Topic - 12 - Paper 6

Definitions

Apparatus

Measuring quantities

Time and temperature and gases

Volume

Comparing apparatus

Preparation of salts

Excess Solid Method

Titration

Precipitation

Chemical Techniques

Chromatography

Distillation

Simple

fractional

Identifying ions and gases

Definitions
Solvent: a substance that dissolves a solute. (water in water + sugar)
Solute: a substance that is dissolved in a solvent (sugar in water + sugar)
Solution: a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent
Saturated solution: a solution containing the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent at a
specified temperature
Residue: a substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration or any similar process
Filtrate: a liquid or solution that has passed through a filter

Apparatus
Apparatus are crucial in chemical reactions, thus it is vital that the correct apparatus choice is made when measuring
sensitive quantities eg: (in titration a burette must be used to accurately deduce the volume change.)

Measuring quantities
Time and temperature and gases
Time can be measured using a stopwatch, temperature with thermometer and mass with balance. Gases can be
measured using a gas syringe or a gas jar (inverted measuring cylinder in water, provided that the gas is not soluble)

Volume
Made with Super
Volume can be measured either by pipette, measuring cylinder and burette. Using a measuring cylinder is quick and
easy, but it is less precise. They also have a great range of liquids that they can measure, pipettes are slow but they
are accurate (range of either 10cm3 or 25cm3 ). Pipettes are valuable in measuring volume of fixed liquids whereas
burettes are most accurate for measuring volumes of variable liquids like in titration. They typically have a range of
50cm3 .

Comparing apparatus

Apparatus Merit Inferiority Use

Slower, and a
Pippet More accurate limited range of Volume
volumes

Faster and easy to

Measuring cylinder Less precise Volume
use

Easy to set up and Piston can stick and

Gas syringe keeps the syringe limited range of Gas
dry volume
 Gas syringe gives
Inverted measuring Cheap and easy to much more
Gas
cylinder use accurate
measurements

It is vital to be familiar with laboratory apparatus like:

Preparation of salts
Whenever preparing salts, it is crucial to learn the solubility key. If a substance is soluble meaning it will dissolve in
water to give an aqueous solution. If it is insoluble meaning that it will not dissolve and would rather remain in its solid
form after undergoing a reaction.

*Table showing the solubility key which must be memorized for the examination!!

Acid Base Salt Method

Soluble Soluble Soluble Titration

Soluble Insoluble Soluble Excess solid method

Soluble Soluble Insoluble Precipitation

*Table showing appropriate method for appropriate soluble salts.

Excess Solid Method

In this process, Add appropriate volume of acid in a beaker. Now add excess metal (until bubbles stop forming, or
metal stops dissolving). Filter out the excess metal and heat the filtrate until point of crystallization. Take the solution
and place it in and evaporating dish to await crystal formation. Crystals are formed as temperature decreases the
solubility decreases as well causing the solid to be formed in form of crystals.

Titration
In titration, an acid-base neutralization reaction takes place to
produce a soluble salt. In titration, Acid is taken in a burette and base
in a conical flask. Appropriate volumes are chosen, it is crucial to note
the end of the reaction thus an indicator is required. Methyl orange is
commonly used which turn from orange to pinkish red.
After the ph of the solution is 7, meaning salt and water have been
After the ph of the solution is 7, meaning salt and water have been
*The color of the solution turns red when
formed, the liquid (in the chronicle flask) is now transferred to an
methyl orange is used as an indicator of
evaporating dish where it is heated until point of crystallization (check
acid. When methyl orange is mixed with a
with glass rod). Now leave it to dry and collect crystals.
base, the result is yellow,

Precipitation
In this reaction two soluble reactants make an insoluble salt (and water). This is achieved by reacting appropriate
volumes of acid and bases. A colored (can be white too) precipitate is formed which is then obtained via filtration.
Take the residue and and rinse it with water to remove any soluble impurities. Dry the salt either in a desiccator with a
drying agent like calcium carbonate (if it contains water of crystallization) or between dry filter paper.

Figure summarizing the salt preparation

methods

Chemical Techniques
Chromatography
Chromatography is used to separate different substances in a mixture so that they can be identified. This is also used
in determining if a substance is pure or impure. Paper chromatography is used to separate different dyes in an ink.
Firstly, Take a filter paper and draw a baseline with pencil (since pencil will not interfere with the results). Add the
sample of ink (using a dropping pipette). In a beaker take a dye-soluble solvent like water or ethanol. Make sure that
the pencil line is not submerged in the solvent. Each dye travels up the chromatography paper at a different rate thus
can be separated and easily identified.
We identify the different dyes present in an ink using Rf values.
Distance−travelled−by−the−substance
Rf = Distance−travelled−by−the−solvent
*This must always be below 1! If it is not try inverting your answer, you must have take the opposite distances.

Distillation
This is used to separate a mixture of liquids

Simple fractional
Simple fractional
Separating a liquid from a solution. This is done by This method is used to separate a liquid from a mixture
heating the solution until the boiling point is achieved. of liquids. The process is fairly similar except the fact
Now the vapour is passed into a condenser which has that a fractionating column is introduced to the set up.
flow of cold water in it to help condense the vapour. There are glass beads in this column which provide a
Now Liquid is collected in a beaker. really high surface area. Since this column is tall, it is
cooler at the top then it is at the bottom. This is
important for separating liquids with similar boiling
points. If by chance some of the other liquids also
evaporate, however when they come in contact with
the glass rods which are much cooler than their boiling
point, they condense back into liquid form and allow the
pure substance to be collected.

Identifying ions and gases

Source: 2023 Oct/nov P61 Past paper

Result for halides

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