Calculus of Functions of Complex

Variables (Math 4071)

By: Getachew T. (MSc.)

Email: [email protected]
 Chapter One: Complex numbers
Define the complex numbers & their operations
Geometric representation & polar form of complex
numbers
De-Moiver’s formula
Root extraction

The Riemann and the extended complex plane

 Complex Number
 Who uses them in real life?
Here’s a hint….
 Cont’d

The navigation system in the space shuttle

depends on complex numbers
 Definition of complex numbers
DEFINITION 1.1
Complex Number
A complex number is any number of the z = a + ib
where a and b are real numbers and 𝑖 = −1 is
the imaginary units.
z = x + iy, the real number x is called the real part and
y is called the imaginary part:
Re(z) = x, Im(z) = y
 Equality of complex numbers
DEFINITION 1.2
Complex Number
Complex number z1  x1  iy1 and z2  x2  iy2 are
equal, z1  z2, if Re( z1 )  Re( z2 ) and Im( z1 )  Im( z2 )

x + iy = 0 iff x = 0 and y = 0.
Example: Let w=2+3i and r=a+bi are two complex
numbers, then w=r iff a=2 and b=3
 Arithmetic Operations

Suppose z1  x1  iy1 , z2  x2  iy2

z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
z1  z2  ( x1 x2  y1 y2 )  i ( y1 x2  x1 y2 )
z1 x1 x2  y1 y2 y1 x2  x1 y2
 i
x2  y2 x2  y2
2 2 2 2
z2
 Operation of Complex Numbers

Addition of Complex Numbers

(x + yi ) + (a + bi ) = (x + a) + (y + b )i
Example:
Find each sum or difference

a. (3  4i )  ( 2  6i )
Solution:
Add real parts Add imaginary parts

(3  4i )  ( 2  6i )  3  ( 2)    4  6 i
 1  2i
 Practical Exercise
Perform each the following operations
a)(8+3i)+(6-2i)
b)(8-6i)-(2i-7)
c)(5+7i)-(2+6i)

d)3 + 3i + 8 − 2i − 7 Ans.4 + i

e)−1 − 8i − 4 − i Ans. −5 − 9i
 Cont’d
Subtraction of Complex Numbers
𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖) − 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑏 𝑖
Examples
a) −3 + 6i − (−5 − 3i) − 8i Ans. 2 + i
b) (5+3i)+(-1+2i)+(7-5i)
c) 8+3i-(6-2i)
 The product of two complex numbers
( x  iy )(a  ib)  x(a  ib)  y (a  ib)
 xa  xbi  ayi  byi 2
Examples  xa  by  by ( 1)  (bx  ax )i
a)(8-6i)(6-2i)  xa  by  (bx  ax )i
b)(2-i)(-3+2i)(5-4i)
c)4i (−2 − 8i)
d)(−2 − 2i)(−4 − 3i)(7 + 8i)
e)(7 − 6i)(−8 + 3i)
 Con’t

Remark
 (x + yi )(x – yi)= x2 – y2i2
= x2 – y2(– 1)
= x2 + y2
Hence
(x+iy)(x-iy)=x2+y2
Example

(2+3i)(2-3i)=22+32=4+9=13
 Division of Complex Numbers

z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2 then

z1 x1 + iy1 x1 + iy1 x 2 - iy 2
= = .
z2 x 2 + iy 2 x 2 + ix 2 x 2 - iy 2
x1x 2 + y1y 2 + i(x 2 y1 - x1y 2 )
=
x 22 + y 22
x1x 2 + y1y 2 i(x 2 y1 - x1y 2 )
= +
x2 + y2
2 2
x 22 + y 22

Re(z)
Re(z)E Im(z)
E
 Example
Find x and y if (2x – 3iy)(-2+i)2 = 5(1-i)

Solution:
(2x – 3iy)(4+i2-4i) = 5 -5i
(2x – 3iy)(3 – 4i) = 5 –5i
(6x – 12y – i(8x + 9y)) = 5 – 5i
6x – 12y = 5, 8x + 9y = 5
7 -1
 x = ,y =
10 15
 Algebra properties of Complex
Numbers –

Properties:
1) Closure: z1 + z2 is a complex number
2) Commutative: z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
3) Associative: z1 + (z2 + z3) = (z1 + z2) + z3
4) Additive identity 0: z + 0 = 0 + z = z
5) Additive inverse -z: z + (-z) = (-z) + z = 0
 Complex conjugate/Conjugaate/

Let z = x + yi , the complex conjugate of a complex

number z is denoted by : z = x + yi = x - yi

zz = (x +iy)(x - iy)
= x +y
2 2
(real number)

The conjugate of a complex number changes the

sign of the imaginary part only!!!
Obtained geometrically by reflecting point z on
the real axis
 Complex Conjugate

Suppose z = x +iy, z = x - iy, and

z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2
z1 - z 2 = z1 - z 2
z1z 2 = z1 z 2
 z1  z1
 =
 z2  z2
 cont’d
Find the complex conjugate of the following complex
number
a) z=7+3i
b) z=-5-2i
c) z=-3i
d) z=8
 Operations

 Definition 1.5
(Division of Complex Numbers)
If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di then:

z1 a  bi

z2 c  di Multiply with
the conjugate of
a  bi c  di denominator
 
c  di c  di
( ac  bd )   bc  ad  i

c2  d 2
 cont’d
Example: Simplify and write in standard
form, z:
3i a ) 1  2i
a)
1 i 4 2
2  4i b)   i
b) 3 3
3i
1 21
4  i3 c)   i
c) 26 26
i12  5i 7
3 19
3 1 i d)  i
d)  10 10
1  3i 1  i
 Perform the operation and write the result
in standard form.
1 i

3

1 i i
 
3 4  i 

i 4i i i 4  i 4  i 
i  i 12  3i   1  i  12  3i
2
 2  2 2
i 4 1 1 16  1
12 3 12 3
 1 i   i  1  i  i
17 17 17 17
17  12 17  3
  i
17 17
Two important equations

z  z  ( x  iy)  ( x  iy)  2 x (1)

zz  ( x  iy)( x  iy)  x 2  i 2 y 2  x 2  y 2 (2)

z  z  ( x  iy)  ( x  iy)  2iy (3)

and
zz zz
Re( z )  , Im( z ) 
2 2i
The Properties of Complex Conjugate
i) zz
ii ) z1  z 2  z1  z 2
iii ) z1  z 2  z1  z 2
iv ) z1. z 2  z1.z 2
1 1
v)  
z z

vi) z  z ; n
n n

zz
vii)  Re( z )
2
zz
viii )  Im( z )
2i
 The Complex Plane Diagram

 Definition : (Modulus of Complex Numbers)

The modulus of z is defined by

r  z  a 2 b 2
Im(z)

b z(a,b)

Re(z)
O(0,0) a
 Geometric Interpretation
Fig 1.1 is called the complex plane and a complex
number z is considered as a position vector.
 DEFINITION 1.3
Modulus or Absolute Values
The modulus or absolute value of z = x + iy, denoted
by │z│, is the real number
| z |  x 2  y 2  zz
 Example 3
If z = 2 − 3i, then
z  22  (3)2  13
As in Fig 1.2, the sum of the vectors z1 and z2 is the
vector z1 + z2. Then we have
z1  z2  z1  z2 (5)
The result in (5) is also known as the triangle inequality
and extends to any finite sum:
z1  z2  ...  zn  z1  z2  ...  zn (6)
Using (5),
z1  z2  ( z2 )  z1  z2  z2
z1  z2  z1  z2 (7)
Fig 1.2
 Properties of modulus
z1 .z2  z1 . z2 n
z z
n

z1  z2  z1  z2

zz
2 2
z.z  z Pr oof :z  x  iy, zz  (x  iy)(x  iy)  x2  y2  z

z1 z1

z2 z2
z1  z2  z1  z2 z1  z2  z1  z2 (Triangle inequality)
z1  z2  z1  z2 z1  z2  z1  z2

2 2

z1  z2  z1  z2  2 z1  z2
2 2

The Properties of Modulus

i) z  z

ii ) z z  z 2
iii ) z1 z 2  z1 z 2
z1 z1
iv )  , z2  0
z2 z2
 z
n n
v) z
vi) z1  z 2  z1  z 2
 Conjugate of a Complex Number
z  z
x  Re(z) 
2

z  z
y  Im(z) 
2i

z  x iy  x2  y2  z

y
A rg(z)  A rg(x  iy)   tan1   A rg(z)
x
 1.2 Powers and Roots
Polar Form
Referring to Fig 1.3, we have
z = r(cos  + i sin ) (1)
where r = |z| is the modulus of z and  is the
argument of z,  = arg(z). If  is in the interval
− <   , it is called the principal argument, denoted
by Arg(z).
Fig 1.3
 THE POLAR FORM OF COMPLEX NUMBER
Im(z)
(a,b)

r b

Re(z)

a
• Based on figure above: a  r cos  , b  r sin  ,
b
  tan  
1

a
 Recall how we graph complex numbers:

Imaginary
a  r cosθ b  r sin θ
Axis
P(a, b)
z = a + bi z  a  bi
r   r cosθ    r sin θ  i
b

0 Real  r  cosθ  i sin θ 

a Axis

b
r  z  a b 2 2
tan θ 
a
 Trigonometric Form of a Complex Number

The trigonometric form of the complex number z = a + bi is

z  r  cos θ  i sin θ 
The number r is the absolute value or modulus of z,
and 0 is an argument of z.

 Is the argument of any particular complex number unique?

 Practice changing forms of
complex numbers
Switch forms of the given complex number, for 0  θ  2π
(between trigonometric form and standard form)
1  3i How about a graph???

1  3
2
r  1  3i   2
2

π  π  5π
Reference angle:  so… θ  2π     
3  3 3
5π 5π
1  3i  2cos  2i sin
3 3
 Example 1
Express 1  3i in polar form.
Solution
See Fig 1.4 that the point lies in the fourth quarter.
r  z  1  3i  1  3  2
 3 5
tan   ,  arg( z ) 
1 3
 5 5 
z  2 cos  i sin 
 3 3
 Rewrite  1  i in polar form with RADIANS.

 
2
1  12
 r 2
r  2
1  2 cos 
1  2 sin 
 3 3  3
2  cos  isin  
 4 4  4
Rewrite 1  3 i in polar form with RADIANS.

 
2
1   3
2
 r2  r  2 1  2cos 
 3  2sin 
5
 5 5  
Ans : 2  cos  i sin  3
 3 3 
 Example 1 (2)
In addition, choose that − <   , thus  = −/3.

   
z  2cos( )  i sin( )
 3 3 
Fig 1.4
 Multiplication and Division
 Suppose z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )
z2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
Then
z1z2  r1r2 [(cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )
(2)
 i (sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )]
for z2  0,
z1 r1
 [(cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )
z2 r2
(3)
 i (sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )]
From the addition formulas from trigonometry,
z1 z 2  r1 r2 [cos(  1   2 )  i sin(  1   2 )] (4)
z1 r1
 [cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )]
z 2 r2 (5)
Thus we can show
z1 | z1 |
| z1 z 2 |  | z1 | | z 2 | , , (6)
z2 | z2 |
 z1 
arg ( z1 z 2 )  arg z1  arg z 2 , arg    arg z1  arg z 2 (7)
 z2 
Powers of z
z r (cos 2  i sin 2 )
2 2

z r (cos 3  i sin 3 )
3 3

z n r n (cos n  i sin n ) (8)

 Demoivre’s Formula
When r = 1, then (8) becomes

(cos   i sin  ) n  cos n   i sin n  (9)

 Given z  r1 cos(  )  i sin(  ) and
w  r2 cos()  i sin()
z r1
 cos       isin      zw  r1 r2 cos       isin     
w r2
z
Compute zw and , learning your answer in polar form in rad
w
z  2  cos120  isin120 
w  3  cos100  isin100 
zw   2  3  cos 120  100   isin 120  100 
11 11
zw  6(cos 220  isin220)  6(cos  isin )
9 9
z 2
 (cos 120  100   isin 120  100 )
w 3
z 2 2  
 (cos 20  isin 20)  (cos  isin )
w 3 3 9 9
 z
Compute zw and , learning your answer in polar form in rad.
w
 3 3   9 9 
z  4  cos  isin  , w  3  cos  isin 
 8 8   16 16 

  3 9   3 9  
zw   4  3   cos     isin   
  8 16   8 16 
 15 15 
zw  12  cos  isin 
 16 16 
z 4  3 9   3 9  
  cos     isin   
w 3  8 16   8 16 
z 4  3   3  
  cos    isin  
w 3  16   16 
 DeMoivre’s Theorem

rcis   r cis  n 
n
 
6 n
compute 3 i

6
   
 2(cos  isin )   2 6
(cos   isin )
 6 6 
 26  1  0i   64
7
  7 7  
 2  2i
7
  2 2  cos  isin  
  4 4 

  49 49 
7
 2 2  cos  isin 
 4 4 
  
 1024 2  cos  isin   1024  1024i
 4 4
 Find the cube roots of 8  8i  x 3  8  8i
1/ 3
 5 5    5 5  
x  128  cos
3
 isin    128  cos  isin  
 4 4    4 4 
1/ n    2k    2k  
r  cos     isin   
  n n   n n  6
128  2 6 2
  5 2k   5 2k  
 2 2  cos 
6
   isin   
  12 3   12 3 
  5   5  
k  0, 2 2  cos    isin   
6

  12   12  
  13   13  
k  1, 2 2  cos 
6
  isin  
  12   12 
  21   21  
k  2, 2 2  cos 
6
  isin  
  12   12 
 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
Theorem 3
If z  r cos   i sin   is a complex number in polar form to
any power of n, then

z n  r n cos   i sin  
n

De Moivre’s Theorem:
cos   i sin   n
 cos n  i sin n

Therefore :
z n  r n cos n  i sin n 
 Roots
A number w is an nth root of a nonzero number z if
wn = z. If we let w =  (cos  + i sin ) and
z = r (cos  + i sin ), then
 n (cos n  i sin n )  r (cos   i sin  )
 n  r ,   r1 / n
cos n  cos , sin n  sin 
  2k
 , k  0,1,2,..., n  1
n
The root corresponds to k=0 called the principal nth root.
 FINDING ROOTS
Theorem 4
If z n  r cos   i sin   then, the n root of z is:
(θ in degrees)

1
  360k   360k 
z  r  cos
n
 i sin 
 n n 
OR
(θ in radians)


1
  2k   2k 
z  r  cos
n
 i sin 
 n n 
Where k = 0,1,2,..n-1
 Using DeMoivre to Find Roots
Again, starting with
a + bi = z  r  cos    i  sin  
also n n
z  r  cos  n   i sin  n  
works when n is a fraction
 Thus we can take a root of a complex number

    360  k     360  k  
z 1/ n
r 1/ n
  cos    i  sin  
  n   n 
 Using DeMoivre to Find Roots
Note that there will be n such roots

    360  k     360  k  
z  r   cos 
1/ n 1/ n
  i  sin  
  n   n 
 One each for k = 0, k = 1, … k = n – 1

Find the two square roots of z  1  i 3

 Represent as z  r (cos   i sin  )
 What is r?
 What is θ?
 Graphical Interpretation of Roots
Solutions z  1  i 3 are:
2 6
i
2 2

1  i  3
  2  cos120  i  sin120  
1/ 2 2

 120 120 
 2   cos  i  sin  
2
i
6
 2 2  2 2
 120  360 120  360 
and 2   cos  i  sin 
 2 2 
Roots will be equally spaced
around a circle with radius r1/2
 FINDING COMPLEX ROOTS
Find the two square roots of 4i. Write the roots in
rectangular form.
Write 4i in trigonometric form:

The square roots have absolute value

and argument
 FINDING COMPLEX ROOTS (continued)
Since there are two square roots, let k = 0 and 1.

Using these values for , the square roots are

    5 5 
2  cos  i sin  and 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4  4 4 
FINDING COMPLEX ROOTS (continued)
 FINDING COMPLEX ROOTS (continued)
Since there are four roots, let k = 0, 1, 2, and 3.

Using these values for α, the fourth roots are

2(cos 30  i sin 30), 2(cos120  i sin120),
2(cos 210  i sin 210), 2(cos 300  i sin 300),
 Converting from Rectangular form to Trig form

1. Find r. r  a 2  b2
b
2. Find  .   tan  
1

a
3. Fill in the blanks in z  r  cos   i sin   Convert z = 4 + 3i to trig form.

1. Find r 2. Find  3. Fill in the blanks

r  42  32  16  9
3
  tan 1  36.9 z  5  cos36.9  i sin 36.9 
4
r  25  5 Polar form  5,36.9 
 Chapter 2: Analytic Functions
2.1. Elementary Functions
2.1.1 Exponential and Logarthimic Functions
2.1.2. Trignometric and Hyperbolic Functions
2.1.3 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
2.2. Open and closed sets ,connected sets & regions in complex
plane
2.3. Definitions of limit and continuity
2.4. Limit theorem
2.5. Definition of derivative &its properties
2.6. Analytic function &their algebraic properties
2.7. Conformal mappings
2.8. The Cauchy Riemann equations and Harmonic functions
 2.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Functions
Recall that the function f(x) = ex has the property

f ( x)  f ( x) and f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) (1)
and the Euler’s formula is

eiy  cos y  i sin y, y : a real number (2)

Thus
e xiy  e x (cos y  i sin y )
DEFINITION 2.9
Exponential Functions

x  iy
e e
z
 e (c o s y  i s in y )
x
(3)

Example 1: Evaluate e1+3i.

Solution
e14i  e1 (cos 4  i sin 4)
 Cont’d
z
de
 ez
dz
z1
z1  z2 e z1  z2
z1
e e z2
e , z2  e
e
Periodicity
e z  i 2  e z e i 2
 e z (cos 2  i sin 2 )  e z
Polar From of a Complex number
i
z  r (c o s   i s in  )  r e
 Logarithm Function
Given a complex number z = x + iy, z  0, we define
w = ln z if z = ew (5)
Let w = u + iv, then
u iv
x  iy  e  e (cos v  i sin v)  e cos v  ie sin v
u u u

We have
x  eu cos v, y  eu sin v
and also
e2u  x 2  y 2  r 2 | z |2 , u  log e | z |
y
tan v  , v    2n ,   arg z, n  0,  1,  2,...
x
 DEFINITION 2.10
Logarithm of a Complex Number
For z  0, and  = arg z,

ln z  log e | z |  i (  2 n  ) , n  0 ,  1,  2 ,  (6)
 Example 2
Find the values of (a) ln (−2) (b) ln i, (c) ln (−1 – i ).
Solution
(a )   arg( 2)   , loge | 2 | 0.6932
ln(2)  0.6932  i (  2n )

(b)   arg( i )  , loge 1  0
2

ln(i )  i (  2n )
2 5
(c)   arg( 1  i )  , loge | 1  i | loge 2  0.3466
4
5
ln(1  i )  0.3466  i (  2n )
4
 Example 3
Find all values of z such that e z  3  i.
Solution

z  ln( 3  i ), | 3  i | 2, arg( 3  i ) 
6

z  ln( 3  i )  loge 2  i (  2n )
6

 0.6931  i (  2n )
6
 Principal Value
 Ln z  log e | z |  i Arg z (7)

Since Arg z  ( , ] is unique, there is only one value

of Ln z for which z  0.
 Example 4
The principal values of example 2 are as follows.
(a ) Arg (2)  
Ln (2)  0.6932  i
 
(b) Arg (i )  , Ln (i )  i
2 2
5
(c) Arg (1  i )  is not the principal value.
4
3
Let n  1, then Ln (1  i )  0.3466  i
4
 Example 4 (2)
Each function in the collection of ln z is called a
branch. The function Ln z is called the principal
branch or the principal logarithm function.

Some familiar properties of logarithmic function hold

in complex case:
ln( z1z2 )  ln z1  ln z2
z1
ln( )  ln z1  ln z2 (8)
z2
 Example 5
Suppose z1 = 1 and z2 = −1. If we take ln z1 = 2i,
ln z2 = i, we get
ln( z1z2 )  ln(1)  ln z1  ln z2  3i
z1
ln( )  ln(1)  ln z1  ln z2  i
z2
 Analyticity
The function Ln z is not analytic at z = 0, since Ln 0
is not defined. Moreover, Ln z is discontinuous at all
points of the negative real axis. Since Ln z is the
principal branch of ln z, the nonpositive real axis is
referred to as a branch cut. See Fig 2.19.
Fig 2.91
It is left as exercises to show
d 1
Ln z  (9)
dz z
for all z in D (the complex plane except those on the
non-positive real axis).
 Complex Powers
In real variables, we have x  e ln x .
If  is a complex number, z = x + iy, we have

 ln z 
z e  e  ln z , z  0 (10)
 Example 6
Find the value of i2i.
Solution
With z  i, arg z   / 2,   2i, from (9),
2i[log e 1i ( / 2 2 n )] (1 4 n )
i e
2i
e
where n  0,  1,  2,...
 2.7 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Trigonometric Functions
From Euler’s Formula, we have
e ix  e ix e ix  e ix
sin x  cos x  (1)
2i 2
 DEFINITION 2.11
Trigonometric Sine and Cosine
For any complex number z = x + iy,
eiz  eiz eiz  eiz
sin z  cos z  (2)
2i 2
Four additional trigonometric functions:
sin z 1
tan z  , cot z  ,
cos z tan z (3)
1 1
sec z  , csc z 
cos z sin z
 Analyticity
Since eiz and e-iz are entire functions, then sin z and
cos z are entire functions.
sin z = 0 only for the real numbers z = n &
cos z = 0 only for the real numbers z = (2n+1)/2.
Thus tan z and sec z are analytic except z = (2n+1)/2,
and cot z and
csc z are analytic except z = n.
 Derivatives
 d d eiz  eiz eiz  eiz
sin z    cos z
dz dz 2i 2

Similarly we have
d d
sin z  cos z cos z   sin z
dz dz
d d
tan z  sec 2 z cot z   csc 2 z (4)
dz dz
d d
sec z  sec z tan z csc z   csc z cot z
dz dz
 Identities

sin( z )   sin z cos( z )  cos z

cos 2 z  sin 2 z  1
sin( z1  z2 )  sin z1 cos z2  cos z1 sin z2
cos( z1  z2 )  cos z1 cos z2  sin z1 sin z2
sin 2 z  2 sin z cos z cos 2 z  cos 2 z  sin 2 z
 Zeros
If y is real, we have
y y
e e
y
e e
y
sinh y  and cosh y 
2 2 (5)
From Definition 11.17 and Euler’s formula
ei ( xiy)  e i ( xiy)
sin z 
2i
e y  e y e y  e y
 sin x( )  i cos x( )
2 2
Thus we have

sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sin h y (6)

and
cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sin h y (7)

From (6) and (7) and cosh2y = 1 + sinh2y

| sin z |2  sin 2 x  sinh 2 y (8)

| cos z |2  cos 2 x  sinh 2 y (9)

 Example 1
From (6) we have

sin(2  i )  sin 2 cosh 1  i cos 2 sinh1

 1.4301  0.4891i
 Example 2
Solve cos z = 10.
iz
Solution e e
iz
cos z   10
2
e 2iz  20eiz  1  0, eiz  10  3 11
iz  loge (10  3 11)  2ni
Since loge (10  3 11)   loge (10  3 11)

we have
z  2n  i loge (10  3 11)
 DEFINITION 2.12
Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine
For any complex number z = x + iy,
e z  ez e z  ez
sinh z  cosh z  (10)
2 2
Additional functions are defined as
sinh z 1
tanh z  coth z 
cosh z tanh z (11)
1 1
sec h z  csc h z 
cosh z sinh z
Similarly we have
d
sinh z  cosh z and d cosh z  sinh z (12)
dz dz
sin z  i sinh(iz ) , cos z  cosh(iz ) (13)

sinh z  i sin(iz ) , cosh z  cos(iz ) (14)

 Zeros
 sinh z  i sin iz  i sin( y  ix)
 i[sin( y ) cosh x  i cos( y ) sinh x]
Since sin(−y) = − sin y, cos(−y) = cos y, then
sin h z  sin h x cos y  i cosh x sin y (15)

cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sin h x sin y (16)

It also follows from (14) that the zeros of sinh z and
cosh z are respectively,

z = ni and z = (2n+1)i/2, n = 0, 1, 2, ….

 Periodicity
From (6),
sin( z  2i )
 sin( x  iy  2 )
 sin( x  2 ) cosh y  i cos( x  2 ) sinh y
 sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y  sin z
The period is then 2.
 2.8 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic
Functions

Inverse Sine
We define
z  sin w if w  sin 1 z (1)
From (1),

eiw  eiw
 z, e  2ize  1  0
2 iw iw

2i
eiw  iz  (1  z 2 )1/2 (2)
Solving (2) for w then gives

sin 1 z   i ln[iz  (1  z 2 )1 / 2 ] (3)

Similarly we can get

cos 1 z   i ln[ z  i (1  z 2 )1 / 2 ] (4)

1 i iz
tan z  ln (5)
2 iz
 Example 1
Find all values of sin 1 5.
Solution
From (3),
sin 1 5  i ln[ 5i  (1  ( 5) 2 )1/ 2 ]
(1  ( 5) )
2 1/ 2
 (4)
1/ 2
 2i
sin 1 5  i ln[( 5  2)i ]

 i[loge ( 5  2)  (  2n )i ],
2
n  0,  1,  2,...
 Example 1 (2)
Noting that
1
loge ( 5  2)  loge   loge ( 5  2).
52
Thus for n  0,  1,  2,...

1 
sin 5  2n  i loge ( 5  2) (6)
2
 Derivatives
If we define w = sin-1z, z = sin w, then
d d dw 1
z sin w gives 
dz dz dz cos w
Using cos 2 w  sin 2 w  1, cos w  (1  sin 2 w)1/ 2
 (1  z 2 )1/ 2 , thus
d 1 1
sin z 
dz (1  z 2 )1 / 2 (7)
d 1 1
cos z  (8)
dz (1  z 2 )1 / 2
d 1 1
tan z  (9)
dz 1  z2
 Example 2
Find the derivative of w = sin-1 z at z = 5.
Solution
(1  ( 5) 2 )1/ 2  (4)1/ 2  2i
dw 1 1 1
z 5    i
dz (1  ( 5) )
2 1/ 2
2i 2
 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Similarly we have

sinh 1 z  ln[ z  ( z 2  1)1 / 2 ] (10)

cosh 1 z  ln[ z  ( z 2  1)1 / 2 ] (11)

11 1 z
tanh z  ln (12)
2 1 z
d 1
sinh 1 z  2 (13)
dz ( z  1)1/ 2
d 1
cosh z  2
1
dz ( z  1)1/ 2 (14)

d 1 1 (15)
tanh z 
dz 1  z2
 Example 3
Find all values of cosh-1(−1).
Solution
From (11),
cosh 1 (1)  ln(1)  loge 1  (  2n )i
 (  2n )i  (2n  1)i
n  0,  1,  2,...
 2.3 Sets in the Complex Plane
Terminology
z  x  iy, z0  x0  iy0
z  z0  ( x  x0 )2  ( y  y0 ) 2

If z satisfies |z – z0| = , this point lies on a circle of

radius  centered at the point z0.
 Example 1
(a) |z| = 1 is the equation of a unit circle centered at the
origin.
(b) |z – 1 – 2i|= 5 is the equation of a circle of radius 5
centered at 1 + 2i.
If z satisfies |z – z0| < , this point lies within (not on)
a circle of radius  centered at the point z0. The set is
called a neighborhood of z0, or an open disk.
A point z0 is an interior point of a set S if there exists
some neighborhood of z0 that lies entirely within S.
If every point of S is an interior point then S is an
open set. See Fig 2.7.
Fig 2.7
 Fig 2.8
The graph of |z – (1.1 + 2i)| < 0.05 is shown in Fig
2.8. It is an open set.
 Fig 2.9
The graph of Re(z)  1 is shown in Fig 2.9. It is not
an open set.
 Example 2
Fig 2.10 illustrates some additional open sets.
Example 2 (2)
If every neighborhood of z0 contains at least one point
that is in a set S and at least one point that is not in S,
z0 is said to be a boundary point of S. The boundary
of S is the set of all boundary points.
If any pair of points z1 and z2 in an open set S can be
connected by a polygonal line that lies entirely in S is
said to be connected. See Fig 2.11. An open
connected set is called a domain.
Fig2.11
A region is a domain in the complex plane with all,
some or none of its boundary points. Since an open
connected set does not contain any boundary points, it
is a region. A region containing all its boundary
points is said to be closed.
 2.4 Functions of a Complex Variable

Complex Functions
w  f ( z )  u ( x, y)  iv( x, y) (1)

where u and v are real-valued functions.

Also, w = f(z) can be interpreted as a mapping or
transformation from the z-plane to the w-plane. See
Fig 2.12.
Fig 2.12
 Example 1
Find the image of the line Re(z) = 1 under f(z) = z2.
Solution
f ( z )  z 2  ( x  iy ) 2
u ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 , v( x, y )  2 xy
Now Re(z) = x = 1, u = 1 – y2, v = 2y.
y  v / 2, then u  1  v / 4 2

See Fig 2.13.

Fig 2.13
 DEFINITION 2.4
Limit of a Function
Suppose the function f is defined in some neighborhood
of z0, except possibly at z0 itself. Then f is said to
possess a limit at z0, written
lim f ( z )  L
z  z0

if, for each  > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that

f ( z )  L   whenever 0  | z  z0 |   .
 THEOREM 2.1
Limit of Sum, Product, Quotient
Suppose lim zz0 f ( z )  L1 and lim zz0 g ( z )  L2 .
Then

(i) lim [ f ( z )  g ( z )]  L1  L2
z  z0

(ii) lim f ( z ) g ( z )  L1L2

z  z0

f ( z ) L1
(iii) lim  , L2  0
z  z0 g ( z ) L2
 DEFINITION 2.5
Continuous Function

A function f is continuous at a point z0 if

lim f ( z )  f ( z0 )
z  z0

A function f defined by
f ( z )  an z n  an1z n1    a2 z 2  a1z  a0 , an  0 (2)
where n is a nonnegative integer and ai, i = 0, 1, 2, …,
n, are complex constants, is called a polynomial of
degree n.
 DEFINITION 2.6
Derivative
Suppose the complex function f is defined in a
neighborhood of a point z0. The derivative of f at z0 is
f ( z0  z )  f ( z0 )
f ( z0 )  lim
z  0 z (3)
provided this limit exists.
If the limit in (3) exists, f is said to be differentiable at
z0. Also,
if f is differentiable at z0, then f is continuous at z0.
 Rules of differentiation
Constant Rules:
d d (4)
c0, cf ( z )  cf ( z )
dz dz
Sum Rules:
d (5)
[ f ( z )  g ( z )]  f ( z )  g ( z )
dz
Product Rule:
d (6)
[ f ( z ) g ( z )]  f ( z ) g ( z )  g ( z ) f ( z )
dz
Quotient Rule:
d  f ( z )  g ( z ) f ( z )  f ( z ) g ( z ) (7)
  
d z  g (z)  [ g ( z )]2
Chain Rule:
d (8)
f ( g ( z ))  f ( g ( z )) g ( z )
dz
Usual rule
d n (9)
z  nz n 1 , n an integer
dz
 Example 3
2
z
Differentiate (a) f ( z )  3z 5 z 2 z, (b) f ( z ) 
4 3
.
4z  1

Solution
(a) f '( z )  12 z 3  15 z 2  2
(4 z  1)2 z  z 4 4 z  2 z
2 2
(b) f '( z )  
(4 z  1) 2
(4 z  1) 2
 Example 4
Show that f(z) = x + 4iy is nowhere differentiable.
Solution
With z  x  iy, we have
f ( z  z )  f ( z )
 ( x  x)  4i ( y  y )  x  4iy
And so
f ( z  z )  f ( z ) x  4iy
lim  lim (10)
z 0 z z 0 x  iy
 Example 4 (2)
Now if we let z0 along a line parallel to the x-axis
then y=0 and the value of (10) is 1. On the other hand,
if we let z0 along a line parallel to the y-axis then
x=0 and the value of (10) is 4. Therefore f(z) is not
differentiable at any point z.
 DEFINITION 2.7
Analyticity at a Point

A complex function w = f(z) is said to be analytic at

a point z0 if f is differentiable at z0 and at every point
in some neighborhood of z0.

A function is analytic at every point z is said to be an

entire function. Polynomial functions are entire
functions.
 17.5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations
THEOREM 2.2
Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a

point z = x + iy. Then at z the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exists and satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations
u v u v
 and 
 x y y x (1)
 THEOREM 2.2 Proof
Proof
Since f ’(z) exists, we know that
f ( z  z )  f ( z )
f ( z )  lim
z 0 z (2)
By writing f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), and z = x + iy,
form (2)

f ( z ) (3)
u ( x  x, y  y )  iv( x  x, y  y )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y )
 lim
z 0 x  iy
 THEOREM 2.2 Proof (2)
Since the limit exists, z can approach zero from any
direction. In particular, if z0 horizontally, then z =
x and (3) becomes
u ( x  x, y )  u ( x, y )
f ( z )  lim
x0 x (4)
v( x  x, y )  v( x, y )
 i lim
x0 x
By the definition, the limits in (4) are the first partial
derivatives of u and v w.r.t. x. Thus
u v
f ( z )   i
x x (5)
 THEOREM 2.2 Proof (3)
Now if z0 vertically, then z = iy and (3) becomes
u ( x, y  y )  u ( x, y )
f ( z )  lim
y 0 iy
iv( x, y  y )  iv( x, y ) (6)
 lim
y 0 iy
which is the same as
u v
f ( z )  i  (7)
y y
Then we complete the proof.
 Example 1
The polynomial f(z) = z2 + z is analytic for all z and
f(z) = x2 − y2 + x + i(2xy + y). Thus u = x2 − y2 + x, v
= 2xy + y. We can see that
u v
 2x  1 
x y
u v
 2 y  
y x
 Example 2
Show that f(z) = (2x2 + y) + i(y2 – x) is not analytic at
any point.
Solution
u v
 4 x and  2y
x y
u v
 1 and  1
y = −v/xxbut u/x = v/y is
We see that u/y
satisfied only on the line y = 2x. However, for any z on
this line, there is no neighborhood or open disk about z
in which f is differentiable. We conclude that f is
nowhere analytic.
 THEOREM 2.3
Criterion for Analyticity
Suppose the real-valued function u(x, y) and v(x, y) are
continuous and have continuous first-order partial
derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations at all points of D, then the
complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in D.
 Example 3
x y
For the equation f ( z )  2 i 2 , we have
x y 2
x y 2

u y 2  x2 v
 2 
x ( x  y ) 2 2
y
u 2 xy v
 2 
y (x  y ) 2 2
x
That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
except at the point x2 + y2 = 0, that is z = 0. We
conclude that f is analytic in any domain not containing
the point z = 0.
From (5) and (7), we have
u v v u
f ( z )   i   i (8)
 x  x y y
This is a formula to compute f ’(z) if f(z) is
differentiable at the point z.
 DEFINITION 2.8
Harmonic Functions
A real-valued function (x, y) that has continuous
second-order partial derivatives in a domain D and
satisfies Laplace’s equation is said to be harmonic in D.

THEOREM 2.4
A Source of Harmonic Functions
Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D.
Then the functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic
functions.
 THEOREM 2.4
Proof we assume u and v have continuous second order derivative
u v u v
 ,   , then
x y y x
 2u  2 v  2u  2v
 and 
x 2
xy y 2
yx
 2u  2 u
Thus  2 0
x y
2

Similarly we have

 2v  2v
 2 0
x y
2
 Conjugate Harmonic Functions
If u and v are harmonic in D, and u(x,y)+iv(x,y) is an
analytic function in D, then u and v are called the
conjugate harmonic function of each other.
 Example 4
(a) Verify u(x, y) = x3 – 3xy2 – 5y is harmonic in the
entire complex plane.
(b) Find the conjugate harmonic function of u.
Solution
u  2
u u  2
u
(a)  3 x  3 y , 2  6 x,
2 2
 6 xy  5, 2  6 x
x x y y
 2u  2 u
 2  6x  6x  0
x y
2
 Example 4 (2)
v u v u
(b)   3 x  3 y and
2 2
  6xy  5
y x x y
Integratin g the first one, v( x, y )  3 x 2 y  y 3  h( x)
v
and  6 xy  h' ( x), h' ( x)  5, h( x)  5 x  C
x
Thus v( x,y )  3 x 2 y  y 3  5 x  C