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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Suyathi for personal use only.
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As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

1. Data Representation left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
1.1. Number Systems 4 + 2 = 238
Binary System Converting Denary to Binary
Base 2 number system Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) table like follows:
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the 2 142
MSB (Most Significant Bit) 2 71 Remainder: 0
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system
2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9
2 2 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 1 Remainder: 0
0 Remainder: 1
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, divided by the previous value of the current number and
which is F 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0000 0 0 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0001 1 1 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0100 4 4
Separate each value from each other and convert them
0101 5 5
to denary
0110 6 6
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
1000 8 8 e.g.
1001 9 9
1010 A 10 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1011 B 11 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1100 C 12 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1101 D 13
1110 E 14 Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1111 F 15
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1.2. Number Conversions Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
Converting Binary to Denary until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
power of the number of values from the right starting hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
like this: After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

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Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 (overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
overflow.
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 11
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
Logical Shifts
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then being emptied is going to become 0
convert the final answer to denary
Explanation with Example
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
hexadecimal as explained above shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0 Two’s complement is a method used to represent

1+0/0+1=1 negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry) Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is the third position from the right.
called overflow. Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
space to store the answer to the addition done in the our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part. complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement

The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Make the MSB 1, if not already
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
above
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System

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Examples:
Unicode
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
uniquely identifies a device on a network) thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
Assembly languages and machine code The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Memory Dumps Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) multiple languages and more data.
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
location of the error) character set, a collection of characters and the
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Memory Dumps Sound
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
when trying to trace errors.
form, it is sampled
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
to a printer or monitor.
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) measured precisely, so approximate values are stored

Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code How is Sound Recorded

Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary. The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in set time intervals
values and is prone to errors. The value is converted to digital form
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
1.5. Text, Sound and Images series of binary digits
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
ASCII of the sound wave

The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit Sampling Resolution:
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control
resolution (aka bit depth)
codes
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
values
about the amplitude of the sound.
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
store the data.
follows:

0 is at 48
Sampling Rate
A is at 65 The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
a is at 97 per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
ASCII uses one byte to store the value as fewer estimations will be done between samples.
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to Images
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g. Bitmap Images
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers

Colour Depth

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Name of memory No. of
The number of bits representing each colour is called the Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
colour depth. 1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 1 000 000 000 000 000
being black) 1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file
when storing an image. Calculation of File Size
Image Resolution The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
make up an image; for example, an image could contain (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
4096 × 3072 pixels. seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail then multiply the result by two.)
than those with a higher resolution.
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
1.7. File Types
as being pixelated. Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones. Storage of music files
A communications protocol that allows electronic
1.6. Measurement of the Size of musical instruments to interact with each other
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
Computer Memories Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
8 bits is a byte MIDI device what function to perform
4 bits is a nibble Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
Byte is used to measure memory size (operates on 16 different channels)
Examples of MIDI commands:
IECB System (Most Common) Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
Name of memory No. of
size Bytes
Equivalent Denary Value (loudness of music)
It needs a lot of memory storage
1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes MP3
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
1 125 899 906 842 624 This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes Done using file compression algorithms, which use
Perceptual Music Shaping
Conventional System Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
properly
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
quality, too much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
compression algorithm

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MP4
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
than just sound It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored compressed
Videos could be streamed without losing any real Reduces file quality
discernible quality In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
reduced.
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file

sizes
2. Data Transmission
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
pixels per centimetre 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
Transmission
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
Data Packets
between 5 and 15
Packet Structure -
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File Header
Compression Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver
The sequence number of the packet
Lossless File Compression Size of the packet
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Payload
again when the file is uncompressed. Contains the actual data
Important for files where the loss of data would be Trailer
disastrous (spreadsheet) Includes a method of identifying the end of the
An algorithm is used to compress data packet
No data is lost Error-Checking methods
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are
Run-Length Encoding then sent independently from start to end and
reassembled at the receiver’s computer.
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
Advantages Disadvantages
(e.g. repeated colours in an image)
There is no need to create a
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first Packets may be lost
single line of communication
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
Possible to overcome failed or
More prone to errors in real-
characters), and the second value represents the code of busy nodes time streaming
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard Delay at the receiver while the
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 High data transmission speed
packets are being re-ordered
98 02 99 05 100.” Easy to expand package usage
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
repeated units/bits
Data Transmission
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set
of characters is approaching

Lossy File Compression

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Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
computer to printer) of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but Limitations with Parity Checks
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie) Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions error is not found
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
line) the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
time over a single wire Parity Blocks
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time. To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used.
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission
Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances Better for short distances
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
Used when the size of data
Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small
Slower Option Faster than Serial
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Checksum
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
USB consists of: Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
Four-wire shielded cable would calculate the checksum value using a specific
Two wires are used for power and earth algorithm.
Two wires are used in data transmission Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
Advantages Disadvantages and the same algorithm used before.
Transmission rate is less than The receiver would then compare the value received and
Automatically detected
120 MB/sec
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about request is made to re-send the data.
incorrect connections 5 metres
Different data transmission Echo Check
rates
Backwards compatible Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
Industry-standard data back to the sender for verification.
The sender would compare the received and original
2.3. Methods of Error Detection data for errors.
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
Parity Checks occurred when sending the data or sending the data
back for verification.
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
Type Types - Check Digits
Even - Even number of 1-bits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) -

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

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Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
the code. computer systems
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
6372 typed as 6379 The CPU consists of the following architecture:
8432 typed as 842 Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU)
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs) Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of
Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the the memory, processor and input/output devices
user received the data Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none calculations
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the System Clock: The system clock is used to produce
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative timing signals on the control bus
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
again. types.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement. Address bus – unidirectional
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, Data Bus – bi-directional
the data will be sent again to the receiver. Control Bus – bi-directional
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to
2.4. Encryption be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an The following registers also exist in the architecture:
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers. REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction
Plaintext and Ciphertext CIR
register
CPU is currently decoding
or executing
Plaintext is the original data that is being sent Stores the Address of the
Memory address
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption MAR instruction, copy it, and
register
sends it to MDR
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Stores the Data from the
MDR Memory data register address received from the
Symmetric Encryption: MAR and sends data to CIR
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; Stores the address of the
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory
the data.
During calculations, data is
Asymmetric Encryption: ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
available to the user.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture The Fetch-Execute Cycle

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The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be performance
fetched
2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus Cores
3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
temporarily The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR performance
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
the next instruction to be fetched But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed the system performance as the communication between
each core increases, and so do the data cables between
Stored Program Concept each. Which in turn reduces the potential system
performance.
Instructions are stored in the main memory You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by septa or octa cores.
the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory 3.3. Input Devices
Memory Concept Two-dimensional Scanners:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each Used to input hard-copy documents
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g. The image is converted into an electronic form, which
can be stored in the computer
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT The document is placed on a glass panel
10101010 01010110 A bright light illuminates the document
A scan head moves across the document until the
Instruction Set: whole page is scanned. An image of the document is
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
can process, and the commands are machine code The lens focuses on the document image
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock device (CCD), which consists of several integrated
circuits
System’s Clock The software produces a digital image in the
electronic form
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the converts scanned documents into a text file format
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t If the original document was a photo/image, then the
mean that the computer's performance is increased, scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
however.
Three-dimensional Scanners
Overclocking
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed dimensional image
for. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
It leads to multiple issues. magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
would frequently crash and become unstable) model
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
Length of Data Buses
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself
-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance

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Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which Mouse/trackball

represent the passport pages Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Text can be stored in ASCII format Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image Microphones
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital Used to input sound to a computer
camera and compared to using face recognition software
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between vibrates, producing an electric signal
eyes, width of nose) The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
Barcode readers/scanners digital values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of digital
varying thicknesses
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique Touchscreens
series of lines Capacitive (medium cost tech)
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate Made up of many layers of glass
using guard bars Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED current changes
Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
little light, which allows the bars to be read determined by an on-board microprocessor
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells) Infra-red heat (expensive)
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Use glass as the screen material
Quick Response (QR) Codes Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Infra-red optical (expensive)
Another type of barcode is the QR codes Uses glass as screen material
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
background Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Can hold more storage (7000 digits) touched
Advantages of QR codes: Resistive (inexpensive)
No need for the user to write down the website The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
address glass
QR codes can store website addresses When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
bottom layer complete a circuit
Digital Cameras Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the microprocessor to determine where the screen was
shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. touched
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens Sensors
onto a light sensitive cell
The cell is made up of pixels
The number of pixels determines the size of the file

Keyboards

Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by

wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital signal
Slow method
Prone to errors
Pointing devices

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Devices that read or measure physical properties Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Data needs to be converted to digital Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
values into digital Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
Sensors and their purposes: available
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
converts sound to electric pulses. memory (printer buffer)
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
acceleration or deceleration and motion. available in the paper tray
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
gas in the environment. Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Repeated until the buffer is empty
the air or any sample. Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible processor (request for more data to be sent)
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Laser Printers
detector. Used to print flyers, high quality
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
emitted by any object. produce text and images
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas Prints the whole page in one go
level.
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
generate electric current based on light brightness. 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
magnetic field. removing the positive charge leaves negatively
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water charged areas which match the text/image
content wherever this sensor has been installed. 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied drum
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
around the sensor 5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
Temperature - These sensors measure the produce a copy of the page
temperature of the environment. 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) 7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Control of Street Lighting­­
3D Printers
The light sensor sends data to the ADC
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor Used for models of cars
Microprocessor samples data every minute Produce solid objects that work
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp powder
Lamp switched on A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

2D and 3D Cutters
3.4. Output Devices
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
Inkjet Printers 3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood

Actuators

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The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical Older technology than DLP
processes. A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
Used in many control applications involving sensors and This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
devices (ADC and DAC) coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
wavelengths
Loudspeakers/Headphones When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from These three different lights pass through three LCD
the loudspeaker screens; these screens show the image to be projected
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the as millions of pixels in grayscale
speaker at different frequencies When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
LCD and LED Monitors Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
the screen
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
LEDs consume very little power
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
which supplies the light source
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
Light Projectors:
Primary vs. Secondary Storage
Two common types of light projectors:
Digital Light Projector (DLP) The CPU directly accesses primary storage
LCD Projector The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
Projectors are used to project computer output onto RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
larger screens/interactive whiteboards HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
Primary Memory:
Uses millions of micromirrors Random Access Memory (RAM)
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
they are off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors

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RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
access data that is actively being used or processed by The main advantages of virtual memory are
the user immediately. They can be larger than the physical memory
Features of RAM provided in the RAM.
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could
turned off) be expensive
Used to store; data, files The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of data.
the memory can be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer Read Only Memory (ROM)
will operate Features of ROM
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
slow even when ROM is turned off)
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the Used to store start-up instructions (basic
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with input/output systems)
new data Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
RAM is of two types:
cannot be changed
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) Secondary Storage:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface

of the disks (platter)
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
store the data
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
Virtual memory HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Solid-State Drive (SSD)
memory management; thus, the system has a high There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes same time (not like HDD)
into the picture. Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
storages are discussed below) Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

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Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the A combination of hardware and software is designed to
surface of the disk. carry out a specific set of tasks.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data. Embedded systems may contain -
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
centre of the disk to the edge peripherals on one single chip
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
capacity (two individual recording layers) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
ports, storage and memory
Blu-ray Disks Process of Embedded Devices -
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent microprocessor
piracy and copyright infringement) The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
Used as backup systems which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
USB Flash Memories need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files Connecting the device to a computer and
Small back-up devices for photo, music downloading the update
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link
Cloud Storage:
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is systems
stored on remote servers
Advantages Disadvantages
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
Small in size, therefore can
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data easily fit into devices
Can be difficult to upgrade
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
The interface can be confusing
Low cost to make
The following are its types: sometimes
Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Requires very little power
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the job
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
companies to upgrade and faults are
input
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated harder to find
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client Increased garbage as they are
Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate
as a single entity Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
environments; some data resides in the private cloud,
Applications of Embedded devices
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
GPS systems
from a public cloud storage provider
Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

3.6. Embedded System

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Network Interface Card (NIC) IP address allocation:

The network allocates IP addresses.
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
connect to a network (such as the Internet). Static IP addresses:
Assigned manually to a device.
Media Access Control (MAC) Does not change over time.
Dynamic IP addresses:
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the Configuration Protocol) server.
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device Changes periodically or when the device connects to
serial number. a different network.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
These do not change and are primarily constant for every Widely used protocol.
device Consists of four groups of decimal numbers
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
Administered MAC Address (LAA) IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
The only difference between the two types is that UAA is Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers
opposite for LAA. separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
IP Addresses Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
uses a 128-bit address.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

Routers

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Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A router examines the destination IP address of
incoming data packets.
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
the next router on the path to the destination.
The router forwards the data packet to the
appropriate next hop.
Router's role in IP address assignment: Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
devices on a local network. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
predefined range to connected devices. Security Management - Providing security features such
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
and simplifies network management. Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Connecting a local network to the Internet: drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
A router serves as the gateway between a local File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
network and the internet. Renaming, and many more functions
It connects the local network to an internet service Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
provider (ISP) network. with each of the processes
The router receives data packets from devices on the Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
local network and forwards them to the internet. users to customise their accounts individually.
It also receives incoming data packets from the
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices Running of Applications
on the local network.
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
3.8. Operating Systems through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
Operating Systems are designed to establish the location of the OS in the storage.
communication between the user and the computer BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
Functions of a typical operating system -
-managing files
– handling interrupts
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices Interrupts
Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI

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Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s Translates a program written in a high-level language
doing and service a task into machine code
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Used without compiler
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt Executable file of machine code produced
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it One high-level language translated into several machine
Different interrupts have different levels of priority code instructions
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Used for general use
continues
Interpreter
3.9. Programming Languages, Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
Translators and IDEs No executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language program statement may require
Computers can only understand machine code; several machine code instructions to be executed.
therefore, translators are needed Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
interpreter
High-Level Languages Used when the program is being developed

It is easier to read and understand as the language is Assembler

closer to human language.
Easier to write in a shorter time Translates a low-level language program into machine
Easier to debug at the development stage code
Easier to maintain once in use Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine
Low-Level Languages code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Refer to machine code Used for general use
Binary instructions that the computer understands
Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Translates a high- Executes a high-level Translates a low-
level language language program level assembly
program into one statement at a language program
machine code. time. into machine code.
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of
machine code is machine code is machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level language program One low-level
language statement statement may language statement
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer can be translated require several is usually translated
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) into several machine machine code into one machine
code instructions. instructions to be code instruction.
Assembly Language executed.
Few programmers use assembly language to - Interpreted Assembled
Compiled programs
Make use of special hardware programs cannot be programs are used
are run without the
run without the without the
Write code that doesn’t take up much space compiler.
interpreter. assembler.
Write code that runs very quickly An interpreter is An assembled
Assembly language must be translated into machine A compiled program
often used when a program is usually
code using an assembler to run. is usually distributed
program is being distributed for
for general use.
developed. general use.
3.10. Translators
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Compiler Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

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Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
An IDE would usually have these features - tasks without re-compilation.
Code Editor Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
Translator into a single program, allowing the use of separately
Debugger written code modules in the final program.
Error Reports Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction communicate with a computer's operating system,
Auto-Documenter without which a device like a printer would be unable to
Pretty Printing work.
Operating system: Software that manages basic
computer functions such as input/output operations,
3.11. Types of Software and Interrupts program loading and running, and security management,
making computers more user-friendly.
Types of Software Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility controls computer resources by carrying out specific
programs and device drivers tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word management, and security.
processor, etc.
Application Software:
System Software:
these are a set of programs which control and manage
the operations of hardware
gives a platform for other software to run
it is required to allow hardware and software to run
without problems
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources

Application Software:
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
computer’s resources
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
user can execute the software when they require, and it
is mostly not automatic

Examples
System Software:

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Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and intervals.
importing images. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, the microprocessor's activities.
with each cell identified using a unique combination of Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer,
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas, signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if" address the hardware problem.
calculations. User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that system's operation.
hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files
and report on data and add, delete, and modify records needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
in a table. accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
interface with sensors and allow a computer or the microprocessor to handle the issues.
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities. Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
3.12. Utility Software
transitions between clips. Computer users have access to utility programs as part
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows of system software
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a background without user input
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate Common utility programs include virus checkers,
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
required. file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.
Interrupts
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for Security software is a utility software that manages
protecting computers from malware. access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
They should be kept up to date and run in the such as virus and spyware checkers.
background to maintain their effectiveness. It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or prevent unauthorized access.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a Security software uses encryption and decryption to
database of known viruses. ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses decryption key.
that are not yet on the database. It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic and prevent malicious software from being installed.
deletion or for the user to decide. Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
constantly discovered.
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to Screensavers
detect dormant viruses.
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Disk Defragmentation Software monitor screen after computer inactivity.
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on from 'phosphor burn'.
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data device and as a part of computer security systems.
access time. They automatically log out of the user after a certain
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become period of inactivity.
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several virus scans and distributed computing applications.
movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill Device Drivers
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces. Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store understood by the hardware device they are associated
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing with.
for faster data access and retrieval. Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
The defragmentation process can free up previously cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
occupied sectors and empty some tracks. by the operating system.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
Backup Software vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
number that allow the operating system to identify the
Backup software is a utility software that helps create device.
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
drives are good practices, but operating system backup computer simultaneously.
utilities are also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
backup files if changes have been made to them. 4. The Internet and Its Uses
There could be three file versions for total security: the
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally 4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
on cloud storage. Web
Security Software

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Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Uses transmission protocols Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
Collection of webpages and They are used to track data about the users and autofill
such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites forms or give suggestions accordingly
Protocols)
Allows the user to Types of Cookies -
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
communicate with other users
written using Hypertext Mark- Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
via chat, email, calling and
up Language (HTML)
more Remembers the user’s login
Temporary cookies are stored
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource details so the user doesn’t have
in the RAM till the browser is
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the to log in every time they visit a
closed.
Devices location of the web pages website
Web browsers can access web Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any information
pages. computer until their expiry
on the user
date or the user deletes them
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs) A good example is the virtual
shopping basket on e-
commerce websites.
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
typical format of URLs is -
4.2. Digital Currency
protocol://website address/path/file name
Form of payment to pay for goods and services
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
The website address would contain -
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
domain host (www) Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
domain name (website name) centralised banking systems.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
transactions.
The path would usually become the file directory roots.
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science Blockchain Network
The /computer-science is the file name
Blockchain Network
HTTP and HTTPS
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
computers where the transaction data is stored
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
data. changed without the consent of all the network
members
Web Browsers
How do blockchains work
It is software used to connect to the internet Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
It translates the HTML code block would contain -
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Offers additional features like search history & ad Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
blockers money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Retrieval and Location of web pages Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server in the chain
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies

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Hacking
The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Effect:
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious
4.3. Cyber Security
Malware
Brute Force Attack:
Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
Effect: computer malfunction
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until
cards, passwords and more) a certain amount of money is paid
To remove risk: Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
Use stronger passwords with more characters and Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
symbols legitimate software
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
Data Interception: user to the attacker
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
wireless transmission line
of the computer alone
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
internet connections illegally Phishing
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
back to the attacker into giving out their information.
Effect: To remove risk:
It can cause a computer to crash Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Can delete or corrupt files/data Use anti-phishing tools
To remove risk: Block pop-up ads
Install anti-virus software Have an up-to-date browser
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Be careful when opening emails from unknown Pharming

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)

An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
network
Usually temporary but may be damaging
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites
Accessing online services

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
Biometric
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer, Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
which redirects the user to fake websites Most development
Effect: Intrusive as used to
methods are very easy
identify criminals,
The user gives out login details and other personal Fingerprint to use and require
Can’t be used if the
details Scans very low storage space
finger gets dirty or
To remove risk: to store the biometric
damaged (e.g. cuts)
Using anti-virus software data.
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully With very high It is very intrusive,
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify,
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the Retina Scan
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install
URL bar retina and set up
Social Engineering Can’t identify if there
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls or person’s age.
informing them that their account has been hacked) Voices can be
recorded and used for
verification, but low
Keeping data safe from threats Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses
Voice verification is done
such as colds or
Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for Recognition quickly and relatively
coughs can affect a
different people (for example - Only doctors can have cheaper
person’s voice, making
access to patient’s data) identification
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware impossible.
attacks
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), authentication to prove who the user is
biometrics and more) Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
patches which improve device security
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
the tone would also seem urgent
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
traffic between a network and the user’s computer
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
Filtering Internet traffic
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
Blocking access to certain websites
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
server, keeping the web server safe.
Acts as a firewall as well.
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
user’s profile
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
communicating with other users on the internet.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Robotics is the branch of computer science that

5. Automated and Emerging combines robot design, construction and operation.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Technologies A robot may not injure a human through action or
inaction
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
5.1. Automated Systems comes into conflict with Law 1
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
Automated Systems are a combination of software and law 1.
hardware designed to function without human Characteristics of a robot -
intervention. Ability to sense their surroundings
Process of Automated Systems Have a degree of movement
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the Programmable
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
(ADC) REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
The microprocessor processes the data and makes CHARACTERISTICS
the necessary decisions based on its program
The actions are then executed by the actuators Types of Robots -
(Motors, wheels and so on) Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
completely replace humans
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
Advantages Disadvantages interface, can supplement but can’t completely
Expensive to set up and replace humans
Faster and Safer
maintain
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
quickly prone to attacks Advantages Disadvantages
Over-reliance on automated Robots can find it difficult to do
Robots can work 24/7
Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to non-standard tasks
lose skills Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
Higher Productivity and conditions unemployment
Efficiency They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
long run replace humans in some task
You should be able to describe the advantages and They have high productivity Expensive to install and
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given and are more consistent maintain in the short run
scenario. Robots have the risk of getting
Including scenarios from: hacked.

industry
transport 5.3. Artificial Intelligence
agriculture
weather
gaming
lighting
science

5.2. Robotics

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates

intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on
Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
are very high
Can only rely on the information
High Accuracy and Consistent
in the system
Tend to give cold responses
High response times
sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines

are trained to learn from past experiences.

Difference Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
that think like humans learn through data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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