HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 3
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

Development is the pattern of -

Progressive
Orderly
Predictable changes
Begin at conception and continues throughout life.
We also change in the way we think, use language,
and develop social relationships.
 GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT,
MATURATION AND EVOLUTION
 GROWTH - Refers to an increase in the size of the body parts or of the organism
as a whole. It can be measures or quantified. Eg, height, weight, etc,.

 DEVELOPMENT – process in which the individual grows and changes

throughout the life cycle. Changes have a direction. Hold definite relationship with
what it precedes and determines what comes after. It is not temporary. There is
both growth and decline.

 MATURATION – Changes that follow an orderly sequence, mostly dictated by

genetic blueprint which produces commonalities. Eg, most children can sit
without support by 7 months of age.

 EVOLUTION – It refers to species specific changes. Eg, natural selection.

INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT
(Process)
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES:
 development due to genes inherited from parents show the
role of biological processes. Eg, height, weight, brain, etc.

COGNITIVE PROCESSESS:
 they relate to the mental activities associated with the
processes of knowing and experiencing such as thought,
perception etc.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESSES:
 they refer to the changes in an individual’s interactions and
other people, changes in emotions and in personality.
FACTORS INFLUENCING
DEVELOPMENT
 Genotype – An actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage
 Phenotype- The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable
and measurable characteristics. Example, height, weight, and
psychological characteristics like creativity, intelligence

Sandra Scarr (1992) believes that the environment parents provide for their
children depends to some extent on their own genetic predisposition. For
example, if parents are intelligent and are good readers they would provide
their children with books to read.

Environmental influences are as complex as the genes we inherit.

LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE
 DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG - all age groups
 THE VARIOUS PROCESSES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - biological, cognitive,
and socio-emotional
 DEVELOPMENT IS MULTI-DIRECTIONAL - Some dimensions or components of a
given dimension of development may increase, while others show decrements
 DEVELOPMENT IS HIGHLY PLASTIC – modifiability of skills and abilities is found
in psychological development, though plasticity varies among individuals
 DEVELOPMENT IS INFLUENCED BY HISTORICAL CONDITIONS
 DEVELOPMENT IS THE CONCERN OF A NUMBER OF DISCIPLINES -
psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuro-sciences study human
development
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND RESPONSES
CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development –

 MICROSYSTEM - Immediate environment/setting in which the individual

lives. Example, social agents like the family, peers, teachers, and
neighbourhood.
 MESOSYSTEM - Relations between these contexts.
 EXOSYSTEM - Includes the indirect influences of social settings.
Example, the transfer of father or mother.
 MACROSYSTEM - Includes the culture in which the individual lives.
 CHRONOSYSTEM - Events in the individual’s life course, and socio-
historical circumstances of the time such as, divorce of parents or parents’
economic setback, and their effect on the child.
Durganand Sinha (1977) - Ecological Model of
Development in Indian Context:
“Upper and the more Visible Layers”
The elements of the upper layer of ecology constitute the:
 Home - overcrowding, space available, toys, technological devices used, etc.,
 Nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is exposed, and
 Nature of interactions and activities undertaken with peer groups from childhood
onward.
The elements of the surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
 General geographical environment - Space and facilities for play and other
activities available outside the home including general congestion of the locality
and density of population
 Institutional setting provided by caste, class, and other factors, and
 General amenities - drinking water, electricity, means of entertainment etc.
OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
 Prenatal (conception to birth)
 Infancy (birth to age 2)
 Childhood
• Early childhood (2 - 7)
• Middle childhood (7 – 11)
 Adolescence (11 – 20)
 Adulthood
• Young adulthood (20 – 40)
• Middle adulthood (40 – 60)
• Late adulthood (60 and above)
 Old Age
Developmental tasks - a state or ability that s/he must achieve in the same order as
other persons before progressing to the next stage in the sequence.
PRENATAL STAGE

PRENATAL PERIOD - The period from conception to birth. Lasts for about
40 weeks.
FACTORS AFFECTING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT –
 Genetic and environmental factors
 Maternal characteristics - mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state.
Example, rubella (German measles), genital herpes, and Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
 Teratogens - drugs, infections, radiations, and pollution, marijuana, heroin,
cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, Radiations (such as X-rays), carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead etc.
INFANCY – Birth to Age 2
 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Movements are governed by reflexes - automatic, built-in responses to stimuli,

genetically-carried survival mechanisms and building blocks for subsequent motor
development.
• Coughing, blinking, and yawning persist throughout their lives. Others disappear
as the brain functions mature and voluntary control over behaviour starts
developing.
• As the brain is developing, physical development also progresses. The sequence
of physical (motor) development is universal, with minor exceptions.
SENSORY DEVELOPMENT

• Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather than others such as faces.
• The newborn’s vision is estimated to be lower than the adult vision.
• Colour deficient and full colour vision develops by 3 months of age. (red
and white).
• Infants can hear immediately after birth. Proficiency at localising sound
improves with age.
• Newborns respond to touch and they can even feel pain.
• Both smell and taste capacities are also present in the newborn.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Jean Piaget stressed that children actively construct their understanding

of the world.
• As children grow, additional information is acquired and they adapt their
thinking to include new ideas, as this improves their understanding of the
world.
• The newborn lives in the present. According to Piaget, children at this
stage do not go beyond their immediate sensory experience, i.e.
lack object permanence — the awareness that the objects continue to
exist when not perceived.
• The basis of verbal communication seems to be present in infants.
Vocalisation begins with the infant’s babbling, sometime between 3 to 6
months of age.
• Noam Chomsky
SOCIO – EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Babies from birth are social creatures.

• An infant starts preferring familiar faces and responds to parent’s presence
by cooing and gurgling.
• The close emotional bond of affection that develop between infants and
their parents (caregivers) is called attachment.
• In a classic study by Harlow and Harlow (1962) - demonstrates that
providing nourishment or feeding was not crucial for attachment and
contact-comfort is important.
Erik Erikson (1968)

 According to Erikson, the first year of life is the key time for the
development of attachment.
 It represents the stage of developing trust or mistrust.
 A sense of trust is built on a feeling of physical comfort which builds an
expectation of the world as a secure and good place.
 An infant’s sense of trust is developed by responsive and sensitive
parenting, affectionate and accepting, it provides the infant a strong base
to explore the environment. Such infants are likely to develop a secure
attachment.
 On the other hand, if parents are insensitive and show dissatisfaction and
find fault with the child, it can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in the
child.
 CHILDHOOD (2 – 11)

 Growth slows down during early childhood as compared to infancy.

 Develops physically, gains height and weight, learns to walk, runs, jumps,
and plays with a ball.
 Acquires the concepts of good and bad, i.e. develops a sense of morality.
 Increase in the maturation of the brain along with opportunities to
experience the world.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Two Principles –
 Cephalocaudal: from the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail region.
Ex, if we see an infant crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then shift to using the
legs,
 Proximodistal trend: from the centre of body and moves towards the extremities or
more distal regions.
Ex, children gain control over their torso before their extremities, Sitting.

During middle and late childhood years, the size of the skeletal and muscular systems
increases, looks slimmer, decrease in the fat and maturing nervous systems.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

 Gross motor skills – involve the use of arms and legs, and moving
around with confidence and more purposefully
 Fine motor skills — finger dexterity and eye-hand coordination
 Child’s preference for left or right hand also develops
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thought (Early childhood) –

 Symbolic thought – gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not physically
present.
 Egocentrism – self focus - children see the world only in terms of their own selves and are
not able to appreciate others’ point of view.
 Animism – attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects. Ex, “road hurt me”.
 Stage of intuitive thought – Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow?
 Centration – focusing on a single characteristic or feature for understanding an event. Ex,
insist on drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall narrow glass to a short broad one.
Stage of Concrete Operational Thought (middle and late childhood) –
 Intuitive thought is replaced by logical thought.
 Mental operations, flexible thinking, alternatives solutions, mentally retrace their steps
 Acquisition of language.
SOCIO – EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Important dimensions - the self, gender and moral development

According to Erikson,
Initiative or sense of guilt – develops by the way a child’s self-initiated activities are
responded to.
Self-understanding - define oneself through internal characteristics such as, “I am
smart and I am popular”, etc.
Social aspects of self - references to social groups like being a member of school’s
music club, environment club, or any religious group.
Social comparison - Example, “I got more marks than Atul” or “I can run faster than
others in the class” – Individual Differences.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, a child passes through the various stages of

moral development, which are age related.
 The young child, i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in terms of external
authority
 As the child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, s/he develops moral
reasoning through set of rules of others, such as parents or laws of the
society.
 The rules are “internalised”.
 Moral thinking at this stage is relatively inflexible - gradually develop a
personal moral from absolute guidelines by systems.
 Language develops and the child can reason logically.
 ADOLESCENCE (11 – 20)
Adolescence is commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability to reproduce is attained.
 Latin word adolescere, meaning “to grow into maturity.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Menarche - Puberty or sexual maturity marks the beginning of adolescence.
 The hormones released during puberty result in the development of –
• Primary sexual characteristics - directly related to reproduction.
• Secondary sexual characteristics - features or signs of achieving sexual maturity.
 The growth spurt - age of 12 or 13 for boys and at the age of 10 or 11 for girls.
 Psychological changes - interest in members of the opposite sex and in sexual matters.
 The development of a sexual identity defines the sexual orientation and guides sexual
behaviour.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s formal operational thought appears between the age of 11 and 15 - More
abstract, logical, and idealistic:

Constructivist thinking - takes a quantitative approach, relatively sudden and drastic.

Information-processing - growth of specific components of the overall process of
thinking.
Hypothetical deductive reasoning (top-down reasoning) - plan ahead, see the future
consequences of actions, alternative explanations of events.
Metacognition – “thinking about thinking” - increased introspection, self-
consciousness, and intellectualization.
Adolescence Egocentrism

According to David Elkind, there are two components of adolescents’ ego-centrism –

 Audience –
• Imaginary audience - others are as preoccupied with them as they are about
themselves.
• They imagine that people are always noticing them and are observing each and
every behaviour of theirs.
• Self-conscious.
 Personal Fable –
• Sense of uniqueness - part of the adolescents’ egocentrism. Ex, ‘you don’t
understand me’.
• Fantasize or create a world that is away from reality.
IDENTITY FORMATION

Identity is who you are and what your values, commitments and beliefs are.
 Primary task – establish an identity. Usually personalized through the process of
detachment.
 Conflict - parents and self.
 “Identity confusion” – those who are not able to cope up with the identity crisis
leading to isolation.
 Rapid fluctuations between self-confidence and insecurity.
FACTORS INFLUENCING IDENTITY FORMATION

 The cultural background, family and societal values, ethnic background, and
socioeconomic status.
 Family relationships become less important - strong need for peer support and
acceptance.
 Conflicts with parents lead to increased identification with peers.
 Vocational commitment - freedom given to adolescence to choose an occupation
or not given.
MAJOR CONCERNS
(Most vulnerable period in life!)

 Delinquency –
• Refers to variety of socially unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to criminal
acts. Ex, truancy, running away from home, stealing or burglary or acts of
vandalism.
• Tend to have negative self-identity, decreased trust, and low level of achievement.
• Associated with low parental support, inappropriate discipline, and family discord.
 Substance Abuse –
• Recourse to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with stress
• Smoking and drug use could be due to the peer pressure
• Acceptance by the group
• Desire to act more like adults
• Feel a need to escape the pressure of school work or social activities
Effects :
▪ Impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, unpredictable, low self-esteem, low
expectation for achievement.
▪ Physiological dependency.
▪ Seriously jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives.
Reforms –
• Successful anti-drug programme - is the Society for Theatre in Education
Programme in New Delhi - uses street performances while teaching them how to
say no to drugs.
• The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) - as an
example to be adopted by other nongovernmental organisations in the region.

 Eating Disorders :

• Obsession with self, living in fantasy world and peer comparisons - obsession with
their own bodies.
• Anorexia nervosa - relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
• Bulimia - binge-and-purge eating pattern.
 ADULTHOOD (20 – 60)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Physical changes which happen during adulthood due to malnutrition are age spots,
wrinkling, yellowing of teeth, weight gain, etc.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Cognitive abilities decline during adulthood. A decline in memory is more In tasks
involving long-term memory rather than short-term memory.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Marriage brings its own set of concerns like the number of children, availability of
resources.
 A lot of adjustments have to be made in marriage keeping in mind each other’s likes,
dislikes, and preferences.
 Becoming a parents brings a huge transition and it is accompanied by love for the
baby.
 Death of a Spouse during Adulthood has a strong emotional implication on the other
person.
OLD AGE (60 & above)

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Deterioration in physical development happens like a decline in vision, hearing
loss, and changes in physical appearance like grey hair, wrinkles, etc.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Greater Decline in memory is witnessed in old age in those tasks which involve
long term memory.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Fear of death is likely to occur because of chronic illnesses.
 Due to obsession with old memories, generation gap and death of a spouse,
people become more prone to depression and loneliness.
 There is a loss of energy and enthusiasm as well.