Fundamental of Communication Engineering (UNIT -5)

 A communication system, is the means of conveying the information from one place to another.
 The information can be of different types such as sound. Picture, music, computer data etc.
 First communication system was telegraph invented by Mouse in 1844.
1876 Telephone by Bell Company (Grahambell)
1962st communication satellite.
Elements of Communication system:-

Information Input Channel or O/P

Source Transducer Transducer or
Transmitter medium Receiver
destination

Elements of system are:-

1. Information Source
2. Input Transducer
Noise
3. Transmitter
4. Channel or medium
5. Noise
6. Receiver
7. Output Transducer or Destination Source
# Information Source:-
The information can be in the form of sound signal like speech or music, or it can be in a form of
picture.
Information is processed by a system, transferred by a system and received by a system in its original
form.
# Input Transducer:-
Most of the times messages that comes from information source is non-electrical and therefore it is not
suitable for immediate Transmission. Such messages needs to be coded or processed before transmission
and also require suitable transducers to convert into electrical signal.
# Transmitter:-
The Transmitter consists of the electronic circuits such as amplifier, mixer, oscillator and power
amplifier. It increases the power loved of a signals. In transmitter the information signal gets
superimposed in the carrier i.e. Modulation takes place in Transmitter circuit.
# Channel or Medium :-
It is a link between the Transmitter and Receiver it can be wired or wireless channel i.e. coaxial cable,
two wire line or free space or an optical fiber.
Free space is used for Radio and TV transmission. In this case transmitter emits the signal in the form of
electromagnetic radiations.
In Telephones, 2 wire line is used as a transmitter channel.
# Receiver:-
The Received signal is amplified, demodulated. Various types of Receiver used depending upon the
requirement. It can be loud speaker, video display unit, TV picture tube, computer, radar display unit.
# Output Transducer or Destination:-
It converts the demodulated output into the original information. For eg.:- loud speaker converts
electrical signals into sound.
# Noise:-
When a signal is transmitted through a channel, then it gets mixed with some unwanted signal called
noise signals. As a result, the original information gets distorted. For eg:- Flashes of lighting and
radiations from the sky are natural noise & Noise due to vehicles, electric motors and heavy machinery
 or due to flickering of tube light are part of man-made noise. Filter ckts are used to reduce the level of
noise.
Demodulation:- it is a technique to extract the original information signal from the modulated signal by
separating out the carrier signal.
Frequency Translation:- The frequency up conversion at the Tx' r and down conversion at the Rx' r together is
called as frequency translation.
Need for modulation:-
The process of superimposing low freq. signals on waves with high freq. is called modulation. Most of the
information signals have low freq. and they are not able to travel long distance directly in a free space.

1. Increases the range of communication

2. Reduces the height of antenna
3. Improves quality of reception
4. Avoid the mixing of signals
5. Allows the multiplexing of signals
6. Allows bandwidth adjustments.

1. Increase range of communication

At low frequency radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated, Attenuation reduces with increase
in frequency of the transmitted signals.
The frequency of baseband signal is low, hence low frequency cannot transmitted over long distance.
Modulation process increases the frequency of the signal and hence the range of communication
increases.
2. Reduction in height of Antenna:-
C
For transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of  / 4,  
f
 C
Min. Antenna height  
4 4f
For eg. 10KHz frequency is to be transmitted
3  108
Height of Antenna   7.5Km.
4  10  103
It is practically impossible,
Now consider freq. for modulated signal f  10MHz
3  10
Height of Antenna   75meters .
4  1  106
This can be installed practically. Thus modulation is necessary to reduce Antenna ht.
3. Improves Quality of Reception:-
With the help of modulation, the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent. Reduction of noises
improves the quality of reception.
4. Avoid mixing of signals:-
If baseband signals are transmitted without using a modulation by more than one transmitter, then all
there signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20Khz. Hence all signals gets mixed together
and a receiver cannot separate them from each other.
So, if each Baseband signal is use to modulate a different carrier then they will occupy different slots in
the frequency domain. This avoids mixing of signals.
5. Allows multiplexing of signals:
Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same communication
channel simultaneously.
Multiplexing is possible only with modulation. The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by
many signals. For eq. TV channels.
 The different signals from different stations can be separated in the receiver since carrier frequencies for
these signals are different

6. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth

Bandwidth of modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. By controlling
the bandwidth in the modulation process, the signal to noise ratio can be improved.
Different Types of Modulation:-
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Angle Modulation
(a) Frequency Modulation (FM)
(b) Phase Modulation (PM)
# Amplitude Modulation (AM)
When the Amplitude of the carrier signal get changes with respect to the instantaneous value of the
message signal is called Amplitude Modulation (AM).
The frequency of carrier is much higher than information signal.
Principle of A.M.:- In AM the instantaneous amplitude of the sinusoidal high freq. carrier is changed in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signals.
Application: - Radio Transmission and TV transmission.

Expression of AM: The instantaneous values of modulating signal and carrier signal can be represented
as given below.
Instantaneous values of modulating signal
vm  Vm sin mt
vm
= Instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal
Vm
= Maximum amplitude of modulating signal
m = Angular frequency modulating signal
fm
= frequency of modulating signal
 Instantaneous values of carrier signal
vc  Vc sin ct
vc = Instantaneous amplitude of carrier signal
V c = Maximum amplitude of carrier signal
c = Angular frequency of carrier signal
f c = frequency of carrier signal

Instantaneous values of AM signal

vAM  VAM sin ct (Frequency and phase of carrier remains constant) (1)
(From the definition of AM)
VAM  Vc  vm  Vc  Vm sin mt
Substitute the value of VAM in equation (1)
vAM  VC  Vm sin mt  sin ct
 V 
v AM  Vc 1  m sin mt  sin ct
 VC 

ma  m modulation index Value

V
b/w 0 to 1.
Vc
vAM  Vc 1 ma sin mt sin ct
v AM  VC sin  c t  ma EC sin  c t sin  m t

sin A sin B 
1
cos A  B   cos A  B 
2
Vc cos( c   m )t  cos( c   m )t 
ma
v AM  VC sin  c t 
2
 
VC cos c   m t  VC cos c   m t 
ma ma
v AM  VC sin  c t 
 2 2 

Carrier Lower Side Upper Side

Signal Band (LSB) Band (USB)

AM Signal

Modulation Index ( m a ): The ratio between the amplitude of message wave and the amplitude of carrier wave
Vm
is known as modulation index ( ma  ). It is also known as modulation factor, modulation Co-efficient,
Vc
degree of modulation or depth of modulation. Modulation index specifies the amount of energy of carrier wave
used in the modulation.
If original amplitude of carrier wave and message wave is denoted by Vm and VC respectively, then Maximum
amplitude of amplitude modulated wave is:
Vmax  VC  Vm
Minimum amplitude of amplitude modulated wave is −
Vmin  VC  Vm
We can derive some results by observing the above two equations.
M max  Vmin
Vm  ....(2)
2
 Vmax  Vmin
VC  .....(3)
2
Vm Vmax  Vmin
ma   100 Percent modulation.
VC Vmax  Vmin
In amplitude modulation, amplitude of carrier wave should be higher than the amplitude of message wave.

Frequency Spectrum of AM:

Amplitude

Frequency

B.W.= (fc+fm)-(fc-fm)=2fm

Power Relations in the AM wave

V 2 carrier V 2 LSB V 2USB
PAM ( PTotal )   
R R R
2
 VC 
 
V 2c  2 V 2
PC    C
R R 2R
All 3 values are RMS values.
2
 m VC 
 2 
 
V SB 2  2  m 2V C 2
 
PLSB  PUSB   
R R 8R
2
m 2 VC
 
4 4R
 V 2 m 2VC 2 m 2 VC 2  VC 2  m2 m2   2  PAM  m 2 
PAM   C    1     PC 1  m  =  1  
 2R 4  2 R 4 2 R  2R  4 4   2  PC  2 
      
2 2
 m VC   m VC 
 2   2 
   
    
2 2  m 2V C 2 m 2V C 2 
 V 2 LSB V 2 USB   
Total power in Side Bands PSB  PLSB  PUSB     

 
 8R
 

 R R  R R  8R 
m 2V C 2 m 2 V C 2 m2
PSB   *  Pc
4R 2 2R 2
Transmission Efficiency
Transmission Efficiency of the AM wave is defined as the ratio of the transmitted power which contains
information (sum of lower side bands and upper side band power to the total power ( PTotal ) .
   m 2V 2 m 2V 2     
   P  m     m 
2 2
 C
 C

PLSB  PUSB   8 R 8R   C  2     2 
       m2 
Transmission Efficiency      2 
  
PTotal   m2  
   m    2  m2     2  m 2 
 PC 1     PC 1  2     2 
 2  
         

Percentage of Transmission Efficiency is given as

m2
%  * 100
2  m2
Effect of Modulation on AM wave
1. Linear modulation (Under modulation)
2. Over modulation.
Linear:- If m  1 or if the modulation is less than 100% then type of modulation is linear amplitude
modulation.
Over modulation:- If m  1, the % modulation is greater than 100% then type of modulation is over
Advantages of AM wave:-
1. Less complex AM Transmitter
2. AM Receiver are simple, detection is easy.
3. AM Receiver are cost efficient.
4. AM waves can travel a longer distance.
5. Low band width.
Disadvantages:-
1. Power voltage takes place.
2. AM needs larger Bandwidth.
3. It gets affected due to noise.
Application:-
1. Radio Broadcasting.
2. Picture Transmission in a TV system.

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two sidebands.
The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing but a band of frequencies,
containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the carrier,
which carries no information.

If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such a process is
called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC.

Mathematical Expression:

The mathematical expression of AM wave is given by:

 
v AM  VC sin  c t  m cos c   m t  m cos c   m t 
V V
 2 2 
  
v DSBSC  v AM  vc  VC sin  c t  m cos c   m t  m cos c   m t   VC sin  c t
V V
 2 2 

Vm V
v DSBSC  cos c   m t  m cos c   m t
2 2

Frequency Spectrum of DSBSC:

Amplitude

Frequency

B.W.= (fc+fm)-(fc-fm)=2fm
Total power in DSBSC modulated wave:
2 2
 m VC   m VC 
 2   2 
   
    
2 2  m 2V C 2 m 2V C 2 
 V 2 LSB V 2 USB   
PDSBSC  PLSB  PUSB         
 R R  R R  8R 8R 
   
m 2VC 2 m 2 VC 2 m2
PDSBSC   *  Pc
4R 2 2R 2
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)

The DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same information, there is
no need to transmit both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a single sideband is
called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. The block diagram of SBSC is given
in below figure.
Mathematical Expression:

The mathematical expression of DSBSC wave is given by:

cosc  m t  m cosc  m t
Vm V Vm V
v DSBSC  cos c   m t  m cos c   m t , vSSBSC 
2 2 2 2
Frequency Spectrum of SSBSC:

Amplitude Amplitude

Frequency Frequency
Total power in SSBSC modulated wave:
2
 m VC 
 2 
 
 2  m 2V C 2
V 2 LSB V 2 USB  
PSSBSC  PLSB  PUSB    
R R R 8R
m 2V C 2 m 2 V C 2 m2
PSSBSC   *  Pc
8R 4 2R 4

Detection or Demodulation of AM Wave:

The process of recovering the message signal from the received modulated signal is known as demodulation
Types of AM Detector:
1. Square Law Detector
2. Envelope Detector
Square Law Detector:
The Circuit diagram of square law detector consists of a square law device which is a non linear device such as
diode and low pass RC filter, shown in the figure.
Operation and Analysis:
The input output characteristics i.e., the transfer characteristics of a square law detector is non-linear and it is
expressed mathematically as :
v2 (t )  av1 (t )  bv12 (t ) (1)
The input of the square law detector is Amplitude modulated (AM) Wave V1(t), which is given by:
v1(t )  Vc 1  ma sin mt sin ct  Vc 1 ma x(t )sin ct (2)
where x(t )  sin  m t = modulating signal.
Substitute the value of equation (2) in equation (1), we get
v 2 (t )  aVc 1  m a x(t )sin  c t   bVc 1  m a x(t )sin  c t 2

v 2 (t )  aVc sin  c t 1  m a x(t )  bVc 2 sin 2  c t 1  2m a x(t )  m a 2 x 2 (t )  (3)
sin 2  c t 
1
1  cos 2 c t 
2
Substituting the value of sin 2 ct in equation 3, we get

v 2 (t )  aVc sin  c t 1  m a x(t ) 

bVc 2
2

1  cos 2 c t 1  2ma x(t )  ma 2 x 2 (t ) 
 bV 2 bV 2  bV 2

v 2 (t )  aVc sin  c t 1  m a x(t )   c  c m a 2 x 2 (t )  bVc 2 m a x(t )  c cos 2 c t 1  2m a x(t )  m a 2 x 2 (t )  (4)
 2 2  2

1 2 3 4
The term 1st and 4th contains sin c t term, which is a high frequency term. 2nd term also contains high
frequency term due to squaring of x(t).
Out of these terms from equation (4), the only desired term bVc 2 m a x(t ) which is due to the bv12 (t ) term . Hence,
the name of this detector is square law demodulator or detector.
This desired term is extracted by using a low pass filter (LPF) after the diode, Hence, after the LPF, we get
v o (t )  bVc 2 m a x(t )
This means that we have recovered the message signal x(t) at the output of the detector.

Envelope Detector:

 The envelope detector is a simple and very efficient device which is suitable for the detection of a
narrowband AM signal.
 A narrowband AM wave is the one in which the carrier frequency fc is much higher as compared to the
bandwidth of the modulating signal.
 An envelope detector produces an output signal that follows the envelope of the input AM signal
exactly. It is used in all the commercial AM radio receivers.
Circuit Diagram:
The circuit diagram of the envelope detector is shown in figure, the envelope detector consists of a diode and
RC filter.
Working Operation:
 The standard AM wave is applied at the input of the detector.
 In every positive half cycle of the input, the detector diode is forward biased and charge the filter
capacitor ―C‖ connected across the load resistance ―R‖ to almost the peak value of the input voltage.
 As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stop conducting.
 The capacitor will now discharge through R between the positive peaks as shown in the waveform. The
discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle.
 When the input signal becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts again and the
process repeats itself.
Waveforms:
The input-output waveforms for the envelope detector is shown in figure.

 It shows the charging discharging of the filter capacitor and the approximate output voltage.
 It may be observed from these waveforms that the envelope of the AM wave is being recovered
successfully.
 Here we have assumed that the diode is ideal and the AM wave applied to the input of the detector is
supplied by a source having internal resistance Rs.
Selection of the RC time Constants
 The capacitor charges through D and Rs when the diode is on and it discharges through R when the
diode is off.
 The charging time constant RsC should be short compared to the carrier period 1/fc.
Thus, RsC << 1/fc
 On the other hand, the discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistance R. But, this time constant should not be too long which
will not allow the capacitor voltage to discharge at the maximum rate of change of the envelope.
Therefore, 1/fc << RC << 1/W, where, W = Maximum modulating frequency

FM (frequency modulation)
In FM, the frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion with the instantaneous value of modulating
signal.
Phase Modulation :-
The Phase of carrier signal is varied with respect to the instantaneous value of modulating (message)
signal, amplitude remain constant.is called phase modulation.
DATA COMMUNICATION
 Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information.
 In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium.
 This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The
hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the
data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it
is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
Characteristics of Data Communication
The effectiveness of any data communications system dependsupon the following four
fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without
any delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the
timeliness of data being transmitted.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender tothe receiver.

2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data(message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate thedata
(message).

4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.It can be
wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol
  It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to
communicate data.
 A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
 A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which the
communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk to each
other in a different language without know the other language.
Basic Elements of a Wireless Communication System
A typical Wireless Communication System can be divided into three elements: the
Transmitter, the Channel and the Receiver. The following image shows the block diagram of
wireless communication system.

1. The Transmission Path

 A typical transmission path of a Wireless Communication System consists of Encoder, Encryption,
Modulation and Multiplexing. The signal from the source is passed through a Source Encoder, which
converts the signal in to a suitable form for applying signal processing techniques.
 The redundant information from signal is removed in this process in order to maximize the utilization of
resources. This signal is then encrypted using an Encryption Standard so that the signal and the
information is secured and doesn’t allow any unauthorized access.
 Channel Encoding is a technique that is applied to the signal to reduce the impairments like noise,
interference, etc. During this process, a small amount of redundancy is introduced to the signal so that it
becomes robust against noise. Then the signal is modulated using a suitable Modulation Technique (like
PSK, FSK and QPSK etc.) , so that the signal can be easily transmitted using antenna.
 The modulated signal is then multiplexed with other signals using different Multiplexing Techniques
like Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) or Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) to share the
valuable bandwidth.

2. The Channel
 The channel in Wireless Communication indicates the medium of transmission of the signal i.e. open
space. A wireless channel is unpredictable and also highly variable and random in nature. A channel
maybe subject to interference, distortion, noise, scattering etc. and the result is that the received signal
may be filled with errors.
3. The Reception Path
 The job of the Receiver is to collect the signal from the channel and reproduce it as the source signal.
The reception path of a Wireless Communication System comprises of Demultiplexing , Demodulation,
Channel Decoding, Decryption and Source Decoding. From the components of the reception path it is
clear that the task of the receiver is just the inverse to that of transmitter.
 The signal from the channel is received by the Demultiplexer and is separated from other signals. The
individual signals are demodulated using appropriate Demodulation Techniques and the original
message signal is recovered. The redundant bits from the message are removed using the Channel
Decoder.
 Since the message is encrypted, Decryption of the signal removes the security and turns it into simple
sequence of bits. Finally, this signal is given to the Source Decoder to get back the original transmitted
message or Signal

Introduction to Wireless communication (Evolution of wireless communication)

Mobile wireless communication system has gone through several evolution stages in the past few decades after
the introduction of the first generation mobile network in early 1980s. Due to huge demand for more
connections worldwide, mobile communication standards advanced rapidly to support more users.
Martin Cooper, an engineer at Motorola during 1970s working on a handheld device capable of two way
communication wirelessly, invented the first generation mobile phone. It was initially developed to use in a car,
the first prototype was tested in 1974. This invention is considered as a turning point in wireless communication
which led to an evolution of many technologies and standards in future.
1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G are the five generations of mobile networks where G stands for Generation, and the
number denotes the generation number. 5G is the latest generation, whereas 1G networks are now obsolete. The
cellular technologies GSM, UMTS, LTE and NR enable 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G, respectively.
1G – First generation mobile communication system
The first generation of mobile network was deployed in Japan by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph company
(NTT) in Tokyo during 1979. In the beginning of 1980s, it gained popularity in the US, Finland, UK and
Europe. This system used analogue signals and it had many disadvantages due to technology limitations.
Key features (technology) of 1G system Disadvantages of 1G system

 Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz  Poor voice quality due to interference
 Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels  Poor battery life
with bandwidth of 30 KHz)  Large sized mobile phones (not convenient to
 Technology: Analogue switching carry)
 Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)  Less security (calls could be decoded using an
 Mode of service: voice only FM demodulator)
 Access technique: Frequency Division  Limited number of users and cell coverage
Multiple Access (FDMA)  Roaming was not possible between similar
systems
2G – Second generation communication system GSM

Second generation of mobile communication system introduced a new digital technology for wireless
transmission also known as Global System for Mobile communication (GSM). GSM technology became the
base standard for further development in wireless standards later. This standard was capable of supporting up to
14.4 to 64kbps (maximum) data rate which is sufficient for SMS and email services. Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) system developed by Qualcomm also introduced and implemented in the mid-1990s. CDMA
has more features than GSM in terms of spectral efficiency, number of users and data rate.
Key features of 2G system  First internet at lower data rate
 Disadvantages of 2G system
 Digital system (switching)
 Low data rate
 SMS services is possible
 Limited mobility
 Roaming is possible
 Less features on mobile devices
 Enhanced security
 Limited number of users and hardware
 Encrypted voice transmission
capability
3G – Third generation communication system
Third generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS – Universal Mobile Terrestrial
/Telecommunication Systems. UMTS has the data rate of 384kbps and it support video calling for the first time
on mobile devices. After the introduction of 3G mobile communication system, smart phones became popular
across the globe. Specific applications were developed for smartphones which handles multimedia chat, email,
video calling, games, social media and healthcare.
Key features of 3G system

 Higher data rate  Multimedia message support

 Video calling  Location tracking and maps
 Enhanced security, more number of users and  Better web browsing
coverage  TV streaming
 Mobile app support  High quality 3D games
4G – Fourth generation communication system
4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE, offers higher data rate and capable to
handle more advanced multimedia services. LTE and LTE advanced wireless technology used in 4th generation
systems. Furthermore, it has compatibility with previous version thus easier deployment and upgrade of LTE
and LTE advanced networks are possible. Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible with LTE
system which significantly improve data rate. All services including voice services can be transmitted over IP
packets. Complex modulation schemes and carrier aggregation is used to multiply uplink / downlink capacity.

Key features of 4G system Disadvantages of 4G system

 Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps
 Expensive hardware and infrastructure
 Enhanced security and mobility  Costly spectrum (most countries, frequency
 Reduced latency for mission critical bands are too expensive)
applications  High end mobile devices compatible with 4G
 High definition video streaming and gaming technology required, which is costly
 Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP  Wide deployment and upgrade is time
packets for voice) consuming

GSM (Global System for Mobile)

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with themselves and with
users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching
Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem (OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is
considered as a part of BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
A. Mobile equipment (ME):
 It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.
 It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
 It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of surrounding cells
foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent using Mobile Equipment.
B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
 It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number.
 It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is protected by
password or PIN.
 It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate the phone.
 It can be moved from one mobile to another.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages radio
transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). BSS also manages
interface between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
 It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
 It consists of transceiver units.
 It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates with BSC via Abis
interface.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
 It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile stations in its area.
 It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS radio power
control.
 It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system and allows MSCs
to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:

 It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other networks.
 It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
  It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and inter BSS and inter MSC
call handoff.
 It provides billing information.
 MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using HLR/VLR.

B. Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in a large service
area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming restrictions, supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its
area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces number of queries to HLR. - Its
database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It maintains
authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):

 It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.

 It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.

4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows
system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system. It supports one or more
Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and
MSC within a GSM system. It has three main functions:

 To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular market.
 To manage all charging and billing procedures
 To manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Interfaces used for GSM network : (ref fig 2)

1)UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
2)Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
3)A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC
4) Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .

General Packet Radio System (GPRS)

 General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward internet access.
GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile Communications Internet Protocol as it
keeps the users of this system online, allows to make voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio
access
  GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities that
allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM network
providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet data transport
the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface resources concurrently.

Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to effectively build a
packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements, interfaces, and protocols for handling
packet traffic are required. Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as
summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. These new
terminals will be backward compatible with GSM for voice calls.

BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base Transceiver

Station(BTS).

BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software upgrade and the
installation of new hardware called the packet control unit (PCU). The
PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new core network
elements called the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) and gateway
GPRS support node (GGSN).

Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will require software upgrades to
handle the new call models and functions introduced by GPRS.

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

  Code Division Multiple Access is a channel access method used by several radio communication
technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an example of multiple access. It is generally used
for mobile communication.

Working Principle:

 CDMA assigns a unique code sequence to each user which is used to code data before transmission.
 If a receiver knows the code sequence related to a user, it is able to decode the received data.
 The codes are shared by the mobile phone and the base station. The codes are called Pseudo-
random code sequences.
 In CDMA systems, all the users can access the entire spectrum allocation all of the time as shown in
the below figure.
 All the users have a unique pseudo-random code (also known as chipping code) which
separates them from other users. This code is used to increase the data rate of the transmission,
resulting in an increased signal bandwidth. These chipping codes are orthogonal in nature which
enables the receiver to recover the transmission of an individual unit from multiple
transmissions.
 CDMA systems can handle an unspecified number of users.
 The capacity of the system depends on the quality of current calls. As more users are added, more
noise is added, which in turn decreases the quality of the current call.
 When a new user is added, its transmission power increases the level of "noise floor" in
frequency spectrum which decreases the overall call quality for all users.
 To eliminate "noise floor", CDMA mobile phones and BS use the min. amount of power
required to communicate with each other.

Satellite Communication System

If you know the functions of all the blocks shown in the above diagram then you can easily understand how
satellite communication works.

Working Principle
 User
The user who actually sends or receives the information or data. The user may be a sender or a receiver.
Here, we have shown the two-way communication system.
 Terrestrial System
It is the local geometrical communication system between earth stations. They did not use satellites for
communication. Terrestrial communication uses both analog and digital signals for data transmission.
The terrestrial communication system is used to connect local earth stations. This system also all the
local users to an earth station.

 Earth Stations
Earth stations are those from where signals are sent to the satellite and received signals from the satellite.
Earth stations collect data from all the users and make it ready to transmit through the satellite. Earth
stations have all the required circuits such as oscillator, amplifier, modulator, demodulator, etc. Earth
stations do all the major works of the communication system such as it amplifies the signal before
sending or after receiving. It removes all the noise and corrects all the errors in the signals.

 Antenna
The antenna is a device that sends and receives the signal in form of a radio wave or microwave. It
creates a medium between the circuit and space for the transmission of signals.

 Uplink and Downlink

Uplink is the transmission channel through which the signal is transmitted from the earth station to the
satellite. Downlink is the transmission channel through which the signal is transmitted from the satellite
to the earth station. The frequency at which the signal is transmitted from the earth station to the satellite
is called uplink frequency. On the other hand, the frequency at which the signal is transmitted from the
satellite to the earth station is called Downlink frequency.

 Transponder
The transponder is a device available in the satellite which actually does the communication with the
earth stations. A satellite consists of thousands of transponders. The transponder receives the signal from
the earth stations at a frequency, and then it converts those signal into another frequency then send them
to the other earth stations.
 RADAR Communication

 Definition: RADAR is an abbreviation for RAdio Detection And Ranging. A system used for detecting
and locating the presence of objects like ships, vehicles, aircraft etc. by radiating electromagnetic signal
in space is known as the Radar system.
 Basically, radar is used to collect the information related to the object or target like its range and
location by radiating electromagnetic energy and examining the echo received from the distant object.

Transmitter Antenna

Target

Target Range
Receiver

Principle

 A radar system operates in a way that it radiates electromagnetic energy into space and detects various
aspects related to objects by analysing the echo generated when the radiated energy gets re-radiated by
the object.

 The electromagnetic signal is produced by the transmitter unit and is radiated in space by the radar
antenna. While the receiver performs extraction of information from the signal received by the radar
antenna.
 We know whenever an electromagnetic wave is transmitted by the system then it reflects or re-radiates
some of its parts on experiencing a variation in the conductivity of the medium. This variation in
conductivity arises due to the presence of an object either stationary or moving. Thereby producing an
echo.
 The radar system receives the echo by the help of an antenna in order to analyse it and have the location
of the object.
 Now the question arises how the reception of an echo can determine the range and location of the target?
 Range specifies the distance between the target and the radar system.

 The range to an object is determined by the measurement of the time taken by the radiated signal to
reach the object and come back to the radar. And the location of the stationary object in the space is
determined from the angle pointed by the antenna when the echo received is of maximum amplitude.
Numericals: ( Unit 5: Fundamentals Communication Engineering)