8/19/2021

Classification of Relays Classification of Relays

Numerical Protective Relays Electromechanical Relays
RELAYS - use magneto motive force
- have moving parts- hinged armature & disc

V.H.Manohar
On Deputation from DAE, India
Electromechanical Static

Analogue Digital

Numerical

Classification of Relays Classification of Relays Classification of Relays

Static Analogue Relays Static Digital Relays
Static Relays
- no moving parts in the measuring element - Static relays designed using analogue electronic components. - Static relays designed using digital electronic components.
- designed using electronics
- can have output elements with moving parts (miniature relays) - The input signals fed to analogue measuring elements like - The input analogue signals converted into digital signals using A/D
comparators, operational amplifiers etc. converters and fed to digital comparators.

Due to evolution in electronics static relays are further divided into:

- compare input analogue signal with reference signal & generate - compare digital signal with reference signal & generate output
output signal signal
- Analogue

- Digital
- Numerical

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Classification of Relays Classification of Relays Comparison of Protective Relay Technologies

Static Numerical Relays Static Numerical Relays Sl. Subject Electro- Static/Electronic Numerical
- software perform comparison of input signals against set No. mechanical
thresholds values stored in memory & generate the output.
- are also digital relays 1. Measuring Induction disc, Discrete R, L, C, Microprocessors
Elements/ Electromagnets, Transistors, , Digital ICs,
- the software algorithms do the jobs done by hardware comparators. Hardware Induction cup, Analogue ICs, Digital Signal
- The input analogue signals converted Balance beam Comparators Processors
into digital signals using A/D converters - multiple protections integrated.
2. Construction Bulky Modular, Compact Most compact
and fed to the microprocessor directly. size
- give lot of other information & features like fault recording, event
recording, measurements etc.
- Entire protection element realized using software programs.
3. Parameter Plug setting, Dial Thumb wheel, Keypad for
- communicate with other computers. setting setting Potentiometers, Numerical
- Application software stored in non-volatile memory.
Dual In Line values
- provide self diagnostic function. switches
- Input signals continuously sampled & stored in memory.
- capable to adapt itself to change.

Comparison of Protective Relay Technologies..contd. Comparison of Protective Relay Technologies..contd. Comparison of Protective Relay Technologies..contd.

Sl. Subject Electro- Static/ Numerical

No. mechanical Electronic Sl. Subject Electro- Static/Electronic Numerical Sl. Subject Electro- Static/Electronic Numerical
No. mechanical No. mechanical

4. CT Loading/ 8-10 VA 1 VA < 0.5 VA 6. Calibration Frequently Required as Not required as

burden required as settings drift due to settings are stored 9. Integrated Not possible Not possible Possible
settings drift ageing in memory in digital protective
5. Self monitoring No Yes Yes due to ageing format functions
.Hardware .Hardware
partially .Power supply 7. Electromagneti Immune Susceptible Immune
.Power supply .Output relays c/electrostatic/ 10. Range of settings Limited Wide Wide
.Software HF disturbance 11. Operational Not possible Possible Possible
.CT, PT, Ckts value indication
12. Fault disturbance Not possible Not possible Possible
8. Multiple Not possible Not possible Possible recording
characteristics

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Comparison of Protective Relay Technologies..contd. Numerical Relay-Hardware Architecture Numerical Relay-Hardware Architecture
It consists of
Sl. Subject Electro- Static/ Numerical • One or more Digital Signal Processors (DSPs),
No. mechanical Electronic
• Memory,
• Digital and analogue input/output (I/O),
13. Digital Not possible Not available Available
communication port • A power supply.

14. Commissioning No No Yes Where multiple processors are used, one of them is a general controller of
support from relay the I/O, Human Machine Interface (HMI) and any associated logic while the
others are dedicated to the protection relay algorithms.

The internal communications bus links the hardware and therefore is a critical
component in the design. It must work at high speed, use low voltages, yet be
immune to conducted and radiated interference from the electrically noisy
substation environment. Excellent shielding of the relevant areas is therefore
required.

Numerical Relay-Hardware Architecture Relay Operating System Software

Numerical Relay-Hardware Architecture
If the sampling frequency is too low, aliasing of the input signal can occur (see System services software:
Digital inputs : Figure) so that high frequencies can appear as part of the signal in the –controls the low-level I/O for the relay such as drivers for the relay hardware and boot-
- Optically isolated to prevent transients being transmitted to the frequency range of interest. Incorrect results are then obtained. up sequence.
internal circuitry. HMI interface software:
Analogue inputs: – this is the high level software for communicating with a user on the front panel controls
- isolated using precision transformers to maintain measurement or through a data link to another computer to store data such as settings or event
accuracy while removing harmful transients. records.
- must be amplitude limited to avoid them exceeding the measurement Application software:
range, otherwise the waveform is clipped, introducing harmonics. – this is the software that defines the protection function of the relay.
- The frequency of sampling must be carefully considered, The solution is Auxiliary functions:
- use an anti-aliasing filter and the correct sampling frequency on the analogue signal, – software to implement other features in the relay, often structured as a series of modules
filtering out the frequency components that could cause aliasing.
to reflect the options offered by the manufacturer.
- Digital sine and cosine filters extract the real and imaginary components of the signal.

A modern numerical relay can sample each analogue input quantity at

typically between 24 and 80 samples per cycle.

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Additional Features of Numerical Relays Additional Features of Numerical Relays Inspection and Testing of Numerical Relays at Factory
 Measured Values Display  CB Control/State Indication /Condition Monitoring Routine Tests
Sequence quantities (positive, negative, zero)  Disturbance Recorder (Oscillograph)
Power, reactive power and power factor -High Voltage Test (2000 Volts for 1 minute)
 Time Synchronization from External Clock
Energy (kWh, kVArh) -Measurement of Insulation resistance.
Max. demand in a period ( kW, kVAr; average and peak values)  Programmable Logic
-Verification of wiring as per approved schematics.
Harmonic quantities  Provision of Setting Groups
-Calibration/Functional checks.
Frequency ISSUES THAT ARISE DUE TO INTRODUCTION OF NUMERICAL RELAYS
Temperatures/RTD status
-Pick up and Drop off Voltage and Timing Checks
Software version control
Motor start information (start time, total no. of -Electrical Control, Interlock and sequential Operation Tests
Relay data management
Starts/re-accelerations, total running time
Testing and commissioning
Distance to fault
Site commissioning is usually restricted to
-running the in-built software self-check,
 VT/CT Supervision
-verifying that currents and voltages measured by the relay are correct,
-The VT failure algorithm can be accomplished by detecting residual voltage without
-checking the protection functions.
the presence of zero or negative phase sequence current.
-CT supervision is carried out more easily. The general principle is the calculation of a
Any problems revealed by such tests require specialist equipment to resolve so it is simpler to
level of negative sequence current that is inconsistent with the calculated value of
replace a faulty relay and send it for repair.
negative sequence voltage.

Inspection and Testing of Numerical Relays at Factory Inspection and Testing of Numerical Relays at Factory Special Tests on Numerical Relays
Type Tests
Type test report for the following tests Special Tests on Numerical Relays Block diagram of real-time digital relay test system
1. Burn in test for100 hrs.
2. Dielectric Withstand Tests (IEC 60255-5) Functional Testing by Real Time Simulation of power system at independent testing
3. High Voltage Impulse Test (IEC 60255-5) laboratory using Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS)
4. DC Supply Interruption (IEC 60255-11)
5. AC Ripple on DC supply (IEC 60255-11) The Purpose of this test is to measure the operating times and dynamic accuracy or
6. AC Voltage Dips and Short Interruptions (IEC 61000-4-11)
sensitivity of the relay by simulating the various faults in the power system. These tests
7. High Frequency Disturbance (IEC 60255-22-1)
are indented to verify the correct operation of internal algorithm (logic) i.e. starting,
phase selection, tripping, indications, output contacts and resetting time and to check
8. Fast Transient Disturbance (IEC 60255-22-4)
the stability against external faults, inrush current and sympathetic inrush current (these
9. Electrostatic Discharge (IEC 60255-22-2)
are for transformer protection numerical relay For example MiCOM P645).
10. Surge Immunity (IEC 61000-4-5)
11. Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Field Compatibility Test (IEC 60255-22-2)
12. Atmospheric Environment Tests
- Temperature (IEC 60255-6) and Humidity (IEC 60068-2-3)
13. Mechanical Stress Tests
- Vibration (IEC 60255-21-1)
- Shock (IEC 60255-21-2)

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Special Tests on Numerical Relays Testing of Protection Scheme at Site Testing of Protection Scheme at Site
Preliminary Checks Commissioning checks of Scheme
Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) of Power System

• Check nameplate details of every associated equipment according to • Each wire shall be traced by continuity tests and it should be made sure that the
specification. wiring is as per relevant drawings. All interconnections between panels /
equipment shall be similarly checked.
• Check for physical damage.
• Measurement of insulation resistance of all wires and relays
• Check tightness of all bolts, clamps and connecting terminals.
• HV test
• Check cleanliness
• Configuration and Settings of relays, other alarm, tripping devices and
• Check earthing interlocks as per scheme.

• Check panel heaters. • Functional checking of all control circuits – e.g. closing, tripping, control,
interlock, supervision, and alarm circuits including proper functioning of the
• Check Bill of Materials in each panel component equipment.

Testing of Protection Scheme at Site PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS
Commissioning checks of Relays
• Periodic testing is necessary to ensure that a protection scheme Protection System Maintenance Program (PSMP)
• Check internal wiring.
continues to provide satisfactory performance for many years after An ongoing program by which Protection System components are kept in working order
installation. and proper operation of malfunctioning components is restored. A maintenance program
can include:
• Insulation resistance measurement of all terminals to body. • The self-checking facilities of numerical relays assist in minimizing • Verification — A means of determining that the component is functioning correctly.
• Insulation resistance measurement of AC to DC terminals failures due to faulty relays. • Monitoring — Observation of the routine in-service operation of the component.
• Defects in secondary wiring and incorrect connections are virtually • Testing — Application of signals to a component to observe functional performance or
• Check operating characteristics by secondary injection. eliminated if proper commissioning after scheme installation/ output behavior, or to diagnose problems.
alteration is carried out. The possibility of incorrect settings is • Physical Inspection — To detect visible signs of component failure, reduced
• Check pickup of DC coils during scheme commissioning checks. performance and degradation.
minimized by regular reviews of relay settings.
• Calibration — Adjustment of the operating threshold or measurement accuracy of a
• Check operation of electrical/mechanical targets. • Network fault levels change over time, and hence setting measuring element to meet the intended performance requirement.
• Configuration and Relay settings. calculations may need to be revised. • Upkeep — Routine activities necessary to assure that the component remains in
• Switching and testing errors are minimized by adequate training of good working order and implementation of any manufacturer’s hardware and
• Each C.T. and V.T. connection with particular reference to their polarities for software service advisories which are relevant to the application of the device.
personnel, use of proven software, and well-designed systematic
directional relays. • Restoration — The actions to restore proper operation of malfunctioning components.
working procedures.
• Functional tests of all Numerical Relays by Simulation using simulation kit. • It is desirable to carry out maintenance on protection equipment at
times when the associated power apparatus is out of service.
Sample Commissioning Procedure

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PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS PERIODIC MAINTENANCE TESTS MAINTENANCE TESTS

SELF DIAGNOSTIC FEATURE OF NUMERICAL RELAYS-The self-tests of the Sepam
SELF DIAGNOSTIC FEATURE OF NUMERICAL RELAYS Verification of scheme performance within 1-2 years after commissioning tests
 Theoretically, any element that is monitored does not need a periodic manual test.
 The community of manufacturers and users has not created clear documentation of • Verification of performance of the algorithm
exactly what is and is not monitored. • Verification of settings
 Some unmonitored but critical elements are buried in installed systems that are • Verification of extra functions e.g. switch onto fault logic, power swing detection, local
described as self-monitoring. acceleration logic, current reversal logic, weak-end infeed logic, fuse failure
 Self supervision cannot cover 100 % of the hardware, the supervision does not cover supervision functions, power system supervision logic, autoreclosing logic, event
for example interference protection, output relays contacts etc. The self supervision in recorder, disturbance recorder, etc.
modern numerical relays can detect around 85- 90 % of all faults with the failure rate • Verification of communication logic
for various components taken into account. • Energising and de-energising auxiliary tripping relays
 To enable the use of full monitoring, the manufacturers of the self-monitoring • Verification of trip logic philosophy
components in the numerical relays should publish for the user a document or map
• Verification of self supervision e.g. that alarm will be received for all faults that should
that shows:
give alarm, controlling that the protection will be blocked by the supervision for right
-How all internal elements of the product are monitored for any failure that type of fault.
could impact protection system performance.

-Which connected circuits are monitored by checks implemented within the

product; how to connect and set the product to assure monitoring of these
connected circuits; and what circuits or potential problems are not monitored.

Schneider-Electric gives the extent of self supervision in SEPAM

MAINTENANCE TESTS MAINTENANCE TESTS

Periodic monitoring Verification of self supervision
• Read and verify actual measurements • Depends on what is supervised and the effectiveness of the self-supervision and
• Read and verify settings the alarm to the Control Centre
• Read and verify last fault events and records
• Evaluate alarm list Condition-based maintenance
• Tripping test initiated by protection scheme (with automatic autoreclosing)
• Switch protection off and verify supervision alarm is received at control centre
• Using a disturbance recorder, relay indications and event lists, analyse what has
happened and give order for maintenance when needed
Verification of scheme performance more than 2 years after commissioning
tests
• Verification of function performance
• Verification of trip logic
• Energising and de-energising auxiliary tripping and signalling relays
• Check that circuits from protection relay to the breaker coil are intact.
• Check of power supply level
• Verification of settings