planet--a new international standard for locations and
distances. To the computers of the world, at least, our locations may be defined not by a
street address, a city, and a state, but by a longitude and a latitude. With the GPS
location of services stored with phone numbers in computerized "yellow pages," the
search for a local restaurant of the nearest gas station in any city, town, or suburb will be
completed in an instant. With GPS, the world has been given a technology of
unbounded promise, born in the laboratories of scientists who were motivated by their
own curiosity to probe the nature of the universe and our world, and built on the fruits of
publicly supported basic research.
CHAPTER 3

GIS DATA STRUCTURE

TYPES: SPATIAL AND NON-

SPATIAL DATA

RASTER AND VECTOR DATA

STRUCTURE

3.1 TYPES OF DATA IN GIS

GIS data can be broadly described as- Spatial data and Non- spatial data.

SPATIAL DATA
Spatial data is geographical representation of features. In other words, spatial data is
what we actually see in the form of maps (containing real-world features) on a computer
screen. Spatial data can further be divided into two types- vector and raster data.

SPATIAL DATA CREATION

Spatial data also known as geospatial data, is information about a physical object that
can be represented by numerical values in a geographic coordinate system. Generally
speaking, spatial data represents the location, size and shape of an object on planet Earth
such as a building, lake, mountain or township. Spatial data may also include attributes
that provide more information about the entity that is being represented. Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) or other specialized software applications can be used to
access, visualise, manipulate and analyse geospatial data. Spatial data comprise the
relative geographic information about the earth and its features. A pair of latitude and
longitude coordinates defines a specific location on earth. Spatial data are of two types
according to the storing technique, namely, raster data and vector data. Raster data are
composed of grid cells identified by rows and columns. The whole geographic area is
divided into groups of individual cells, which represent an image. Satellite images,
photographs, scanned images, etc., are examples of raster data.

Sources of raster data

Raster data can be obtained in a number of ways. Two of the most common ways are
aerial photography and satellite imagery. In aerial photography, an aeroplane flies over
an area with a camera mounted underneath it. The photographs are then imported into a
computer and georeferenced. Satellite imagery is created when satellites orbiting the
earth point special digital cameras towards the earth and then take an image of the area
on earth they are passing over. Once the image has been taken it is sent back to earth
using radio signals to special receiving stations. The process of capturing raster data
from an aeroplane or satellite is called remote sensing. Sometimes raster data are created
from vector data because the data owners want to share the data in an easy-to-use
format. For example, a company with road, rail, cadastral and other vector datasets may
choose to generate a raster version of these datasets so that employees can view these
datasets in a web browser. This is normally only useful if the attributes, that users need
to be aware of, can be represented on the map with labels or symbology. If the user
needs to look at the attribute table for the data, providing it in raster format could be a
bad choice because raster layers do not usually have any attribute data associated with
them.
Vector Data
Vector data represents any geographical feature through point, line or polygon or
combination of these. A representation of the world using points, lines, and polygons.
These data are created by digitizing the base data. They store information in x, y
coordinates. Vectors models are used to store data, which have discrete boundaries like
country borders, land parcels and roads. Vector models are useful for storing data that
has discrete boundaries, such as country borders, land parcels, and streets.

1. Point
A point in GIS is represented by one pair of coordinates (x & y). It is considered as
dimension-less object. Most of the times a point represents location of a feature (like
cities, wells, villages etc.).

Characteristic of Points:

• Represented as a single ‘dot ‘on the map.

• Points are used to indicate discrete locations.
• They usually have a single X, Y coordinate.
• Used to represent a feature that is too small to be displayed as a line or area.

2. Line
The line or arc contains at least two pairs of coordinates (say- x1, y1 & x2, y2). In other
words a line should connect minimum two points. Start and end points of a line are referred
as nodes while points on curves.
A are referred as vertices. Points at intersections are also called as nodes. Roads, railway
tracks, streams etc. are generally represented by line.

Characteristic of Polylines:
 Ordered sets of points that have the look of a straight line or a curved arc
depending upon the feature it describes
 They have a length but no width
 They are used to represent a geographical feature that is too narrow to have area,
such as a stream or a road.

3. Polygon
In simple terms, polygon is a closed line with area. It takes minimum three pairs of
coordinates to represent an area or polygon. Extent of cities, forests, land use etc. is
represented by polygon.

Characteristic of a Polygon:
• Closed features whose boundary encloses a homogenous area
• Have an area that is given by the arcs/lines that make the boundary • Are used to
represent features that have area

Raster Data
Raster data is made up of pixels. It is an array of grid cells with columns and rows. Each
and every geographical feature is represented only through pixels in raster data. There is
nothing like point, line or polygon. If it is a point, in raster data it will be a single pixel,
a line will be represented as linear arrangement of pixels and an area or polygon will be
represented by contiguous neighbouring pixels with similar values. In raster data one
pixel contain only one value (unlike vector data where a point, a line or a polygon may
have number of values or attributes) that’s why only one geographical feature can be
represented by a single set of pixels or grid cells. Hence a number of raster layers are
required if multiple features are to be considered (For example- land use, soil type,
forest density, topography etc.). As discussed earlier digital satellite images are also in
raster format.

• While vector features use geometry (points, polylines and polygons) to represent the
real world, raster data takes a different approach. Raster data is made up of a matrix of
pixels (also called cells), each containing a value that represents the conditions for the
area covered by that cell.

• A raster dataset is composed of rows (running across) and columns (running down) of
pixels (also known as cells). Each pixel represents a geographical region, and the
value in that pixel represents some characteristic of that region.
Advantage and disadvantage of using raster and vector data
• Raster data model record value of all the points of the area covered which required
more data storage than model represented by the vector model.

• Raster data is less expensive to create computationally compare to vector graphics.

• Raster data has issue while overlaying multiple images.
• Vector data are easily overlaid, for example overlaying roads, rivers, land use are
easier than raster data.
• Vector data are easier to scale, re-project or register.
• Vector data are more compatible with the relational database management system.
• Vector file sizes are much smaller than raster image file.
Vector data are easier to update like adding river stream but has to be recreated for the raster
image

NON-SPATIAL DATA
Attributes attached to spatial data are referred to as non-spatial data. Whatever spatial
data we see in the form of a colourful map on a computer screen is a presentation of
information which remains stored in the form attribute tables. Attributes of spatial data
must contain unique identifier for each object. There may be other field also containing
properties/information related a spatial feature. Attribute table of spatial data also
contains ‘x’ and ‘y’ location (i.e., latitude/longitude or easting/northing) of features;
however, in some GIS software these columns may remain ‘invisible’.
 For example- if we are doing demographic analysis of villages then attributes of each
point (representing a village) must have a unique village ID and other demographic
information like total population, number of males & females, number of children etc.
In another example- if we are doing some GIS analysis related to road then each road
must have its unique Road ID. Other attributes may include like road length, road width,
current traffic volume, number of stations etc.

It is also known attribute or characteristic data. It consists of the characteristics of

spatial features which are independent of all geometric considerations. For example, the
non-spatial data of town comprise of name of the town, its population, settlement type,
means of transportation and communication, administration set-up, education
institutions, occupations and facilities. It is important to note that all the above-
mentioned data of town are not dependent on their location identities. Hence, non-
spatial data is independent from location information.

APPLICATIONS OF GIS:

Various applications of GIS are as follows:

ENVIRONMENT: By far, the heaviest users are for the environment. For example,
conservationists use GIS for climate change, groundwater studies and impact
assessments.

MILITARY AND DEFENSE: Military are heavy users for GIS. They use it for
location intelligence, logistics management and spy satellites.

AGRICULTURE: Farmers use it for precision farming, soil mapping and crop
productivity.

FORESTRY: Foresters manage timber, track deforestation and inventory forest stands
with GIS.

BUSINESS: More on the business side of things, GIS is for site selection, consumer
profiling and customer prospecting.

REAL ESTATE: Examples in real estate include market analysis, home valuations and
zoning.

PUBLIC SAFETY: GIS shows the spread of disease, disaster response and public health
CHAPTER 4

GIS DATA ANALYSIS

EXERCISE 4

4.1 GEOREFERENCING

GEOREFERENCING

Georeferencing means that the internal coordinate system of a map or aerial photo
image that can be related to a ground system of geographic coordinates. The relevant
coordinate transforms are typically stored within the image file (Geo PDF and Geo TIFF
are examples), though there are many possible mechanisms for implementing
georeferencing. The most visible effect of georeferencing is that display software can
show ground coordinates (such as latitude/longitude or UTM coordinates) and also
measure ground distances and areas. In other words, Georeferencing means to associate
something with locations in physical space. The term is commonly used in the
geographic information systems (GIS) field to describe the process of associating a
physical map or raster image of a map with spatial locations. It may be applied to any
kind of object or structure that can be related to a geographical location, such as points
of interest, roads, places, bridges, or buildings. Geographic locations are most
commonly represented using a coordinate reference system, which in turn can be related
to a geodetic reference system such as WGS-84.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOREFERENCING
▪ Georeferencing is crucial for making aerial and satellite imagery, usually raster
images, useful for mapping as it explains how other data, such as the above GPS
points, relate to the imagery.

▪ Different maps use different projection systems. Georeferencing tool contain

methods to combine and overlay these maps with minimum distortions.

▪ This technique helps in flattening the curved area of a small region into a flat
surface for referencing purposes.

▪ Data obtained from the surveying may be given at a point of reference from
topographic maps by this application.

• It may be required to establish the significant relationship between the social survey
results by the Georeferencing application.
Steps involved in Georeferencing

1. Click on the icon of QGIS 3.14.15(Pi) which was downloaded earlier. A box will
appear and will get loaded after a while physical map or raster image of a map with spatial
locations. It may be applied to any kind of object or structure that can be related to a geographical
location, such as points of interest, roads, places, bridges, or buildings. Geographic locations are
most commonly represented using a coordinate reference system, which in turn can be related to a
geodetic reference system such as WGS-84.