Introduction of Anatomy

Anatomy is the science that describes the form and structure of the organism’s body.
Anatomical studies can be done on dead and living bodies both macroscopic by the naked
eye and microscopic by using the microscope.
Anatomical Terms:
* Superficial: denotes a position nearer to the surface (skin).
* Deep: means a position farther away from the surface.
* Superior: nearer to the head.
* Inferior: nearer to the feet.
* Anterior (ventral): nearer to the front.
* Posterior (dorsal): nearer to the back.
* Medial: nearer to the median plane.
* Lateral: farther away from median plane.
* Middle: means exactly midway between two fixed points.
* Proximal: nearer to trunk or point of origin.
* Distal: farther away from trunk or point of origin.
* Internal: nearer to the cavity of the organ (hollow organ).
* External: away from the cavity of the organ (hollow organ).

Terms of position
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* Erect anatomical position
The body is standing upright; eyes are looking horizontally forwards, upper limbs are
stretched by the side of the trunk, palms are facing forwards, lower limbs parallel and feet
are directed forwards.
* Supine position: the body lies on its back.
* Prone position: the body lies on its face.

Anatomical planes and lines:

* Coronal plane: it is a vertical plane which divides the body into anterior (ventral) part
and posterior (dorsal).
* Horizontal plane: it is a transverse plane which divides the body into upper (superior) and
lower (inferior) parts.
* Sagittal plane: it is a vertical plane which divides the body into right and left halves .

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 Structure of the Body
The cell

The cell is the structural and functional unit of the body.

The cells of the body are grouped to form:

1.Tissues: made of fixed cells connected together

2.Cells of the body fluids: like blood and lymph cells.

The tissue

Tissue is made of a large number of fixed cells having the same function. Four basic tissues are

recognized in the body:

1. The epithelial tissue.

2. The connective tissue.

3. The muscular tissue.

4. The nervous tissue.

An organ:

Is formed by groups of tissues which unite in a special way and perform a specific function.

A system:

Is formed of a group of organs associated together to form a functional unit.

The human body is formed of many systems.

Each system is formed of some organs (e.g. heart, arteries and veins form CVS)

Connective Tissue
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Connective tissue includes:
1. The sheets of fascia.
2. Cartilage.
3. Bones.
Fasciae of the Body
The term fascia is applied to the membrane-like sheets of fibro-areolar connective tissue which
covers or binds; the tissues or organs. It is either external or internal.
Types of external fascia:
I-Superficial fascia
It is subcutaneous connective tissue , made of loose elastic fibers and variable amount of
fat.
Functions
1. It allows considerable movement of the skin over the under laying structures.
2. Transmits the nerves and blood vessels and lymphatic to and from the skin.
3. It is the main site for fat storage
a. Food reserve.
b. Heat insulator:.
c. Fat gives the body its rounded contours
d. Fat forms pads for protection.
N.B. Amount of fat is more in : females , young aged persons and
especial sites as in breast
Fat is absent in eye lids, scrotum and penis .
4. Contains muscles : e g. muscles of expression in the face and dartos muscle in
scrotum .
5. Contains many glands : mammary gland and sweat glands.

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 II. Deep fascia
.It is thick, dense, tense, inelastic, strong membrane of connective tissue.
.It is formed by regularly arranged collagenous fibers.
.It covers the whole body except in certain regions as in the face and in the anterior abdominal
wall where it is absent
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Functions deep fascia
1. It keeps the underlying structures in its position .
2. It forms intermuscular septum: partition between different muscle groups.
3. It forms the interosseous membrane of the forearm and leg which fixes the bones together
4. It forms retinaculum (a thick transverse band) at wrist and ankle to retain the muscle tendons
in their positions..
5. It forms aponeurosis in the palm and sole of the foot for protection of deeper
structures.
6. It forms sheaths for large blood vessels and nerves e.g. carotid sheath.
7. It gives capsular covering for the glands e.g. thyroid
8. It helps venous and lymphatic return by contraction of muscle against the strong deep
fascia.

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 Internal fascia

It lines the cavities of the body , covers the organs and makes ligaments to
support the organs in their position .

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 The skeletal System (Bones)
. Bones - a living tissue- is highly specialized, hard form of connective tissue.
Bone forms with cartilage the skeletal tissue of the body
Functions of the bones
1. It gives the form of the body.
3. It transmits weight to the ground.
4. It protects the vital structures e.g. skull protects the brain,
5. It forms the joints which is the mechanical basis for movement.
6. Muscular attachments
7. Stores. calcium and phosphorus
8. New blood cells from bone marrow.

Types of the bones

I. According to the type of ossification
1. Membranous ossification in which the bones are formed from membranous
mesenchymal tissue e.g. clavicle, skull cap and some facial bones.

2. Cartilaginous ossification in which the mesenchymal tissue forms model of the bone
which is chondrified (transformed into cartilage).Later on the cartilage is replaced by
bones e.g. base of skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum and long bones of upper and
lower limbs .

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II. According to the histological structure

1. Compact bone: is dense in texture forms the surface of bone e.g. cortex of long
bone.
2. Spongy bone: is formed of network of bone trabeculae with spaces in between
containing the bone marrow

III. According to the position in the body

1. Axial bones: forms the axis of the body and include the skull, mandible , vertebral
column and thoracic cage (ribs and sternum).
2. Appendicular bones: bones of the upper and lower limbs.

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IV. According the shape of the bones
1. long bones: consists of cylindrical body (shaft) and two expanded ends
: (for example humerus – femur)
 The upper and lower epiphyses are expanded ends of the bone and are formed of a
mass of spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone .It has a smooth
articular surface that is covered by the hyaline articular cartilage. They are shared in
the formation of the joints. Examples: most of the limbs .
 The shaft is also called a “diaphysis”: It is formed of a tube of the compact bone
filled by the bone marrow and is covered by the periosteum
 The metaphysis: are the expanded parts of the bone next to diaphysis.
Metaphysis are the most active parts during bone growth. They have no
medullary canal.
 Epiphyseal plate of hyaline cartilage lies between the epiphyses and metaphysis
in the growing bone and is responsible for growth of bone in length . It ossifies
about 18 to 21 years old
 The endosteum: It is a vascul- cellular layer lining the medullary canals.
The Periosteum
It is a dense tough fibro cellular membrane which covers the external surface of
the bone except the articular surfaces.
Functions of the periosteum:
1. It receives the attachments of muscles.
2. It gives blood supply to the cortex.
3. It has osteogenic functions for bone growth in width and healing of
fractures bones..

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 The bone marrow
It is a vascular soft tissue which fills the medullary canals and network of the
spongy bone.
Types:
1. Red bone marrow: it contains the blood forming elements. It is found in fetus and
newborn.
2. Yellow bone marrow: it contains few blood forming cells and much fat. It is found
in childhood and adulthood till old age.

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2.Short bones: they are small-sized, have no shaft. They consist of mass of spongy bone
covered by thin bone cortex (compact). For example carpals in hand .

3.Flat bones: consist of inner and outer tables of compact bone with spongy bone in
between containing red bone marrow. In skull cap the spongy bone is called diploe
Functions:
- provide protection to internal organs e.g. skull cap,
- provide a big surface area for muscle attachment e.g. scapula

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 3. Irregular bones: they have no special form. They have multiple processes . They
have the same construction as the short bones e.g. vertebrae.

5. Pneumatic bones:
Structure : the bones of skull around the nose is filled by a cavity containing air
and is lined by mucous membrane to form the paranasal air sinuses
Example: maxillary and frontal bones
Functions:
 lighten the weight of the skull,
 give resonance to voice,
 worming and humidification of air .

6. Sesamoid bones:
- they are small bones embedded in the tendon of certain muscles ,
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 - Functions:.
Reduce friction between the tendon and under laying bone , thus protect the
tendons from excessive wear:
-Example : Patella in the tendon of quadriceps femoris

The external features of bones

Articular features
- Articular surfaces: bony surfaces sharing in the formation of joints. They are
smooth and covered with hyaline cartilage.
- Caput or head: is expanded regular rounded proximal end.
- Capitulum: is a small- head.
- Facets: they are small articular surfaces.
- Condyle: is a knuckle-shaped articular surface.
- Epicondyle: is a small projection adjacent to the condyle.
- Trochlea: is a pully-shaped articular surface.
Bony elevations
- Tubercle, tuberosity and trochantaer: these are localized, rough and nearly
rounded bony elevation of variable sizes.
- Line and ridge: these are linear (elongated) bony elevations of variable
sizes.
- Crest: is a wide (blunt), high and elongated bony elevation.
Projections
- Process: is a bony projection of the same thickness.
- Protuberance: is a small projection of bone.
- Spine: is a pointed slender process.
- Hamulus, cornu: is a curved process.
- Malleolus: is a rounded process.
- Styloid: is an elongated pin-like process.

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Depressions
- Fossa: is a rounded depression on a bony surface.
- Notch: is a rounded depression on a bony border.
- Fovea: is a pointed depression on a bony surface.
- Groove or sulcus: is a linear depression.
Gaps or defects
- Foramen: is a hole through bone.
- Canal or meatus: is a foramen of a considerable length.
- Aperture: is a large foramen.
- Fissure: is a cleft in a bone or in between bones.
Plates
- Lamina: is a thin plate of bone.
- Squama: is a large lamina.

Joints (Articulations)
Definition: Joint is a site of meeting or articulation of two or more bones.

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Classification of joints according to their structure and mobility into three types
1. Fibrous joints
The bony surfaces are joined by a fibrous tissue.
They have no movement.
Types:
* Sutures: are only seen in the skull bones. The bones are connected by suture ligament
Sutures may close with age .
* Gomphosis: Each tooth root is fixed in a socket with a periodontal membrane
* Syndesmosis: the bony surfaces are connected by a strong membrane
“interossous ligament” eg. inferior tibiofibular joint.

Sutures Gomphosis Syndesmosis

2. Cartilaginous joints
The bony surfaces are joined by cartilage.
Types:
* Primary cartilaginous joint: it is temporary and ossifies later in life. It is
formed of a plate of hyaline cartilage between the articulated bones.. It is immobile
e. g. epiphyseal cartilage between epiphyses and diaphysis of growing long bone.
* Secondary cartilaginous joint: it is permenant and nerve ossify by age .the
articulating bones are separated by a disc of white fibrocartilage
. The surface of the articulating bone is covered by thin plate of hyaline cartilage
. It is slightly mobile.e. g. intervertebral disc of vertebral column.

PRIMARY CARILAGINOUS J. SECONDARY CARILAGINOUS J.

3. Synovial joints :
Freely movable joints and
Particular features:

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a. Articular surfaces: smooth and covered by the articular hyaline cartilage.

b. Fibrous capsule: it is a fibrous tube surrounding the joint. It is attached

around the articulating bones together. It is perforated by vessels and
nerves.
c .Cavity of the joint: it is a potential cavity between the articulating bone , it contains
little amount of synovial fluid
d. Ligaments: They are fibrous bands normally are taught, may be:
- Intrinsic ligaments: they are thickening of the fibrous capsule.
- Extrinsic ligaments: they are outside the capsule.

Osteoarthritis =
Destruction of articular cartilage

e. Synovial membrane: it is a thin ,moist and glistening membrane that lines the
fibrous capsule and covers all intra-capsular structures except the articular
surfaces.
Function:
It secretes and reabsorbs the synovial fluid.
f. Synovial fluid: Pale yellow viscid fluid like egg albumen
Functions:
* Lubrication of the articular surfaces so facilitate the movement,
* Gives nourishment for cartilage.
g. Intra-articular structure
Especial structure is found in some joints for certain functions e.g
- Disc of cartilage e.g. temporomandibular joint.

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 - Tendons e.g. biceps brachii in the shoulder joint.
- Ligaments e.g. cruciate ligaments in the knee joint.
- Semilunar cartilage (Meniscus ) e.g. knee joint.

Disc of cartilage inside a joint Tendon inside

Meniscus and ligaments inside joint

Types of the synovial joints

A. According to the number of the articulating bones:
1. Simple consists of two bones surrounded by one articular capsule
e.g. shoulder joint.
2. Compound consists of more than two articulating bones surrounded
by one articular capsule e.g. elbow joint.
3.Complex has intra-capsular structures e.g. knee joint.

B. According to the shape of the articular surfaces and axis of movement:

*Uniaxial joints: movements take place around single axis
1.Hinge: uniaxial- axis is horizontal - trochlea like articulating surface.

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 It permits flexion and extension e.g. elbow joint
2.Pivot: uniaxial -the axis is longitudinal . The articulating bones consists of
central bony pivot surrounded by a fibro-osseus ring e.g. superior radio-ulnar
joint

Hinge joint Pivot joint

**Biaxial joints: movements take place around two axes perpendicular to each other:
1.Ellipsoid: biaxial in which an oval convex surface moves on a similar oval concave
opposite surface. It permits flexion, extension, adduction and abduction e.g. wrist joint.

Ellipsoid joint
2. Condyloid: biaxial, the articulating surfaces consist of two convex condyles
which articulate with two concave surfaces e.g. knee joint.

Condyloid joint

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 3. Saddle: concavoconvex biaxial joint in which one concavo-convex surface fitting into
another surface reciprocally curved but at right angles e.g. carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
It permits flexion, extension, adduction, abduction and little ranges of rotational movements.

Saddle joint
***Multiaxial joints: occur around more than 2 axes
. Ball and socket: multiaxial joint. The articulating bones move around an indefinite
number of axes. The articulating surfaces consist of a round head and a cup- shaped
concave surface e.g. shoulder and hip joints.

Ball and socket joint

****Plane joint(non axial): the surfaces are flat and only permit gliding movement e.g.
Intercarpal joints

Plane joint

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 Factors affecting stability of the joints
1. The shape of the articulating surfaces and their fitting together.
2. The strength and thickness of the fibrous capsule and ligaments.
3. The muscles: give support and their contractions keep the articular surfaces in firm
contact. .

Factors which terminate the movement at a joint

1. Bony factors: presence of many processes around the joint e.g. elbow joint, helps
the early limitation of the movement.
2. Tension on the ligament.
3. Approximation of the soft tissue of the part.
Nerve supply:
According Hilton's law: the nerve which supplies muscle acting on a joint must give a
branch to supply this joint and a branch to the skin covering the joint.

Terms of Movement
* Flexion: (bending) approximates anterior surfaces to each other
* Extension: (straightening) approximates posterior surfaces to each other

* Adduction: moving the limb towards the trunk

* Abduction: moving the limb away from the trunk or median plane

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* Medial rotation: the limb rotates medially around its long axis
* Lateral rotation: the limb rotates laterally around its long axis
* Circumduction: is a series of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction movements which
follow one another in succession

*Pronation and supination of forearm

*Inversion and eversion of foot

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 Muscles
Muscles form half the weight of the body. The muscular tissue has the property of contraction ..
Types:
1. Skeletal..
2. Smooth.
3. Cardiac muscle.
Comparisons between different types of muscles
Type Location Nerve supply
Striated Attached to Voluntary by somatic nervous system
skeleton,

Myocardiu Muscle of the heart, Involuntary, by autonomic nervous system

m
Smooth Walls of hollow Involuntary, by autonomic nervous system
organs& blood
vessels

Attachments of the muscle

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 The muscle has at least two attachments:
Origin: one is less mobile and more proximal is called
Insertion: is relatively mobile and more distal .

Site of attachments
1. Bone
2. Skin to the dermis (e.g. muscle of expressions in the face)
3. Cartilage (muscles of larynx)
4. Raphe : fibrous band connects two flat with each other

Muscle of expression Larynx Raphe

Attachments of muscle are through

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 1. Its fleshy fibers
2. Tendons which are rounded cord like or band like.
3. Aponeurosis means flat tendon

Pattern of arrangement of the muscle fibers

Muscle fibers are arranged according to the line of pull ( line extends from the origin
to the insertion of the muscle) :

I. Muscles with fibers parallel to the line of pull:

1. Long strap- like muscle e.g. Sartorius muscle
2. Long strap with tendinous intersection e.g. Rectus abdominis muscle
3. Quadrangular muscles e.g. pronator quadratus muscle
4. Fusiform e.g. lumbrical muscle.

II. Muscles with fibers oblique to the line of pull .

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A. Muscles with fibers obliquely arranged in relation to the line of pull
with pennate formation :
1. Unipennate muscle: the fibers lie on one side of the tendon like a half
a feather.
2. Bipennate muscle: the fibers converge on both sides of the tendon like a
full feather.
3. Multipennate muscle: several bipennate muscles are united together by
intermuscular septa and tendon converging at one insertion.
4. Circumpennate muscle: the fibres converge on central tendon which lies
within the muscle, encircling it.

B. Muscles with fibers oblique to the line of pull but are not pennate.
1. Triangular: temporalis muscle.
2. Spiral: spinator muscle.
3. Cruciate: masseter muscle.
4. Circular: orbicularis oris

Triangle Cruciate Spiral Circular

NB.. Muscles with more than one fleshy belly
1. Biceps has two heads.
2. Triceps has three heads.
3. Quadriceps has four heads.

Nerve and blood supply of the muscle

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 Nerve and blood supply of the muscles are termed the neuro-vascular bundle. This bundle
enters at the hilum. The muscle is supplied by three nerves:
1. Motor nerve
2. Sensory nerve
3. Sympathetic fibers o the blood vessels.

Muscle action and power

* The range of movements of the muscle depends on the length of the
muscle fibers i.e. the longer the muscle fibers is the wider range of
movement.
* The force of contraction of the muscle depends on the number of muscle
fibers i.e. greater number of muscle fibers the greater the force of
contraction.
- Muscles can act from either its origin or insertion according to the movement needed.
- Types of action
1. Prime movers: they are the main, but not the only, muscle doing a certain action. They
are responsible for initiation and maintenance of a particular movement.
2. Antagonists: they are the muscles that oppose the prim mover.
3. Fixators: they fix the bone(s) of origin of the prime movers to allow the prime
mover to work efficiently.
4. Synergists (helper): by eliminating the unwanted movements.

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