CHAPTER 4

BALANCED THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

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BALANCED THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

4.1 Three-Phase Voltage Generation

Three-phase generators have three sets of windings and thus produce three ac
voltages instead of one. To get at the idea, consider first the elementary single-phase
generator of Figure 4-1. As coil AA’ rotates, it produces a sinusoidal waveform eAA’ as
indicated in (b). This voltage can be represented by phasor EAA’ as shown in (c).

FIGURE 4-1 A basic single-phase generator.

If two more windings are added as in Figure 4-2, two additional voltages are generated.
Since these windings are identical with AA’ (except for their position on the rotor), they
produce identical voltages. However, since coil BB’ is placed 120° behind coil AA’,
voltage eBB’ lags eAA’ by 120°; similarly, coil CC’, which is placed ahead of coil AA’ by
120°, produces voltage eCC’ that leads by 120°. Waveforms are shown in (b) and
phasors in (c). As indicated, the generated voltages are equal in magnitude and phase
displaced by 120°.
Thus, if EAA’ is at 0°, then EBB’ will be at -120° and ECC’ will be at +120°. Assuming an
rms value of 120 V and a reference position of 0° for phasor EAA’ for example, yields
EAA’ = 120 V∠0°, EBB’ = 120 V∠-120° and ECC’ = 120 V∠120°. Such a set of voltages is
said to be balanced. Because of this fixed relationship between balanced voltages, you
can, if you know one voltage, easily determine the other two.

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FIGURE 4-2 Generating three-phase voltages. Three sets of coils are used to produce
three balanced voltages.

4.2 Basic Three-Phase Circuit Connections NOTES...

The generator of Figure 4-2 has three independent windings: AA’, BB’, and CC’. As a
first thought, you might try connecting loads using six wires as in Figure 4-3(a). This will
work, although it is not a scheme that is used in practice. Nonetheless, some useful
insights can be gained from it. To illustrate, assume a voltage of 120 V for each coil and
a 12-ohm resistive load.
With EAA’ as reference, Ohm’s law applied to each circuit yields;
⁄ ∠ ⁄ ∠
⁄ ∠ ⁄ ∠
⁄ ∠ ⁄ ∠
These currents form a balanced set, as shown in Figure 4-3(b).

4.2.1 Four-Wire and Three-Wire Systems

Each load in Figure 4-3(a) has its own return wire. What if you replace them with a
single wire as in (c)? By Kirchhoff’s current law, the current in this wire (which we call
the neutral) is the phasor sum of IA, IB, and IC. For the balanced 12-ohm load,

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∠ ∠ ∠

( ) ( ) ( )

Thus, the return wire carries no current at all! (This result is always true regardless of
load impedance, provided the load is balanced, i.e., all phase impedances are the
same.) In practice, power systems are normally operated close to balance. Thus, the
return current, while not necessarily zero, will be quite small, and the neutral wire can
be made smaller than the other three conductors. This configuration is called a four-
wire system and is one of the systems used in practice.

FIGURE 4-3 Evolution of three-phase connections.

The outgoing lines of Figure 4-3(c) are called line or phase conductors. They are the
conductors that you see suspended by insulators on transmission line towers.

4.2.2 Symbology
Having joined points A, B, and C in Figure 4-3(c), we now drop the A, B, and C notation
and simply call the common point N. The voltages are then renamed EAN, EBN, and ECN.
They are known as line-to-neutral voltages.

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4.2.3 Standard Representation

Three-phase circuits are not usually drawn as in Figure 4-3. Rather, they are usually
drawn as in Figure 4-4. (Figure 4-4(a), for example, shows Figure 4-3(c) redrawn in
standard form.) Note that coil symbols are used to represent generator windings rather
than the circle symbol that we use for single phase. As Figure 4-4(a) shows, the circuit
that we have been looking at is a four-wire, wye-wye (Y-Y) circuit. A variation, the
three-wire wye-wye circuit, is shown in (b). Three-wire wye-wye circuits may be used
if the load can be guaranteed to remain balanced, since under balanced conditions the
neutral conductor carries no current. However, for practical reasons most wye-wye
systems use four wires.

FIGURE 4-4 Conventional representation of three-phase circuits. Both are Y-Y systems.

4.2.4 Delta-Connected Generators

Now consider Δ connection of the generator windings. Theoretically, this is possible as
indicated in Figure 4-5. However, there are practical difficulties. For example, when
generators are loaded, distortions occur in the coil voltages due to magnetic fluxes
produced by load currents. In Y-connected generators, these distortions cancel, but in
Δ-connected generators, they do not. These distortions create a third harmonic current
that circulates within the windings of the Δ -connected generator, lowering its efficiency.
For this and other reasons, Δ-connected generators are seldom used and will not be
discussed in this section.

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FIGURE 4-5 A delta-connected generator.

4.2.5 Neutral-Neutral Voltage in a Wye-Wye Circuit

In a balanced Y-Y system, neutral current is zero because line currents sum to zero. As
a consequence, the voltage between neutral points is zero. To see why, consider again
Figure 4-4(a). Assume that the wire joining points n and N has impedance ZnN. This
yields voltage VnN = IN x ZnN. But since IN = 0, VnN = 0, regardless of the value of ZnN.
Even if the neutral conductor is absent as in (b), VnN is still zero. Thus, in a balanced Y-
Y system, the voltage between neutral points is zero.

EXAMPLE 4-1 Assume the circuits of Figure 4-4(a) and (b) are balanced.
If EAN = 247 V∠0°, what are Van, Vbn, and Vcn?

Solution In both cases, the voltage VnN between neutral points is zero. Thus, by KVL,
∠
Since the system is balanced,
∠ ∠

4.2.6 Phase Sequence

Phase sequence refers to the order in which three-phase voltages are generated.
Consider again Figure 4-2. As the rotor turns in the counterclockwise direction, voltages
are generated in the sequence eAA’, eBB’, and eCC’ as indicated by waveforms (b) and the
phasor set (c) and the system is said to have an ABC phase sequence. On the other
hand, if the direction of rotation were reversed, the sequence would be ACB. Sequence
ABC is called the positive phase sequence and is the sequence generated in practice.
It is therefore the only sequence considered in this book. While voltages are generated
in the sequence ABC, the order of voltages applied to a load depends on how you
connect it to the source. For most balanced loads, phase sequence doesn’t matter.

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However, for three-phase motors, the order is important, since if you reverse any pair of
wires, the direction of the motor’s rotation will reverse.

4.3 Basic Three-Phase Relationships

To keep track of voltages and currents, we use the symbols and notations of Figure 4-6.
Capital letter subscripts are used at the source and lowercase letters at the load. As
usual, E is used for source voltage and V for voltage drops.

FIGURE 4-6 Symbols and notation for 3-phase voltages and currents.

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4.3.1 Definitions
Line (also called line-to-line) voltages are voltages between lines. Thus, EAB, EBC, and
ECA are line-to-line voltages at the generator, while Vab, Vbc, and Vca are line-to-line
voltages at the load.

Phase voltages are voltages across phases. For a Y load, phases are defined from line
to neutral as indicated in (a); thus, Van, Vbn, and Vcn are phase voltages for a Y load. For
a Δ load, phases are defined from line to line as shown in (b); thus, Vab, Vbc, and Vca are
phase voltages for a Δ. As you can see, for a Δ load, phase voltages and line voltages
are the same thing. For the generator, EAN, EBN, and ECN are phase voltages.

Line currents are the currents in the line conductors. Only a single subscript is needed.
You can use either Ia, Ib, and Ic as in Figure 4-6 or IA, IB, and IC as in Figure 4-4.

Phase currents are currents through phases. For the Y load Figure 4-6(a), Ia, Ib, and Ic
pass through phase impedances and are therefore phase currents. For the Δ load (b),
Iab, Ibc, and Ica are phase currents. As you can see, for a Y load, phase currents and line
currents are the same thing.

Phase impedances for a Y load are the impedances from a-n, b-n, and c-n [Figure 4-
6(a)] and are denoted by the symbols Zan, Zbn, and Zcn. For a Δ load (b), phase
impedances are Zab, Zbc, and Zca. In a balanced load, impedances for all phases are the
same, i.e., Zan = Zbn = Zcn, etc.

4.3.2 Line and Phase Voltages for a Wye Circuit

We now need the relationship between line and phase voltages for a Y circuit.
Consider Figure 4-7. By KVL, Vab - Van + Vbn = 0. Thus,
Vab = Van – Vbn Equation 4.1
Now, assume a magnitude V for each phase voltage and take Van as reference. Thus,
Van = V∠0° and Vbn = V∠-120°. Substitute these two into Equation 4-1:
∠ ∠ ( ) ( )
( ) ∠ √ ∠
∠
√ ∠
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FIGURE 4–7

Equation 4-2 shows that the magnitude of Vab is √ times the magnitude of Van and that
Vab leads Van by 30°. This is shown in phasor diagram form in Figure 4-8(a). Similar
relationships hold for the other two phases. This is shown in (b). Thus, for a balanced Y
system, the magnitude of line-to-line voltage is √ times the magnitude of the phase
voltage and each line-to-line voltage leads its corresponding phase voltage by 30°.
From this you can see that the line-to-line voltages also form a balanced set. (Although
we developed these relationships with Van in the 0° reference position, they are true
regardless of the choice of reference.) They also hold at the source. Thus,

√ ∠

FIGURE 4-8 Voltages for a balanced Y load. If you know one voltage, you can
determine the other five by inspection.

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EXAMPLE 4-2
a. Given Van = 120 V∠-45°. Determine Vab using Equation 4-2.
b. Verify Vab by direct substitution of Van and Vbn into equation 4-1.
Solution
) √ ∠ √ ( ∠ )( ∠ ) ∠
) ∠ ∠
( ∠ ) ( ∠ )
∠

4.3.3 Nominal Voltages

While Example 4-2 yields 207.8 V for line-to-line voltage, we generally round this to 208
V and refer to the system as a 120/208-V system. These are nominal values. Other sets
of nominal voltages used in practice are 277/480-V and 347/600-V.

EXAMPLE 4-3 For the circuits of Figure 4–4, suppose EAN =120V∠0°.
a. Determine the phase voltages at the load.
b. Determine the line voltages at the load.
c. Show all voltages on a phasor diagram.
Solution
a. Van = EAN. Thus, ∠ since the system is balanced,
∠ and ∠
b. √ ∠ √ ∠( ) ∠
∠ ∠
c. The phasors are shown in Figure 4-9.

FIGURE 4-9

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Equations 4-2 and 4-3 permit you to calculate line voltages from phase voltages.
Rearranging them yields equation 4-4 which permits you to calculate phase voltage
from line voltage.

√ ∠ √ ∠

For example, if ∠ then

∠
∠
√ ∠ √ ∠

4.3.4 Currents for a Wye Circuit

As you saw earlier, for a Y load, line currents are the same as phase currents. Consider
Figure 4-10. As indicated in (b),

Ia = Van / Zan Equation 4.5

Similarly for Ib and Ic. Since Van, Vbn, and Vcn form a balanced set, line currents Ia, Ib, and
Ic also form a balanced set. Thus, if you know one, you can determine the other two by
inspection.

FIGURE 4-10 Determining currents for a Y load.

EXAMPLE 4-4 for Figure 4-11, suppose Van = 120 V∠0°.

a. Compute Ia, then determine Ib and Ic by inspection.
b. Verify by direct computation.

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FIGURE 4-11

Solution

∠ ∠
a. ∠
∠

Ib lags Ia by 120o. Thus, ∠

Ic leads Ia by 120o. Thus, ∠

b. Since ∠ ∠ and ∠
Thus,
∠
∠
∠
∠
∠
∠
These agree with the results obtained in (a).

4.3.5 Line and Phase Currents for a Delta Load

Consider the delta load of Figure 4-12. Phase current Iab can be found as in (b).

Iab = Vab / Zab Equation 4.6

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FIGURE 4-12 Currents for a balanced Δ load. If you know one current, you can
determine the other five by inspection.

Similar relationships hold for Ibc and Ica. Since line voltages are balanced, phase
currents are also balanced. Now consider again Figure 4-12(a). KCL at node a yields
Ia = Iab – Ica Equation 4.7

After some manipulation, this reduces to

√ ∠
Thus, the magnitude of Ia is √ times the magnitude of Iab, and Ia lags Iab by 30°.
Similarly, for the other two phases. Thus, in a balanced Δ, the magnitude of the line
current is √ times the magnitude of the phase current, and each line current lags its
corresponding phase current by 30°. Since phase currents are balanced, line currents
are also balanced. This is shown in (c).

To find phase currents from line currents, use

√ ∠

EXAMPLE 4-5 Suppose Vab = 240 V∠15° for the circuit of Figure 4-13.
a. Determine the phase currents.
b. Determine the line currents.
c. Sketch the phasor diagram.

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FIGURE 4-13

Solution
∠
a. ∠

∠ ∠
b. √ ∠ ∠

∠ ∠
c. Phasors are shown in Figure 4-14.

FIGURE 4-14

4.4 Power in a Balanced System

To find total power in a balanced system, determine power to one phase, then multiply
by three. Since only magnitudes are involved in many power formulas and calculations

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and since magnitudes are the same for all three phases, we can use a simplified
notation. We will use VΦ for magnitude of phase voltage, IΦ for phase current, VL and IL
for line voltage and line current respectively, and ZΦ for phase impedance.

4.4.1 Active Power to a Balanced Wye Load

First, consider a Y load (Figure 4-15). The power to any phase as indicated in (b) is the
product of the magnitude of the phase voltage VΦ times the magnitude of the phase
current IΦ times the cosine of the angle θΦ between them. Since the angle between
voltage and current is always the angle of the load impedance, the power per phase is,

( )

where VΦ is the angle of ZΦ. Total power is,

( )

It is also handy to have a formula for power in terms of line quantities. For a Y load, IΦ =
IL and VΦ = VL √ , where IL is the magnitude of the line current and VL is the magnitude
of the line-to-line voltage. Substituting these relations into Equation 4-11 and noting that
3/ √ = √ yields,

√ ( )

This is a very important formula and one that is widely used. Note carefully, however,
that θΦ is the angle of the load impedance and not the angle between VL and IL.
Power per phase can also be expressed as

⁄ ( )

where RΦ is the resistive component of the phase impedance and VR is the voltage
across it. Total power is thus

⁄ ( )

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FIGURE 4-15 For a balanced Y, PΦ = Pan = Pbn = Pcn.

4.4.2 Reactive Power to a Balanced Wye Load

Equivalent expressions for reactive power are,
( )
⁄ ( )

√ ( )
where XΦ is the reactive component of ZΦ and VX is the voltage across it.

4.4.3 Apparent Power

( )

√ ( )

4.4.4 Power Factor

⁄ ⁄

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EXAMPLE 4-6 For Figure 4-16, the phase voltage is 120 V.

FIGURE 4-16
a. Compute active power to each phase and total power using each equation of this
section.
b. Repeat (a) for reactive power.
c. Repeat (a) for apparent power.
d. Find the power factor.
Solution Since we want to compare answers for the various methods, we will use 207.8
V for the line voltage rather than the nominal value of 208 V to avoid truncation error in
our computations.

∠
⁄ ⁄
( )( ) ( )( )

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4.5 Measuring Power in Three-Phase Circuits

4.5.1 The Three-Wattmeter Method
Measuring power to a 4-wire Y load requires one wattmeter per phase (i.e., three watt-
meters) as in Figure 4-17 (except as noted below). As indicated, wattmeter W1 is
connected across voltage Van and its current is Ia. Thus, its reading is,

which is power to phase an. Similarly, W2 indicates power to phase bn and W3 to phase
cn. Loads may be balanced or unbalanced. The total power is,
PT = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 Equation 4.22
If the load of Figure 4-28 could be guaranteed to always be balanced, only one
wattmeter would be needed. PT would be 3 times its reading.

4.5.2 The Two-Wattmeter Method

While three watt-meters are required for a four-wire system, for a three-wire system,
only two are needed. The connection is shown in Figure 4-18. Loads may be Y or Δ,
balanced or unbalanced. The meters may be connected in any pair of lines with the
voltage terminals connected to the third line. The total power is the algebraic sum of the
meter readings.

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FIGURE 4-17 Three-wattmeter connection for a 4-wire load.

FIGURE 4-18 Two-wattmeter connection. Load may be balanced or unbalanced.

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