MINI PROJECT 2-B

PROJECT REPORT ON
STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE
TE SEM-VI IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

1 Janvi Suresh Rathod B-50

2 Naveli Sujit Rathod B-51
3 Tanishqa Aniket Bhise B-62
4 Krutika Thakare B-63

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PROF. RADHIKA JADHAV

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DATTA MEGHE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SECTOR 3, AIROLI, NAVI MUMBAI -400708
2023-24
 CERTIFICATE

This is to be Certify that the Project Report Title

“STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL”

SUBMITTED BY FOLLOWING STUDENTS

Janvi Suresh Rathod B-50

Naveli Sujit Rathod B-51
Tanishqa Aniket Bhise B-62
Krutika Thakare B-63

Has been completed under my Supervision in a satisfactory manner and submitted to

the University of Mumbai in partial fulfillment of the requirements fot the award of
the TE SEM-VI CIVIL ENGINEERING

In my opinion the work embedded in this report is comprehensive and fit for
evaluation.

Prof. Radhika jadhav

(GUIDE)

Dr. P. A. Dode Dr. D J

Pete Prof. and Head Civil Department
PRINCIPAL

Forwarded for the further persual.

DATE:
PLACE: AIROLI, NAVI MUMBAI
 MINIPROJECT APPROVAL SHEET

THE PROJECT TITLED “STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL’’

SUBMITTED BY STUDENTS NAMELY

B-50 JANVI SURESH RATHOD
B-51 NAVELI SURESH RATHOD
B-62 TANISHQA ANIKET BHISE
B-63 KRUTIKA THAKARE

IS HEREBY EXAMINED BY THE BOARD OF INTERNAL EXMINERS

AND APPROVED FOR FURTHER PERSUAL.

EXAMINER 1 EXAMINER
2

DATE:
PLACE: AIROLI, NAVI MUMBAI
 ABSTRACT

The design foundation on black cotton soil (expansive soil) has always been a
difficult task for the engineers as the structure resting on black cotton soil
cracks without any warning. Soil proportion changes depending upon their
constituents,
i.e. water content, density, bulk density, angle of friction, shear strength etc.
The properties of black cotton soil can be modified by stabilizing the soil with
the use of additives or by mechanical means. In this mini project the case study of
Black Cotton Soil as it is very good and prosperous for farmers. All the The study is
based on addition of lime content in soil for Unconfined Compression Test and
C.B.R. test. Lime typically in the form of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide,
can help stabilize the soil and reduce its swelling and shrinkage. The aim is to
improve the engineering properties of the black cotton soil such that the
structure built on this soil can be efficiently withstand applied loads. It was
found that the engineering properties of black cotton soil substantially
improved by addition of lime.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We, the students of TE express our immense pleasure and satisfaction on the
completion of the Mini Project and in presenting the project report on A study of
‘Stabilization of black cotton soil’using lime.

We first of all would like to express our gratitude to Principal D.J. Pete and Dr. P.

A. Dode, Prof. & Head of Civil Engineering Department, for giving an opportunity to
develop our technical knowledge.

We wholeheartedly express our deepest gratitude towards our project mentor Prof.
Radhika Jadhav for her kind guidance and helping us with the difficulties faced during
the entire period of completion of the Project. Her consistent support and advice have
helped us to complete the project.

Finally, we would like to thank each and every person who has contributed in any of
the ways in completion of the Project.

Thank you again!

1 Janvi Suresh Rathod

2 Naveli Sujit Rathod

3 Tanishqa Aniket Bhise

4 Krutika Thakare
 DECLARATION

We certify that,

- The work completed in this report is original and has been done by me under
the guidance of my guide.
- The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for the award of any
degree, or certificate.
- We have followed the guidelines of the Institute in preparing the mini project.
- Whenever we have used materials (data, theoretical analyses, figures, text, etc.)
from other sources, we have given due credit to them by citing them in the text
of the report and giving their details in the references, necessary.

Janvi Suresh Rathod

Naveli Sujit Rathod

Tanishqa Aniket Bhise

Krutika Balaram Thakare

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
FIGURE NAME/CAPTION
NO. NO.

1 Reinforced Earth 14
2 Geotextile 19
3 Geotextile as filter 19
4 Reinforcement of embankment 20
5 Fabric Reinforced Retaining Walls 20
6 CBR test apparatus 27
7 CBR mould with base plate, stay rod, wing nut 27
8 Compaction rammer 28
9 Uncofined compression test machine 34

LIST OF TABLES

PAGE
TABLE NO. NAME/CAPTION
NO.
1 Physical properties of black cotton soil 21
2 Chemical properties of black cotton soil 21
3 Standard Load Values at Penetration 26
4 Recordings during CBR Test 31
5 Physical properties of black cotton soil 36
 INDEX

Sr. No. Content

Pg.
No.
1 Introduction: 9
1.1 General 9
1.2 Methods of soil stabilization 10
1.3 Physical properties of black cotton soil 20
1.4 Chemical composition of black soil 20
2 Literature review 21
3 Methodology: 23
3.1 Problem Statement 23
Properties of lime influencing stabilization of black
3.2 23
cotton soil
3.3 Chemical and physical changes in lime stabilization 24
3.4 Case Study :Stabilization of black cotton soil using lime 26
4 Result 37

5 Summary 38
6 References 39
 Chapter No.1 Introduction
1.1 General :

In terms of geotechnical Engineering, Black Cotton soil is one which when associated
with as engineering structure and in presence of water will show a tendency to swell
or shrink causing the structure to experience moments which are largely unrelated to
the direct effect of loading by the structure. Black cotton soil is not suitable for the
construction work on account of its volumetric changes. It swells and shrinks
excessively with change of water content. Such tendency of soil is due to the presence
of fine clay particles which swell, when they come in contact with water, resulting in
alternate swelling and shrinking of soil due to which differential settlement of
structure takes place of the various types of building structure and roads constructed
on the black cotton soil so the stabilization is being done for the black cotton soil.
Soil stabilization is the process of improving the engineering properties of the soil and
thus making it more stable. It is required when the soil available for construction is not
suitable for the intended purpose. In its broadcast senses, stabilization includes
compaction, consolidation, drainage and many other such processes. However, the
term stabilization is generally restricted to the processes which alter the soil material
itself for improvement of its properties. A chemical material or chemical is added to a
natural soil for the purpose of stabilization. When lime is added to Black cotton soil, it
reacts with clay minerals present in the soil, leading to a process known as Soil
Stabilization .Due to high clay content, black cotton soil has poor drainage and low
bearing capacity, making it unsuitable for many construction projects without proper
treatment process. Lime, typically in the form of calcium hydroxide, can help stabilize
the black soil soil and their properties.
Sol stabilization is used to reduce the permeability and comprehensibility of the soil
mass in the earth structures and to increase its shear strength. Soil stabilization is
required to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation soils. Improving black
cotton soil by adding lime is a common method used to enhance its properties. Lime,
typically in the form of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide, can help stabilize the soil
and reduce its swelling and shrinkage characteristics.
 1.2 Methods of Soil Stabilization
1.21 Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical stabilization is the process of improving the properties of the soil by
changing its gradation. Two or more types of natural soils are mixed to obtain a
composite material which is superior to any of its components. To achieve the desired
grading, sometimes the soils with coarse particles are added or the soils with fine
particles are removed. Mechanical stabilisation is also known as granular stabilisation.

For the purpose of mechanical stabilisation, the soils are subdivided into two categories:

1 Aggregates: These are the soils which have a granular bearing skeleton and have
particles of the size larger than 75 µ.

2 Binders: These are the soils which have particles smaller than 75 µ size. They
do not possess a bearing skeleton.

The aggregates consist of strong, well-graded, angular particles of sand and gravel
which provide internal friction and incompressibility to a soil. The binders provide
cohesion and imperviousness to a soil. These are composed of silt and clay. The
quantity of binder should be sufficient to provide plasticity to the soil, but it should
not cause swelling.

Proper blending of aggregates and binders is done in order to achieve required

gradation of the mixed soil. The blended soil should possess both internal friction and
cohesion. The material should be workable during placement. When properly placed
and compacted, the blended material becomes mechanically stable. The load-carrying
capacity is increased. The resistance against the temperature and moisture changes is
also improved.

 Uses of Mechanical Stabilisation:

1 It is the simplest method of soil stabilisation.
2 It is generally used to improve the subgrades of low bearing capacity.
3 It is extensively used in the construction of bases, sub-bases and surfacing of
roads.
1.2.2 Cement Stabilization:
Cement stabilization is done by mixing pulverized soil and Portland cement with
water and compacting the mix to attain a strong material. The material obtained by
mixing soil and cement is known as soil cement. The soil cement becomes hard and
durable structural material as the cement hydrates and develops strength.

 Types of soil cement

1 Normal Soil-Cement

It consists of 5-14% of cement by volume. The quantity of cement mixed with soil is
sufficient to produce hard and durable construction material. The quantity of water
used should be just sufficient to satisfy hydration requirements of the cement and to
make the mixture workable. The normal soil cement is quite weather-resistant and
strong. It is commonly used for stabilizing sandy and other low plasticity soil.

2 Plastic Soil -Cement

This type of soil cement also contains cement 5-14% by volume but it has more
quantity of water to have wet consistency similar to that of plastering mortar at the
time of placement.

The plastic soil cement can be placed on steep or irregular slopes where it is difficult
to use normal road making equipments. It has also been successfully used for
waterproof liming of canals and reservoirs. The plastic soil cement can be used for
protection of steep slopes against erosive action of water.

3 Cement Modified Soil

It is type of soil cement that contains less than 5% of cement by volume. It is semi
hardened product of soil and cement. It is quite inferior to the other two types as the
quantity of cement used is small, it is not able to bind all the small particle into a
coherent mass. However, it interacts with silt and clay fraction and reduces their
affinity for water. It reduces the swelling characteristics of soil. The use of cement
modified soil is limited.
1.2.3 Bituminous Stabilization:

Bitumens are non-aqueous system of hydrocarbons that are soluble in carbon di-
sulphide. Tars are obtained by the destructive distillation of organic material such as
coal. Asphalts are materials in which the primary components are natural or refined
petroleum bitumens.

Bituminous stabilization is generally done with asphalt as binder. As asphalts are

normally too viscous to be used directly, these are used as cut-back with some solvent,
such as gasoline. These are also used as emulsions, but in this form they required a
longer drying period.

Any inorganic soil which can be mixed with asphalt is suitable for bituminous
stabilization. In cohesionless soils, asphalt binds the sol particles together and thus
serve as a bonding or cementing agent. In cohesive soils, asphalt protects the soil by
plugging its voids and waterproofing it. It helps the cohesive soil to maintain low
moisture content and to increase the bearing capacity.

The amount of bitumen required generally varies between 4-7% by weight.

1.2.4 Reinforced Earth:

The soil can be stabilized by introducing thin strips in it. In reinforced earth, these thin
metal strips or strips of wire or geosynthetics are used as reinforcement to reinforce
the soil. The essential feature of the reinforced earth is that friction develops between
the reinforcement and the soil. By means of friction, the soil transfers the forces built
up in the earth mass to the reinforcement. Thus, tension develops in the reinforcement
when soil mass is subjected to shear stresses under loads.

The main application of the reinforced earth is in the reinforced earth wall. The wall
consists of facing element, reinforcement and the backfill. At the exposed vertical
surface of the earth wall, facing elements are used to provide a sort of barrier so that
the soil is contained. Thee facing units are generally prefabricated from units which
are small and light so that they can be easily transported and placed in position. These
should be strong enough to hold back the backfill also reinforcement should be easily
fastened to them. Facing units generally required a small plain concrete footing at the
bottom so that they can be easily built.

Fig.1: Reinforced Earth (Goggle)

The reinforcement is connected to the facing element and extended back into the
backfill zone. The friction develops in the reinforcement restrains the facing element.
First a layer of reinforcement strip is placed at the level ground surface and the
backfilling is done with granular soil.

1.25 Thermal Stabilization:

Thermal changes cause a marked improvement in the properties of the soil. Thermal
stabilization is done either by heating the soil or by cooling it.

1 Heating: As soil is heated, its water content decreases. Electric repulsion between
clay particles is decreased and the strength of soil is increased. When the temperature
is increase to more than 100℃, the adsorbed water is driven off and the strength is
further increased.

When the soil is heated to temperature of 400℃ to 600℃, some irreversible changes
occur which make the soil non-plastic and non-expansive. The clay clods are
converted into aggregates. With further increase in temperature there is some fusion
and vitrification, and a brick like material is obtained which can be used as an
artificial
aggregate for mechanical stabilization. This method of stabilization is quite expansive
because of large heat input.

2 Freezing: Cooling causes a small loss of strength of clayey soil due to an increase
in interparticle repulsion. However, if temperature is reduce to the freezing point the
pore water freezes and soil is stabilized. Ice so form act as cementing agent.

1.26 Chemical Stabilization:

In chemical stabilization soils are stabilized by adding different chemicals. The main
advantage of chemical stabilization is that setting time and curing time can be
controlled. The following chemicals may have been successfully used.

1 Calcium Chloride:

When calcium chloride is added to the soil, it causes colloidal reaction and alters the
characteristics of soil water. As calcium chloride is deliquescent and hygroscopic, it
reduces the loss of moisture from the soil. It also reduces the chances of frost heave,
as the freezing point of water is lowered. As the soil treated with calcium chloride do
not easily picked up the water, the method is effective for stabilization of silty and
clayey soils which loose strength with an increase in water content. The quantity of
calcium chloride required is about 1/2% of the soil weight.

2 Sodium Chloride:

When sodium chloride is added to the soil, crystallization occurs in the pores of the
soil and it forms a dense hard mat with the stabilized surface. The pores in the soil
gets filled up and retard further evaporation of water. Sodium chloride checks the
tendency for the formation of the shrinkage cracks. Sodium chloride is mixed with the
soil either by the mix-in-place method or by the plant mix method. It should not be
applied directly to the surface. The quantity of sodium chloride required is about 1%
of the soil weight.

3 Sodium Silicate:

Sodium silicate, as well as other alkali silicates, have been successfully used for soil
stabilization. The chemical is used as solution in water, known as water glass. The
chemical is injected into the soil. Sodium silicate give strength to soil when it reacts
 with it. It also makes the soil impervious. It also acts as dispersing agent. The
maximcompacted density is increased. The quantity of chemical required varies
between 0.1- 0.2% of the soil weight.

4 Polymers:

Polymers are long-chained molecules form by polymerizing of certain organic

chemicals called monomers. Polymers may be natural or synthetic. Resins are natural
polymers. Calcium acrylate is a commonly use synthetic polymer. When polymers s
added to the soil reaction takes place. Sometimes, the monomers are added with a
catalyst to the soil. In that case, polymerization occurs along with reaction.

5 Other Chemicals:

5.i Some water proofers such as alkyl chloro silanes, siliconates amines and
quaternary ammonium salts, have been use for waterproofing of soils.

5.ii Coagulating chemicals, such as calcium chloride and ferric chloride, have been use
to increase the electrical attraction and to form flocculated structure in order to
improve the permeability of soil.

5.iii Dispersant, such as sodium hexa-metaphosphate, are used to increase electrical

repulsion and to cause dispersed structure. The compacted density of the soil
increased.

5.iv Phosphoric acid combined with wetting agent can be used for stabilization of
cohesive soils. It reacts with clay minerals and forms an insoluble alumium
phosphate.

1.27 Electrical Stabilisation:

Electrical stabilisation of clayey soils is done by a process known as electro-
osmosis. As a direct current (D.C.) is passed through a clayey soil, pore water
migrates to the negative electrode (cathode). It occurs because of the attraction of
positive ions (cations) that are present in water towards cathode. The strength of
the soil is considerably increased due to removal of water. Electro-osmosis is an
expensive method, and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils. Incidentally
the properties of the soil are also improved.
1.28 Stabilisation by grouting :

In this method of stabilisation, stabilisers are introduced by injection into the soil. As
the grouting is always done under pressure, the stabilisers with high viscosity are
suitable only for soils with high permeability. This method is not suitable for
stabilising clays because of their very low permeability.

The grouting method is costlier as compared with direct blending methods. The
method is suitable for stabilising buried zones of relatively limited extent, such as a
pervious stratum below a dam. The method is used to improve the soil that cannot be
disturbed. An area close to an existing building can be stabilised by this method.

 Types of Grouting:

Depending upon the stabiliser used, grouting techniques can be classified as under:

1 Cement Grouting: A cement grout consists of a mixture of cement and water. If

the hole drilled in the soil is smooth, the water-cement ratio is kept low. Sometimes,
chemicals are added to grout to increase it fluidity so that it can be injected into the
soil. Cement grouting is quite effective for stabilising rocks with fissures, gravel and
coarse sand.

2 Clay Grouting: In this method, the grout used is composed of a very fine-
grained soil (bentonite clay) and water. The bentonite clay readily adsorbs water on its
surface. The viscosity, strength and flow characteristics of the grout can be adjusted
according to the site conditions. Clay grouting is suitable for stabilising sandy soils.
Sometimes, other chemicals are added to clay grout. Clay cement grout is a mixture of
clay, bentonite and cement. Clay-cement grout is a mixture of clay, bentonite and
cement. Clay-chemical grout is a mixture of clay and sodium silicate. It is effective for
medium and fine sands.

3 Chemical Grouting: The grout used consists of a solution of sodium silicate in

water, known as water glass. The solution contains both free sodium hydroxide and
colloidal silicic acid. An insoluble silica gel is formed. As the reaction is slow,
calcium chloride is generally added accelerate the reaction.
The method is suitable for medium and fine sands. However, the effect of chemical
grouting is not

4 Chrome-lignin grouting: The grout used is made of lignosulphates and a

hexavalant chromium compound. When it is combined with an acid, the chromium ion
changes valence and thereby oxidizes the lignosulphates into a gel. The method can be
used to stabilise fine sand and coarse silt.

5 Polymer grouting: Various polymers have been successfully used in grouting of

fine sands and silts.

6 Bituminous grouting: Sandy and silty soils have been grouted successfully using
emulsified asphalt. Slow-setting emulsions are generally preferred, as these can travel
a large distance into the stratum.

1.29 Stabilisation By Geotextile and Fabrics:

The soil can be stabilised by introducing geotextiles and fabrics which are made of
synthetic materials, such as polyethylene, polyester, nylon. The geotextile sheets are
manufactured in different thicknesses ranging from 10 to 300 mils (1 mil = 0.0254
mm
= 25.4 µ). The width of the sheet can be up to 10 m. These are available in rolls of
length upto about 600 m. Geotextiles are manufactured in different patterns, such as
woven, non-woven, grid, and hybrid.

The geotextiles are quite permeable. Their permeability is comparable to that of fine
sand to coarse sand. These are quite strong and durable. These are not affected by
even hostile soil environment. The use of geotextiles in geotechnical and construction
engineering has increased considerably in the last 2 decades. Geotextiles are being
increasingly used for the site improvement, soil stabilisation and various other related
works. While selecting geotextiles for a particular job, due importance should be
given to the major function that the geotextile has to perform, as explained below.

1 Geotextiles as separators:

Geotextiles are commonly used as separators between two layers of soils having a
large difference in particle sizes to prevent migration of small-size particles into the
voids of large-size particles. The main use as separators is in the construction of
highways onclayey soils. As the particle size of granular base course of the highway is
much larger than that of the subgrade (clayey soil in this case), it is the usual practice
to provide an intervening sol layer of a soil containing grain-sizes intermediate
between that of the subgrade and the base course to prevent migration of clay particles
'into the base course. Instead of the intervening soil layer, geotextile can be provided
to serve the same purpose. The size of perforations should be according to the
requirement. Thus, a geotextile sheet is used between the subgrade and the base
course.

Fig.2: Geotextile
2 Geotextile as Filter:

It is the usual practice to provide a properly graded filter to prevent the movement of
soil particles due to seepage forces the filter is so designed that the particle size of the
filter is small enough to hold the protected material in place. If the filter material is not
properly selected, the particles of the soil move into the pores of the filter and may
prevent proper functioning of the drainage. It may also lead to piping. Geotextiles can
be used as filters instead of conventional filter. When the sill-laden turbid water passes
through the geotextile, the silt particles are prevented from movement by the
geotextile. The modification in the soil and void of the geotextile occurs, and after
some time an equilibrium stage is attached. For relatively thin geotextile sheet, most
of the filtration occurs within the soil just upstream of the geotextile fabric.

Fig.3: Geotextile as filter

3 Geotextile as Reinforcement for strengthening soil:

Geotextiles have a high tensile strength. These can be used to increase the load-
carrying capacity of the soil. Geotextiles are used as reinforcement in the soil, which
is poor in tension but good in compression. The action is somewhat similar to that of
steel bars in a reinforced concrete slab. Geotextiles when used as reinforce-ment for
soils have solved many construction problems on soft and compressible soils. Fig
shows the reinforcement of an embankment with geotextiles. The geotextiles have
been used in the construction of unpaved roads over soft soils. These are laid over the
soil and the base course of the road is placed directly over it. When the vehicles pass
over the road, the geotextile deforms and its strength is mobilized.

Fig.4: Reinforcement of embankment

4 Geotextiles used as reinforcement in retaining walls:

Geotextile can be used as reinforcement in the construction of earth-retaining

structures. Geotextiles are used to form the facing of the retaining wall as well as
reinforcement. Such retaining walls are also called fabric reinforced retaining walls.

Fig.5: Fabric Reinforced Retaining Walls

1.3 Physical Properties of Black Cotton Soil
Black cotton soils are generally reddish brown to black in color and occur from 0.5m
to 10m deep and have high compressibility. The generally observed characteristics of
black cotton soils are recorded in table below –

Table 1: Physical properties of black cotton soil

Sr No. Property Value

1 Dry Density (γd) 1.85 kg/m3
2 Liquid Limit (L.L.) 79.36%
3 Plastic Limit (P.L.) 46.59%
4 Specific Gravity (G) 2.02
5 Optimum Moisture Content 24%
6 C.B.R. 4.5%

1.4 Chemical Composition of Black Cotton Soil

Table 2: Chemical properties of black cotton soil

Sr No. Description Value

1 Silica (Si02%) 41.44
2 Alumina (A2O3%) 16.85
3 Sulphate (%) 1.1
4 Loss of ignition (%) 12.9
 1.2.2 Literature Review

 Search for Solutions to problems in Black Cotton Soils by Dr. R.K Katti (1978).

Studied the various problems associated with Black Cotton soil like swelling,
shrinkage and their effect on the construction work. Also, studied the mineral
influencing this problem in the soil which brought out the distinct difference in
behavior of black cotton soils due to the presence of montmorillonite type of clay
mineral in the soil system and find solutions to the problems associated with Black
Cotton soil.

 A study on engineering behavior of Black Cotton soil and its stabilization by use
of lime by Mr. Brajesh Mishra (November 2015).

This study includes problems generally occur in black cotton soil and the study of
engineering properties of black cotton soil (permeability, plasticity, compaction,
compressibility and shear strength) and index properties (specific gravity,
atterberg’s limits (liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit)).It also includes
the results of various experiments conducted on Black Cotton soil to improved its
property and shows that property of black cotton soil effectively improved by use
of different percentage of lime contents.

 Stabilization of black cotton soil by using lime stone by B.Jaya Prakash Reddy
And S.Aandavan (January 2018).

The analysis involves the determination of the advance at intervals the strength
properties of expansive soil in its wild still as once mixed with varied proportion of
marble dirt and lime stone powder. It includes the results of CBR and UCS tests
conducted on black cotton soil.
 Analysis of engineering properties of Black Cotton soil & stabilization using by
lime by Kavish S. Mehta, Rutvij J. Sonecha, Parth D. Daxini, Kapilani S. Gaikwad
(May 2014).

Studied problems of construction in Black Cotton soil with objective to improved

bearing capacity of Black Cotton soil, to determined variation of strength of soil at
different water content and effect of lime on strength of soil and shows that lime
stabilization of soil increases the strength of soil. Also, studied the mineral
influencing this problem in the soil which shows that presence of mineral
montmorillonite is the reason of the problems associated with the soil and
mechanism of swelling and shrinkage of soil because of the montmorillonite.

 The effect of lime stabilization on properties of Black Cotton Soil by Nadgouda

K.A and Hegde R.A (December 2010).

Studied the characteristics of Black Cotton soil including procedure and results of
various physical and Chemical tests conducted on Black Cotton soil. Also includes
comparison of the improved properties of Black Cotton soil after stabilizing it with
lime.
 Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil using Lime by Shailendra Singh (June 2015)

The experimental work is based on different percentages of lime content in soil on

tests for soil Liquid limit, Plastic limit, O.M.C., M.D.D, Bulk density and Dry
density, C.B.R. test, Grain size analysis and Swelling pressure. With aim to
improve the engineering properties of the black cotton soil such that the structure
built on this soil can be efficiently withstanding applied loads.
 Chapter 3. Methedology

3.1 Problem Statement:

Black cotton soil exhibits high swelling and shrinking when exposed to changes in
moisture content and hence have been found to be most troublesome from engineering
considerations. The properties of black cotton soil can be modified by stabilizing the
soil with the use of additives or by mechanical means. Hence, an attempt has been
made to stabilize the soil using lime. Experimental work has been carried out with 4 %
addition of lime content by the weight of black cotton soil. The experimental work is
based on addition of lime content in soil for Unconfined Compression Test and C.B.R.
test with the aim to improve the engineering properties of the black cotton soil.

3.2Properties of lime influencing stabilization of black cotton soil

Lime stabilization is one by adding lime to the soil. It is useful for stabilization of
clayey soils. When lime reacts with soil, there is exchange of cations in the adsorbed
water layer and a decrease in plasticity of the soil occurs. The resulting material is
more friable than the original clay, and is, therefore, more suitable as subgrade.

Lime is produced by burning lime stone in kilns. The quantity of lime obtained
depends upon the parent material and the production process. There are basically 5
types of lime:

i High calcium, quick lime (CaO)

ii Hydrated, high calcium lime [Ca (OH)2]

iii Dolomitic lime (CaO + MgO)

iv Normal, hydrated dolomitic lime [Ca (OH)2 + MgO]

v Pressure, hydrated dolomitic lime [Ca (OH)2+MgO2]

The quick lime is more effective as stabilizer than the hydrated lime; but the latter is
more safe and convenient to handle Generally, the hydrated lime is used. It is also
known as slaked lime. The higher the magnesium content of the lime, the less is the
 affinity for water and the less is the heat generated during mixing. The amount of lime
required for the stabilization varies between 2 to 10% of the soil weight.
Lime stabilization is not effective for sandy soils. However, these soils can be
stabilized in combination with clay, fly ash or other pozzolanic materials, which serve
as hydraulically reactive ingredients.
The standard ratio of fly ash to lime can vary depending on the specific application and
desired outcome. In general, for soil stabilization purposes, a common ratio is around 2:1,
meaning two parts of fly ash to one part of lime. This ratio can be adjusted based on the
characteristics of the soil and the intended improvement goals. It's essential to conduct tests
and analysis to determine the most suitable ratio for a particular project to achieve the desired
soil stabilization results effectively.

3.3Chemical and physical changes in lime stabilization

When lime reacts with wet soil, it alters the nature of the adsorbed layer by base
exchange. Calcium ions replace the sodium or hydrogen ions. The double layer is
usually depressed due to an increase in the cation concentration. However, sometimes
the double layer may expand due to high PH value of lime.

Lime reacts chemically with available silica and alumina in soils. A natural cement
composed of calcium alumino silicate complexes is formed, which causes a cementing
action. The reaction depends upon the effective concentration of the reactants and
temperature.

In lime stabilisation, the liquid limit of the soil generally decreases but the plastic limit
increases. Thus, the plasticity index of the soil decreases. The soil becomes more
friable and workable. The strength of the lime-stabilised soil is generally improved. It
is partly due to a decrease in the plastic properties of the soil and partly due to
formation of cementing material. Increase in the unconfined compressive strength is
sometimes as high as 60 times. The modulus of elasticity of the soil also increases
substantially.

Addition of lime causes a high concentration of calcium ions in the double layer. It
causes a decrease in the tendency of attraction of water. Consequently, the resistance
of the soil to water adsorption, capillary rise and volume changes on wetting or drying
is substantially increased. The lime-stabilised bases or sub-bases form a water
resistant barrier which stops penetration of rain water. There is an increase in the
 optimum water content and a reduction in the maximum dry density. In swampy areas
where the water content is above the optimum, application of lime to soil helps in
drying of the soil. Cyclic freezing and thawing can cause a temporary loss of strength,
but because of subsequent healing action, there is no loss of strength in long run.

3.4 Case Study Of Stabilization of black cotton soil

In India deposition of Black cotton soil is very good and prosperous for farmers. All the basic amenities
of life i.e. food, clothes and house have been fulfilled by the soil, without soil It is just next to
impossible to think about life on the earth. But on the other side in Civil Engineering aspects Black
cotton soil is very troublesome and problematic and hazardous due to its characteristics. Because of its
high swelling and shrinkage characteristics, the black cotton soil has been a challenge to the Engineers
The black cotton soil is very hard when dry but loses its strength completely when in wet condition. Soil
deposits in nature exist in a extremely erratic manner producing there by a infinite variety of possible
combination which will affect the strength of the soil and the procedure to make it purposeful. So in the
particular case of Black cotton soil with wide range of challenges associated with the construction.
All the Black cotton soils are not expansive soils and all the expansive soil are not Black in colour.
These soils possessed high strength in summer and decreased rapidly in winter. Swelling and shrinkage
of expansive soil cause deferential settlement resulting in severe damage to the foundation, buildings,
roads, retaining structures and canal linings. The study deals with the formation of Black cotton soil,
Characteristics of black cotton soil, causes of structure failed in black cotton soil, Remedial measures to
construct the structures in Black cotton soil.
Due to disintegration of a black lava i.e. Basalt Rock by Sun, wind and rain formation of Black cotton
soil occurs, It is important to discuss the
characteristics of black cotton soil because of which the troubles comes in the construction of different
projects, mainly in Maharashtra, Gujarat, South Attar Preshrank, East area of Omayyad Preshrank and
some of the part of Rand preshrank and Katakana posses the black cotton soil in more area. Which is
about 20 % of land area of India? The average depth of this Black cotton soil is 3.7 mtrs. approximately.
2.2 Black cotton soils are made of varying Properties of minerals like Montenegrin and kaolin,
chemicals like Iron Oxide and Calcium Carbonate and organic matter like humus.
Montmorinolite is a predominant mineral of black cotton soils. The swelling and Shrinkage behavior of
black cotton soils originate mainly from this mineral. Clay minerals are hydra silicate of aluminum and
magnesium. They are made of sheets of silica and aluminium stacked are above the other forming sheet
like structure with expanding lattice. The structure of some aluminum is by magnesium ions and the
minerals becomes chemically active. They attract water molecules(dipoles)and various types of hydrated
cations to the surface causing the soil to increase the volume. Abundance of calcium in black cotton
soils has another feature ,it may be present in the form of saturating ions or as molecules of CaCo3
(tankard). Treatment with the Sodium about base exchange and the soils becomes softer and more
plastic. Organic matter in the form of humus makes these soils more plastic and compressible .The dark
colour of the black cotton soils is believed to be either due to humus or titanium oxide.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION IN BLACK COTTON SOIL:
There are mainly 3 types of structures like Buildings, Roads and canals mostly construct in Black cotton
soil.
As far as the black cotton soil concern for single storey or double storeys buildings according to bearing
capacity of soil, soil stabilization will be useful but the multi storeys, high rise building or super high
rise buildings the mat foundation or pile foundation are useful. For the structures like Road & Canals in
B C. soils the challenges are almost similar. There are four types of foundation (1). spread Footings and
wall Footings, (2) Mat foundations, (3) Pile foundations and (4) Drilled shafts foundations and uses of
these foundations depends on the soil condition and loads from the structures.

Spread Footings and wall footings:-

Spread Footings foundations base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall . The weight from the
building structure spread over more area and provides better stability because of the wider base of this
footing type. Spread footings and wall footings are generally used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers. These footings are used where the bearing soil layer is within 3 m ( 10 feet) from the
ground surface. The soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over
the base area of the structure. These foundations should not be used on soils where there is any
possibility of ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in Scour.

Mat Foundation:
Mat Foundations are those which are spread across the entire area of the buildings to support heavy
structural loads from column and walls. The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations.
Where the load from structure on columns and walls are very high and to prevent differential settlement
of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat of all the load bearing elements of the structure.
This type of foundation is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of
spread
footings and wall footings. This type of Footing is economical generally when one half area of the
structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings is provided. This foundation should not
be used where the ground water table is above the bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such
conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction.

Pile Foundations:
Pile Foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a
hard rock strata much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of
structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level and where shallow
foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also
used to prevent up lift of structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces. Generally
this type of foundations is used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface are not suitable
for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5 m to 50 m ( 15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the
ground surface. The pile foundations resist the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing.
Use of Pile foundations also prevents settlements of foundations
Problems created due to black cotton soil

Foundations constructed on black cotton soil can experience a number of problems due to the soil's
unique characteristics. These problems include:

Shrink-swell behavior: Black cotton soil has a high clay content, which causes it to expand when it
absorbs water and shrink when it dries out. This can cause foundations to shift and crack over time.
Poor load-bearing capacity: The soil's compressibility and low shear strength can make it difficult
for foundations to support the weight of a building.
High water table: The soil's high water-holding capacity can lead to a high water table, which can
cause foundation problems such as settling and flooding.
Soil erosion: The soil's loose texture and high shrink-swell behavior can make it susceptible to
erosion, which can undermine the stability of foundations.
Corrosion: Black cotton soil's high alkalinity can lead to corrosion of foundation's reinforcement
and other steel components.
These are some of the major problems that can occur when constructing foundations on black
cotton soil. It's important to conduct a thorough soil investigation and use appropriate foundation
design and construction methods to mitigate these risks.
Soil grains oriented in the form of platelets of sheets.
During summer season, moisture moves out of the soil causing:
Shrinkage cracks (almost 10 to 15 cm wide on the groubd and upto 2 mm in depth )
Loss of support beneath the footings, resulting in high settlements.
Some expansive and shrinkage soils stick to the footing base and pull the footing down when they
shrink causing horizontal cracks in the walls.
Cracks are formed due to movement of the ground on account of alternate swelling and shrinkage.
The cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4m deep.
Methods of Increasing Soil Bearing Capacity Of Black Cotton Soil
Increasing Depth Of Foundation : In Granular soil the bearing capacity increases with the depth due
to the confining weight of overlaying materials.
Compaction of Soils : Due to the compaction of soils the bearing capacity of the soil increses
resulting in reduction resting settlements.
Drainage of Soils :Due o the presence of water in the soil the bearing capacity of soil is decreased
hence by the draining out water the viod ratio is improved resulting in higher bearing capacity.
Grouting : Bore holes in sufficient numbers are driven in the ground and cement grout are forced
through under pressure.
Chemical Treatment :In this treatment certains chemicals are grouted in the place of cement grout.
The chemicals are used such that it can solidily and gain early strength.
The safety precautions for he Foundation:The property of volumetric changes with the change of
atmospheric conditions makes black cotton soil dangerous to founded buildings. It swells excessively
when wet and shrinks excessively when dry resulting terrible cracks in soil without any warning. It
has a great affinity to water. This tendency of soil is an account of the Pressure of fine clay particles.
Cracks are formed due to movement of the ground on account of alternate swelling and shrinkage.
The cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4 m deep .To avoid this following
precautions are generally adopted while building structures on black cotton soil.
If water is liable to find an access to the foundations, the limit of loading should be restricted to (4900
kg/sqr.m.)
To take the Foundation to such depth where the cracks cease to extend.
To provide reinforced concrete ties or bonds all around the main walls of the building. The R.C.C. ties
or bonds which may be 10 cm to 15 cm thick should be placed at plinth level, lintel level and eaves.
Precaution Of Black cotton soil on Road :There should be 6 Passes of 8 to 10 Tonnes roller on the soil
before filling the soil. In addition to this where the filling of soil is done for important road 60 cm
black cotton soil should be removed and compaction should be done with good soil.
According to the C.B.R. value of soil the Pavement thickness should be decided.
In the water logging area deep nali should be dug and according to the need lateral drains should be
provided.
Proper drains should be provided to roads so the water should not be logged on the roads or road side.
The road side drains should be cleaned before the mansoon to avoide the water logging .
Conclusion Recommended :Black cotton soils are inorganic clays and form a major soil group in
India.
Since Black cotton soils have high swelling and shrinkage properties, it is found to be most
troublesome. The black cotton soil is very hard when dry. But looses its strength when in wet
condition.The swelling and shrinkage behavior of black cotton soils originate mainly from
montmorinolite.
Precaution for road in Black Cotton soil:
Maximum dry density should not be less than 1.44 gm/cm3 for the filling of soil.
There should be 6 Passes of 8 to 10 Tonnes roller on the soil before filling the soil. In addition to this
where the filling of soil is done for important road 60 cm black cotton soil should be removed and
compaction.
Filling soil side slope should not be more than 2: 1 but where the water percolation is more slope1:3.
According to the C.B.R. value of soil the Pavement thickness should be decided.
In the water logging area deep nali should be dug and according to the need lateral drains should be
provided.
Proper drains should be provided to roads so the water should not be logged on the roads or road side.
The road side drains should be cleaned before the mansoon to avoide the water logging.

Black cotton soils are inorganic clays and form a major soil group in India.
Since Black cotton soils have high swelling and shrinkage properties, it is found to be most
troublesome for engineering considerations.
The black cotton soil is very hard when dry. But looses its strength when in wet condition.
The swelling and shrinkage behavior of black cotton soils originate mainly from montmorinolite
Pile foundations and Drilled shafts always depend on the soil condition and load of the structure. 8.6)
Mat foundation should not be used where the ground water table is above the bearing surface of soil.
Engineering properties of Black cotton soil should be check before construction of the site.
For short strata of Black cotton soil it is better to remove all Black cotton soil completely.
Care should be taken to prevent the direct contact of Black cotton soil with masonary work below
ground level. Construction in Black Cotton soil should be undertaken in dry season.
It is advisable to know the stability of each type of foundations before selection of any construction
Project.
Considering huge population of India, for food grain and vegetables land is very precious for
production. So the permission should be given to construct the multi storied building in rural area.
For short strata of Black cotton soil it is better to remove all Black cotton soil completely.
Conclusion:
Due to water scarcity all the canals should be converted in to pipe canals Hence the water
losses which is 60 to 70 % in canal will be avoided .It can be concluded that there is an
improvement of all the geotechnical properties of and lime stone powder treated
black cotton soil.
From the economic analysis it is found that, a substantial save in cost of construction
is possible by making use of two waste materials like lime stone powder can be
utilized to strengthen the Black cotton soil.
It can be concluded that the soil treated with lime stone powder can be utilized as a soil
stabilizer which minimize the settlement problems and the same can reduce the
environmental issues.Care should be taken to prevent the direct contact of Black cotton
soil with masonary work below ground.Construction in Black Cotton soil.
It is advisable to know the stability of each type of foundations before selection of any
construction Project.Considering huge population of India, for food grain and vegetables
land is very precious for production. So the permission should be given to construct the
multi storied building in rural area, .with water harvesting and solar energy.
 1.2.3 Summary

From the study carried out on lime-stabilized black cotton soil mixture, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
In C.B.R test the C.B.R values of Black Cotton Soil without addition of lime was
found to be 4.5% and with 4% addition of lime by weight of soil was found to be
8.58%. It shows that there is increase in bearing capacity of Black Cotton Soil after
stabilization by 90.67%
Lime stabilization of black cotton soil under study improved the strength
characteristics of the soil, but not to the extent of suitability as subbase material.
 1.4 References
 Researched paper on the search for Solutions to problems in Black Cotton Soils
by Dr. R.K Katti (1978)

 Researched paper of the study on engineering behavior of Black Cotton soil and
its stabilization by use of lime by Mr. Brajesh Mishra (November 2015)

 Researched paper on the study of engineering properties of Black Cotton soil

with pond ash article by Amit Kumar and Jitendra Khatti (January 2018)

 Researched paper on the effect of lime stabilization on properties of Black

Cotton Soil by Nadgouda K.A and Hegde R.A (December 2010)

 Researched paper on the analysis of engineering properties of Black Cotton soil

& stabilization using by lime by Kavish S. Mehta, Rutvij J. Sonecha, Parth D.
Daxini, Kapilani S. Gaikwad (May 2014).

 https://civiconcepts.com

 sciencedirectassets.com

 https://www.ijera.com

 https://www.civilengineeringweb.com

 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by K.R.Arora