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INDEX 10. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION 138-152

11. HERIDITY & EVOLUTION 153-168

1. CHEMICAL RXNS & EQUATIONS 3-13 12. OUR ENVIRONMENT 169-175

2. ACIDS, BASIS & SALTS 14-24 13. MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

3. SOURCES OF ENERGY 25-34 RESOURCES 176-184

4. METALS & NON-METALS 35-43 14. HOW DO ORGANISMS

5. LIFE PROCESSES 56-68 REPRODUCE 185-200

6. ELECTRICTY 69-83 15. CARBON & COMPOUNDS 201-248

7. CONTROL & CORDINATION 84-95

8. LIGHT: REFLECTION & REFRACTION 96-124

9. HUMAN EYE 125-137

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
AND EQUATIONS
 Chemical reaction:
Process in which new substances are formed with new chemical  Study case of magnesium ribbon
(may be physical also), is/ are formed, is called chemical reaction. Whenever magnesium ribbon is burnt in air (O2), it produces
Note: Basically, only rearrangement of atoms takes place white dazzling flames and a white powder of MgO i.e.,
Na (s) + Cl2 (g) NaCl (s) magnesium oxide is formed.
In the above example, NaCl is totally different w.r.t Na and Cl2. Reaction involved
2Mg + O2 2MgO
 Reactant and Products: White powder

Reactants: Chemical substance which reacts or disappear during

the chemical reaction, are called reactants.
AgNO3 + NaCl NaNO3 + AgCl
In this reaction, ‘AgNO3 ‘ and ‘NaCl’ are reactants.

Products: Chemical substances which are formed or appeared

during the chemical reaction are called products.
In the above reaction, ‘NaNO3’ and ‘AgCl’ are products.

Note: Reactants are always on the left side and products are on the Ques: Why magnesium ribbon is first rubbed with sand paper before
right side of the reaction or equation. burning in air?
Ans: Magnesium metal reacts with O2 at room temperature to form a
Ques: Give the names of reactants and products in each cases: layer of magnesium oxide (MgO). So, to remove that layer, we rub it
a) 3H2 + N2 2NH3 with a sand paper. After this, it burns smoothly.
b) 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Characters of a chemical reaction

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a) Change in state
b) Change in colour
c) Evolution of gas
d) Change in temperature
e) Formation of precipitate.

Note: One or more character insure the occurring of reaction

a) Change in state
During chemical reaction, state of substance may change, for
example,
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH (l)
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)
Ques: Explain the change of state during electrolysis of water?
Ans:

b) Change in colour
There are some reactions which show colour change during
reaction. For example,
CuSO4 + Fe FeSO4 + Cu
(blue colour) (colourless)
2Cu + O2 2CuO
(Brown) (air) (Black)

Ques: Why blue colour of copper sulphate fades when iron nails are
added in the solution.
Ans:
c) Evolution of gas
Some reactions show their progress by releasing some gases for
example,

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1. 2Pb(NO3)2 (s) 2PbO + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Brown gas

electricity e) Formation of Ppt (precipitate):

2. 2H2O (l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
Ppt is a substance which settled down after the reaction in solid
form. If there is formation of ppt, it will be a sign that reaction occurred.
For example,
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl
(White ppt.)

d) Change in temperature
There is always some change in temperature after or during reaction.
Temperature may increase or decrease. For example,

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat Note: Reactions in which solid insoluble ppt is formed after reaction,
(Rise in temp) known as precipitation reaction.

 Chemical equation
Representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols or
formulae of chemicals is called chemical equation.

Example: Chemical reaction: When magnesium reacts with oxygen,

it forms magnesium oxide.
Chemical equation: 2Mg +O2 2MgO

Ques: Why water boils when calcium oxide is added to it?  Advantages of chemical equation:
Ans: 1. It makes easy to study a reaction with a single glance.
2. Requires less time and efforts as compare to chemical reaction.

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3. Give additional information also which a chemical reaction does Equations having unequal number of atoms on reactant or product
not. sides are called unbalanced equations.
Note: Unbalanced equation is also called skeletal equation.
Ques: Represent all the given chemical reactions into equations: For example, Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2
a) When zinc granuals are added in sulphuric acid it forms zinc
sulphate and hydrogen gas.
b) When calcium oxide is added in water, it forms calcium hydroxide.
c) When silver chloride is exposed to sunlight, it dissociates to form
silver and chlorine gas.

 Balancing a chemical reaction which is unbalanced

Ques: Why every equation should be balanced?
Or
Why unbalanced equation doesn’t exist?

 Balanced and unbalanced chemical equations

 Balanced equations
Equations having equal number of atoms on reactant as well as
product side, is called balanced equation. For example,
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

 Balancing:

1. N2 + H2 NH3

 Unbalanced equations

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3. Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

2. Fe + H2O Fe3O4 + H2

4. Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with hydrochloric acid to

produce sodium chloride and water.

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Ques: Why respiration is always considered as exothermic reaction?

Ans:

 Three steps to make equation more informative

a) Show symbol of physical states,  Types of reactions

1. Combination reaction 2. Decomposition reaction
3Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g) 3. Displacement reaction 4. Double displacement reaction
5. Oxidation and reduction reaction
b) Show special conditions if any:
1. Combination reaction: A reaction in which single product is formed
sunlight from two or more reactants, is known as a combination reaction.
AgCl (s) Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
Example:
c) Show heat exchange: a) CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat
(Slaked lime)
Exothermic reaction: Reactions in which loss of heat take place is b) C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
called exothermic reaction.
Example, CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat 2. Decomposition reaction: A type of reaction in which single
Endothermic reaction: Reactions in which loss of heat take place is reactant breaks down into two or more products, is called
called endothermic reaction. decomposition reaction.
Example, N2 (g) + 3H2O + Heat 2NH3 (g) Example:
2FeSO4 (s) Heat Fe2O3 (s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)

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3. Electro decomposition reactions:

Decomposition done by passing electric current, is called
electro decomposition reaction. Example, 2H2O Current 2H2 + O2

Ques: Which gas, during electrolytic decomposition of water is

doubled the amount of another one?
Ans:

 Types of decomposition reaction

1. Thermal decomposition 2. Photo decomposition
3. Electro decomposition

1. Thermal decomposition reactions:

Decomposition done by heating or by supplying heat energy, is
called thermal decomposition.
Example, CaCO3 Heat CaO + CO2

2. Photo decomposition reactions: 3. Displacement reaction:

Decomposition done by light (Sunlight) is called photo Reactions in which more reactive element displaces less
decomposition reaction. reactive metal from its salt, is called displacement reaction.
Example, 2AgCl Sunlight 2Ag + Cl2 Example, Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Ques: Why AgCl (Silver chloride) is kept in black coloured bottles? Zn + KCl No reaction
Ans:
Reactivity series

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4. Double Displacement reaction:

A type of reaction in which exchange of ion takes place.
Or
A type of reaction in which two compounds react to form two new
compounds.
Example,
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

5. Oxidation and Reduction:

Oxidation- A type of reaction in which addition of oxygen or
Ques: Can we put CuSO4 in iron containers? Explain. removal of hydrogen atom(s) take place, is called oxidation.
Oxidising agent: Substance which provides oxygen or remove
hydrogen from substances is called oxidising agent.

2 Cu + O2 2CuO
Brown Black

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Ques: Can we put spoon of zinc in aluminium sulphate solution?

Reduction: Chemical reaction in which addition of hydrogen or

removal of oxygen takes place, is called reduction.

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Reducing agent: Chemical substances which provide hydrogen When a metal is attacked by a substance around it such as
or remove oxygen from compound, are called reducing agents. moisture, acids, etc it is said to corrode and this process is called
corrosion.
Example, Black coating on silver, green coating on copper and brownish
red coating on iron is some examples of corrosion.
CH3COOH + H2 LiAlH4 CH3CH2OH
Study case of rusting of iron:
Corrosion of iron is called rusting of iron. When iron is exposed to moist
air, it oxidised and get corrode.
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3. xH2O
BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + HCl Rust
Note: Rusting or iron is not a favourable process as it decreases the life
of iron objects.
 Methods to prevent rusting:
1. Oiling and greasing
Ques: Identify the substance that are oxidised and reduced in the 2. Painting
reactions 3. Galvanisation
a) 4Na + O2 2Na2O 4. Electroplating
b) CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Ques: Why we apply paint on iron nails?
Ans:

2. Rancidity
 Effects of oxidation on everyday life When food containing fats and oils are oxidised, they become
1. Corrosion 2. Rancidity rancid and their smell and taste changes, this is called rancidity.

1. Corrosion  Methods to prevent rancidity:

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1. Adding BHA and BHT. They are antioxidants which prevent

oxidation of food.  Test yourself
2. Flushing packets of food with N2 gas. 1. Which one is a chemical change – rusting of iron or melting of iron?
3. Keeping food in air tight containers. (1)
4. Keeping food in cool places like refrigerator. 2. Balance the following chemical equation:
5. Keeping the food in dark place. (1)
6. Vacuum packing. Pb(NO3)2 (s) PbO (s) + NO2(g) + O2(g)
3. N2 + 3H2 ↔ 2NH3 + Heat
 Redox reaction (1)
Whenever oxidation or reduction take place at the same time in a What can be concluded from the above reaction?
chemical reaction, known as redox reaction. 4. Why are bags of chips flushed with nitrogen gas?
‘Red’ for reduction and ‘Ox’ stands for oxidation, hence ‘Red’ + (1)
‘Ox’ = Redox reaction. 5. Why is electrolysis of water an endothermic reaction?
(1)
6. When is a chemical reaction categorised as a precipitation reaction?
2PbO + C 2Pb + CO2 Explain with two examples.
(2)
7. What change will you observe if white silver chloride is placed in
Explanation: sunlight? Write an equation for the reaction and the type of the
reaction. (2)
8. “ A solution of potassium chloride when mixed with silver nitrite
solution, an insoluble white substance is formed.”

a) Translate the above statement into a chemical equation.

b) What type of reaction is this?
(2)
9. A solution of substance X is used for whitewashing. Name X and
write its formula. Write reaction of substance X with water.
(2)
10. A, B and C are three elements which undergo chemical reactions
according to the following equations.
A2O3 + 2B B2O3 + 2A
3CSO4 + 2B B2(SO4)3 + 3C
3CO + 2A A2O3 + 3C

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Answer the following questions with reasons.

a) Which element is the most reactive?
b) Which element is the least reactive?
c) What is the type of reactions listed above?
(3)
11. In the electrolysis of water,
a) Name the gas collected at the cathode and anode.
b) Why is the volume of gas collected at one electrode double the
other?
c) Why is a few drops of dil. H2SO4 added to the water?
(3)
12. What is redox reaction? Identify the substance oxidised and the
substance oxidised and the substance reduced in the following
reactions.
a) Pb3O4 + 8HCl 3PbCl2 + Cl2 + 4H2O
b) CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
(3)
13. A magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen to give a white compound X
accompanied by emission of light. Write the chemical formula of X.
Write a balanced chemical equation, when X is dissolved in water.

(3)

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ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

 Bases: Chemical compounds whose aqueous solution converts red
litmus to blue, are called bases. Example, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 etc.

 Indicators:  Physical properties of acids and bases:

A special chemical that changes its colour or smell to indicate the Acids Bases
presence of a chemical substance. 1. Sour taste. 1. Bitter taste.
Some indicators: 2. Soluble in water. 2. Some are soluble, some
1. Litmus: are insoluble.
Colour in acids → Red 3. Dilute solution conduct 3. Feels soapy to touch.
Colour in bases → Blue electricity.
2. Methyl orange: 4. Converts blue litmus to 4. Convert red litmus to
Colour in acids → Pinkish Red red. blue
Colour in bases → Yellow 5. Solution conduct
3. Phenolphthalein: electricity.
Colour in acids → colourless Note: Bases which are soluble in water, are called alkali. Example,
Colour in bases → pink NaOH, KOH.
4. Vanilla:
Smell in acids → Same  Chemical properties of acids and bases:
Smell in bases → No smell
5. Onion: 1. Reaction with metals:
Smell in acids → Same Acid + metals Salt + H2 (g)
Smell in bases → No smell
Example, H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2 (g)
Note: 2HCl + 2Na 2NaCl + H2 (g)
Olfactory indicators: Indicators which changes their smell in the Test for hydrogen:
presence of acid or base, are called olfactory indicators. Example,
Vanilla, Onion.

 Introduction to acids and bases:

 Acids: Chemical compounds whose aqueous solution converts blue

litmus to red, are called acids. Example, HCl, H2SO4, CH3COOH.

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(CO2 gas when passed through lime water, it turns milky.)

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(White ppt)
Note: If excess of CO2 is passed, then solution again becomes
transparent.
Note: Some metals like gold, silver, copper do not react with acids at all. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
(Soluble in water)
Bases + Metal Salt + H2(g)
(Not all metals) 3. Reaction of acids and bases with each other:
Example, When acid and base reacts with each other, they form salt and
2NaOH + Zn Na2ZnO2 + H2 water. This reaction is known as neutralisation reaction.
(Sodium zincate) Acid + Base Salt + Water
Example, HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
2. Reaction with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COO—Na + H2O
carbonates: Sodium ethanoate
Acids + Metal carbonate/ Metal hydrogen carbonate Salt + Note:
CO2 + H2O 1. Strong/ weak acid + Strong/weak base Neutral salt +
Example, H2O
HCl + NaHCO3 NaCl + CO2 + H2O Example, NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

Test of CO2: 2. Strong acid + Weak base Acidic salt + H2O

Example, H2SO4 + Hg(OH)2 HgSO4 + H2O
Acidic salt
3. Strong base + weak acid Basic salt + H2O

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Example, NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COO—Na+ + H2O 2. CH3COOH CH3COO - + H+

(Basic salt) H+ + H2O H3O+
4. Reaction of metal oxides with acids:
Metal oxide + Acid Salt + H2O  Bases
(Basic) Chemical substances which dissociates in water to give ‘OH-‘ ion in
Example, CuO + 2HCl CuCl2 + H2O water, are called bases.
Example,
5. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases: H2O
1. NaOH Na+ + OH-
Non – metal oxide + Base Salt + H2O 2. Mg(OH)2 H2O
Mg2+ + 2OH-
(acidic)
Example, Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O  Types of acids
Ques: What do all acids and bases have in common?
On the basis of dissociation:
Ans: Both acids and bases dissociate into ions in aqueous solution and
1. Strong acids: Acids which dissociates completely in water and readily
hence their aqueous solution conducts electricity.
give H+ ions, are called strong acids.
Example: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 etc.

2. Weak acids: Acids which dissociates partly in water and do not give
‘H+’ ions readily, are called weak acids.
Example: CH3COOH, H3PO3 etc.

On the basis of origin:

1. Mineral acids: Acids which are synthesised or extracted from
minerals are called mineral acids. Example: HCl, HNO3 etc.
 New definition of acids and bases:
2. Organic acid: Those acids which are extracted from plants and
 Acids animals, are called organic acids. Example: 1. Oxalic acid (C2H2O4)
Chemical substances which dissociates in water to give H+ or H3O+ (tomato)
ions are called acids. 2. Tartaric acid (C4H6O6) (tamarinds)
Example,
1. HCl H+ + Cl – Note: Generally, organic acids are weak acids Mineral acids are strong
+
H + H2O H3O+ acids.

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Ques: Why do HCl, HNO3 etc show acids character in aqueous 1. Water soluble- Those bases which are soluble in water are called
solutions while solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose do water soluble bases or simply ‘alkalis’.
not show acidic character? Example: NaOH, KOH etc.

2. Insoluble bases- Those bases which are insoluble or partly soluble

in water are called water insoluble bases.
Example: NH4OH, NH3 etc.

Note: Water soluble bases are strong with respect to water insoluble.

Ques: Explain ‘How’ water is always formed in neutralisation

reaction?
Ans: In neutralisation reaction, acid and base reacts to form salt and
water. Acid dissociates H+ and bases dissociates OH – which in result
forms water.
Example, HCl H+ + Cl –
NaOH Na+ + OH—
Ques: Why does dry HCl gas does not change the colour of blue litmus +
Therefore, H + OH --
H2O
paper?
 Dilution of acids and bases:

 Concentrated acids and bases:

Acids and bases with minimum possible amount of water, are called
concentrated acids or bases. Symbol :
(Conc.) HCl or (C) HCl

 Types of bases
1. Water soluble (Alkali)
2. Water insoluble

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 Dilute acids and bases

Acids and bases with more amount of water than minimum possible
amount required, are called dilute acids and bases.
Symbol: (dil) HCl or (d) HCl.
૚
 Acidic strength ‫ן‬
‫ܘ‬۶‫܍ܝܔ܉ܞ‬
Ques: How dilution of acids and bases is done?
Ans: As dilution of acids and bases is highly exothermic process, so
to avoid large amount of heat to be release, we should add acid in  Basic strength ‫ ן‬pH value.
water gradually with constant steering but not water in acid.
Ques: pH of A, B, C, D, E and f is given as 3.5, 4, 13, 14, 7, 6
Ques: What is the effect on concentration of H+ or H3O+ ions on respectively. Classify them as acids or bases.
diluting an acid? Ans:
Ans:

 Strength of acids and bases:  Universal indicator:

Strength of acids and bases can be measured by using pH value. Universal which gives different colours in the presence of different
substances and hence help to measure pH.
 pH (Potential or power of H+ ions):
It is the degree to measure acidic or basic strength of
substance. Its value range is from ‘ 0 to 14’.

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pH Colour pH Colour pH Colour

3. pH in our digestive system:
HCl is released in our stomach and it helps in digesting food
and also kill bacteria present in food. But sometimes excess of acid is
released by stomach and it causes acidity.

Ques: What do you mean by antacids? Give example.

 Importance of pH in daily life:

1. In survival of plants and animals:

Human body works within pH of 7 to 7.8. Living organisms can
survive only in narrow range of pH change. Acid rain cause bad
survival in aquatic plants and animals.

2. pH change in soil:
Plants require certain pH soil for healthy growth. pH value
varies with the type of plant and soil.

Ques: Why after acid rain, farmers sprinkle bases like calcium
hydroxide over soil? 4. pH change as the cause of tooth decay:
Ans: Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5 .
Tooth enamel, made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest
substance in the body. It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded
when pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of
sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth. Which results in
tooth decay.

Ques: How brushing teeth prevents tooth decay?

Ans:

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5. Self defence by animal and plants through chemical

warfare:
Bee – sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation. Use
of mild base like baking soda on the stung area gives relief.
Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing Ques: “Glucose (C6H12O6) contains 12- H atoms but still not an acid”.
burning pain. Comment.
Ans:

NOTE: Some naturally occurring acids:

 Salts:
Chemical compounds formed by neutralisation reaction between
acids and bases are called salts.
Or
Compound formed by replacing H-atoms by metal atoms, are called
salts.

Example:
H2SO4 + Na Na2SO4 + H2
Ques: Do basic solutions also have H+ ions? If yes, than why are
they basic? H2SO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
Ans:
 Family of salts:

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Salts having same positive or negative ion are said to belong to a Cl2 gas is collected at anode, and H2 gas is collected at cathode.
family.
For example:
1. NaCl and Na2SO4 belongs to sodium family.
2. NaCl and KCl belongs to chloride family.

Ques: What is the major source of salts?

Note: The process is called Chlor-alkali process due to formation of

chlorine and alkali i.e., NaOH.
 Common salt: 3. Uses of NaOH
A raw material for chemicals: a) In making detergents and soaps.
1. Chemical formula: NaCl (Sodium chloride) b) In paper making
2. Preparation: c) In bleach manufacture.
a) From sea by evaporation. d) In extraction of aluminium metal.
b) Lab method:
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O Uses of H2
3. Uses: (i) Used as table salt and in food. a) As fuel.
(ii) As raw products for several chemicals like NaOH, b) Making HCl.
Na2CO3, NaHCO3 etc. c) Making ammonia (NH3) fertilizer.

 Caustic soda: Uses of Cl2

1. Chemical formula: NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) a) Water treatments.
2. Preparation: b) Swimming pool.
When electricity is passed through solution of water and c) In making PVC
common salt (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium d) Making disinfectants and CfC’s.
hydroxide. By products are Cl2 and H2. e) Also in making pesticides.
2NaCl + 2H2O Electricity 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2
Brine  Bleaching powder:

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1. Chemical formula: CaOCl2 (Calcium oxychloride) Ques: What is the major difference between baking soda and baking
2. Preparation: powder?
By passing Cl2 gas on dry slaked lime. Ans:
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
Bleaching powder
3. Uses of bleaching powder:
a) For bleaching cotton and liner in the textile industry.
b) For bleaching wood pulp in paper factory.
c) Act as oxidising agent in chemical factory.
d) For disinfecting drinking water.

 Baking soda:
1. Chemical formula: NaHCO3 (Sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodium  Washing soda
bicarbonate) 1. Chemical formula: Na2CO3 . 10H2O (Sodium carbonate deca
2. Preparation: hydrate)
Adding NH3 and CO2 in cold brine solution. 2. Preparation:
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3 (Solvay process)
NH3 + CO2 + NaCl + H2O NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
Chemical properties of NaHCO3: Then, 2NaHCO3 Heat Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
a) NaHCO3 is basic in nature. And, Na2CO3 + 10. H2O Recrystalisation Na2CO3.10H2O
b) Decomposes on heating 3. Uses of washing soda:
2NaHCO3 Heat Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 a) Used in glass, soap and paper industry.
b) Used to form sodium compounds like borax.
3. Uses of baking soda: c) Used as cleaning agent for domestic purpose.
a) For making baking powder, which is a mixture of baking soda d) Used in removing hardness of water.
and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid.
Note: When baking powder is heated or mixed with water, following  Plaster of Paris:
reaction take place. 1. Chemical formula: CaSO4 . ½ H2O (Calcium sulphate hemi hydrate)
NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt 2. Preparation:
CO2 produced during reaction causes bread or cake to rise making them On heating gypsum at 373k, it loses water molecules.
soft and spongy. CaSo4 . 2 H2O 373K(Dehydration) CaSO4 . ½ H2O + 3/2 H2O
b) Also used as antacids, as basic in nature. Gypsum
c) Also used in soda – acid fire extinguisher. 3. Uses:
a) By doctors for supporting fractured bones.

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b) Making toys, cosmetics etc.

c) Making fire proof gloves
d) Making containers air tight.

Ques: Why POP is stored in water proof containers?

Ans:

 Are the crystals of salt really dry?

Copper sulphate crystals which seems to be dry contain water of
crystallisation. When we heat them this water is removed and salt
turns white.
Ques: What do you mean by dehydration? Give example. And when we add moisture again, it turns blue again
Ans: CuSO4 . 5H2O Heat CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue White

Ques: Why CaSO4. ½ H2O is known as Plaster of Paris?

Ans:
 Test yourself

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1. What are olfactory indicators?

2. A compound which is prepared from gypsum has the property of
hardening when mixed with proper quantity of water. Identify the
compound and write its chemical formula.
3. To protect tooth decay we are advised to brush our teeth regularly.
What is the nature of the tooth paste commonly used?
4. Which one is a stronger acid, with pH = 5 or with pH = 2?
5. Name the acid present in an ant sting.
6. Account for the following.
a) Dry HCl gas does not change the colour of dry blue litmus paper.
b) Antacid tablets are used by a person suffering from stomach pain.
7. Write the balanced equation involved, when
a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
b) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated.
8. While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should
be added to water and not water to the acid?
9. Write the name and formula of each of the following
a) an acidic salt b) a basic salt
10. A gas X reacts with lime water and forms a compound Y which is
used as a bleaching agent in chemical industry. Identify X and Y. Give
the chemical equation of the reaction involved.
11. A student prepared solutions of (i) an acid and (ii) a base in two
separate beakers. She forgot to label the solutions and litmus paper
is not available in the laboratory. Since both the solutions are
colourless, how will she distinguish between the two?
12. Why the medium becomes acidic in mouth? What is the ill effect of
the acidic medium? How this can be prevented?

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SOURCES OF ENERGY Ignition temperature: Temperature above which fuel or substance

catches fire.

 Energy source: Abiotic or biotic component which provide energy to us Calorific value: Amount of heat produced by burning 1kg of fuel
in considerable amount, can be considered as energy sources. completely, is called calorific value.
ୌୣୟ୲୮୰୭ୢ୳ୡୣୢ
Calorific value =
୫ୟୱୱ
Characteristics of good energy source:
1. It should be easy to use and accessible.
S.I unit = J Kg-1
2. It should do large amount of work per unit mass or volume of source.
Common unit = KJ g-1
3. It should be easy to store, and transport.
4. It should be economical.
Ques: Why petrol catches fire easily?
5. It should not pollute our environment.
Ans:
Types of sources

1. Non- Renewable: Energy resources that once depleted cannot be

regenerated easily in short time, are called non – renewable source.
Example: fossil fuels, nuclear energy etc.

2. Renewable: Energy resources that can be regenerated again and

Ques: Name a fuel with highest calorific vale.
again are called renewable resources. Example: solar energy, wind
Ans: Liquid H2 (Hydrogen).
energy etc.

Ques: What do you mean by fuel? Give characters of ideal fuel.  Two types of resources:
Ans: Anything which burns to give considerable amount of heat and
light, is said to be a fuel. Example: Wax, coal, petroleum, wood etc. 1. Conventional resources: Resources which are being used at
present are called conventional resources. Example: fossil fuels,
Ideal or good fuel should have following characters: thermal energy etc.
1. Should have low or moderate ignition temperature.
2. Should have high calorific value. 2. Non -Conventional resources (Potential resorces): Resources
3. Should not produce ash or smoke during or after use. which are not being used at present but have potential to be used in
4. Easy to handle, store and transport. future are called non- conventional resources. Example: Solar
5. Should be economical. energy, energy from sea.

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Energy transformation of thermal power plant:

 Conventional resources Chemical energy Heat energy K.E
Mechanical energy Electrical energy
1. Fossil fuels: Dead remains of plants and animals are called fossils,
and fuels from fossils are called fossil fuels. Examples: coal, Advantages of thermal power plant
petroleum, natural gas.

Advantages of fossil fuels as resource:

1. Produces large amount of energy.
2. Easy to transport, handle and store.
3. Easily available.

Disadvantages of fossil fuels as resource:

1. Produces CO2 which causes global warming.
2. Fossil fuels are non – renewable resources.
3. Burning of fossil fuels creates pollution, hence affect environment.

2. Thermal power plant

Disadvantages of thermal power plant

3. Hydro power plant

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Ques: By energy point of view which one is better hydro or thermal

plant?
Ans:

Energy transformation of thermal power plant:

Potential energy K.E Mechanical energy
Electrical energy Ques: What are the advantages and disadvantages of using big dams?
Ans:
Advantages of using hydro power plant Advantages:
1. Store water on large scale.
2. Helps in agriculture.
3. Used to change direction of flowing water.
Disadvantages:
1. Effect aquatic life.
2. Disturb nearby people.
3. Costly and high installation cost.
4. Promotes floods.

Disadvantages of using hydro power plant Improvement in the technology for using conventional sources of
energy:
1. BIO MASS
Some fuels are plant and animal products, the source of these
fuel is said to be bio-mass.
Bio-mass fuels does not produce much energy or heat, hence
improvement is required to make them better.

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- Charcoal: When wood is burnt in a limited supply of O2 , water and

volatile material present in it get removed, residue left behind is
charcoal.

Ques: Which one is better charcoal or wood? Give reasons.

Ans:
Charcoal Wood
1. High calorific value. 1. Low calorific value.
2. Comparatively 2. Produce smoke.
smokeless. 3. Burns with flame. Advantages of bio- gas (plant):
3. Burns without flame. 4. Less compact and
4. Compact fuel. occupies more space than
charcoal.
 Bio- gas: (Bio gas plant):
Anaerobic respiration of cow-dung or animal dung produces a gas which
can be used as fuel, is called bio-gas.
Slurry: Mixture of cow dung and water.

The bio-gas plant has a dome like structure built with bricks. A slurry of
cow dung and water is made in the mixing tank from where it is fed into
the digester. The digester is a sealed chamber in which there is no Disadvantages of bio- gas (plant):
oxygen. Anaerobic micro-organism that do not require O2 decompose
or break down into complex compounds of the cow dung slurry. It takes
a few days for the decomposition process to be complete and generate
gases. The bio-gas is stored in the gas tank above the digester from
which they are drawn through pipes for use.

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 Wind energy: Ans: 1. Sources of energy are limited at present.

Kinetic energy of wind can be used to do work, hence moving wind 2. Due to environmental problems caused by present resources.
posses some kinetic energy also known as wind energy.
 Alternative of Non – conventional sources of energy
Wind mills:
Device which converts wind energy into mechanical and hence into 1. Solar Energy
electrical energy. Energy due to sun by its rays such as U.V rays, infrared rays and visible
rays is called solar energy.
Advantages:

Disadvantages:
Solar cooker
Device which converts solar energy into heat to cook food.

Construction:

Ques: Why are we looking for alternative resources?

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Working:
Ques: Why solar cooker is coloured black from inside?
Ans: As black colour absorb more amount of heat and help in rising the
inside temperature of cooker.

Solar cell (Solar panel):

Device which converts solar energy into electrical energy directly, is
called solar cell.

Solar panel:
Device which is made up of several cells in series to generate large
electric power.

Advantages of solar cell:

Advantages of solar cooker:

Disadvantages of solar cell:

Disadvantages of solar cooker:

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Ques: Name some devices where solar cell or panel is used.

Ans: Toys, traffic lights, light house, satellites etc. (ii) Tidal energy
Energy due to difference in level of sea (High tides and low tides) is
2. Energy from sea: called tidal energy. Turbine is generated or constructed b/w the uneven
(i) Ocean thermal energy (OTE): level and hence used to harness energy.
Energy due to temperature difference of water at surface and
water at depth is called ocean thermal energy, are called ocean thermal
plants.
These plants can only operate if temperature difference is 20oC
or more upto 20km.
The warm surface is used to evaporate liquid like
ammonia (NH3) and these vapours are used to rotate turbine. The cold
water at depth condense vapour again into liquid and so on.

Advantages:
Advantages:

Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:

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Ques: Among three energies from sea, which one is best and why?
Ans:

(iii) Wave energy:

Energy possessed by huge waves in sea is called wave energy.
Turbines are installed which floats on water and hence rotates due to Geothermal energy
strong waves. ‘Hot spots’ – Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the
deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are pushed upward and trapped in
Advantages: certain regions called ‘hot spots’.

Hot springs – When ground water comes in contact with hot spots,
steam is generated and if founds weak surface to come out, known as
hot springs.

Turbine can be rotated by these hot springs to generate electricity.

Note: New Zealand and USA have several hot springs.

Disadvantages: Advantages:

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Disadvantages:

Advantages:

Nuclear energy
Energy released during change in configuration of nucleus of atom, is
called nuclear energy.
Types: 1. Nuclear fusion:
In which two light nuclei join to form a heavy nucleus.
Example: Disadvantages:
ଶ
ଵ + ଶଵ ଷ
ଶ ‡+ n
2. Nuclear fission:
In which heavy nucleus break down to release two lighter
nuclei.
ଵସସ
Examples, ଶଷହ ଽଶ+ n
଼ଽ
ଷ଺” + ହ଺ƒ + 3n

Ques: Explain why CNG and LPG are cleaner fuels as compare to fossil
fuels.
Ans:

Note: In both the cases, released energy can be used to generate steam,
hence electricity.

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Test your self:

1. Suggest any two reasons which make the large scale usage of
nuclear energy prohibitive.
2. Thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. Give reason.
3. What type of microorganisms are able to carry out the process of
decomposition in a biogas plant?
4. List any two steps you would suggest to minimise environment
pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels.
5. What type of energy is possessed by huge waves near the seashore?
6. A student constructed a model of box – type solar cooker. Instead of
using glass sheet he used a transparent plastic sheet to cover the
open face of the box. He found that this cooker does not function
well. What could be the possible drawbacks in his model? Explain
the advantage of painting black the inner and outer surfaces of the
cooker and that of cooking vessels.
7. List any four reasons why we need to look for alternate sources of
energy?
8. Give the disadvantages of constructing big dams across the river.
How does construction of dams across the river get linked with
production of green house gases?
9. How has the traditional use of wind and water energy been modified
for our convenience?
10. (a) What is geothermal energy?
(b) What are the advantages of wind energy?
11. Why is it possible to make use of solar cells to meet all our energy
needs? State at least three reasons to support your answer.
12. Name the various forms in which energy is available from the sea.
For any two types give one limitation in harnessing.
13. What are the factors that should be taken into consideration for
selecting a source of energy? List any three.

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METALS AND NON-METALS

6. Conduction of heat:
Metals are good conductor of heat, whereas non-metals are bad
conductor of heat.

 All elements in this universe can be classified into three major Activity to show that metals are good conductor of heat:
groups;
1. Metals 2. Non- metals 3. Metalloids

 Physical properties of metals and non-metals

1. Malleability:
All metals are malleable but Non-metals are not malleable
(Brittle)
Note: Gold is the most malleable metal.

2. Ductility:
All metals are ductile but non – metals are not ductile.

3. Sonority:
All metals show property of sonority, that means all metals produces
ringing sound when beaten, but non – metals do not shows the
property of sonority.
Note: Best heat conductor = silver and copper
4. Density:
Poor heat conductor = Mercury and lead.
Metals are generally denser than non – metals.
Note: Diamond being a non – metal, have a large value of density.
7. Conduction of electricity:
Metals are good conductor of electricity but, non-metals are bad
5. Lustre:
conductor of electricity.
Metals generally have shiny or lustre surface and can be polished
Note: Graphite being non – metal, is a good conductor of
easily.
electricity.
Non – metals are dull and cannot be polished.
Note: Diamond, Bromine and Iodine being Non – metals have shiny
appearance.
Activity to show that metals are good conductor of electricity:

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2. Can be easily cut with knife.

3. Is the best conductor of heat?
4. Is a poor conductor of heat?

 Chemical properties of metals

1. Reaction with air (oxygen):

Metal + Oxygen Basic metal oxides

Example, 2Cu + O2 2CuO
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3
Note: Generally all metal oxides are basic. That means they react with
water to form bases.

Ques: What do you mean by amphoteric oxides? Give example.

Ans: Oxides which shows both acidic as well as basic behaviour are
called amphoteric oxides. Example, ZnO, Al2O3 etc.

8. Hardness and appearance: Ques: Show that Al2O3 (Aluminium oxide) is amphoteric oxide.
Metals are generally hard and solid. Also they have grey – silver Ans: Al2O3 + 6HCl 2 Al2Cl3 + 3H2O
appearance. Non – metals may be solid, liquid or gas and have
And, Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O
various appearances (generally colourless).
Sodium aluminate
Note: 1. Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at room
‘Al2O3’ reacts with both acids and bases to form salt and water,
temperature.
2. Sodium, potassium and lithium are so soft metals that can which shows amphoteric nature of Al2O3.
easily cut with knife.
3. Diamond is a hard non – metal. Ques: Show that metal oxides are basic in nature.
Ans: Na2O + H2O 2NaOH bases
9. Melting and boiling point: K2O + H2O 2kOH
Metals generally have high melting and boiling point. Whereas, As, metal oxides when dissolved in water they generate bases.
Non- metals generally have low melting and boiling point. Hence metal oxides are basic in nature.

Ques: Give an example of metal which: Ques: Why some metals like sodium and potassium are kept under
1. Liquid at room temperature kerosene oil?

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Ans: Reactivity of metal with oxygen depends on the reactivity of

metal or its affinity towards O2. Some metals like sodium and Note: Metals like Al and Fe neither reacts with cold nor with hot
potassium reacts with air vigorously and catches fire. Hence when water. They only react with steam to form oxide and H2.
kept under oil, there will be no supply of oxygen and metals do not 2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 3H2
catch fire. (steam)

Ques: What do you mean by protective layer of oxide? How it is 3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2
useful? (steam)
Ans: At ordinary temperature, the surface of metals like Mg, Al, Zn,
Pb etc are covered with thin layer of oxide. It is called protective layer. 3. Reaction of metals with acids:
This layer further prevents metal to oxidise.
Metal + Acids Metal salt + H2 (g)
Example:
2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2

Note: Metal reacts with nitric acid (HNO3) to displace H2O but not H2
2. Reaction of metals with water: gas because HNO3 is strong oxidising agent.
Metal + H2O Metal oxide + H2 Mg + HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
HNO3 oxidise H2 into H2O.
And, Metal oxide + water Metal hydroxide
4. Reaction of metals with other metal salts (Displacement
Example: reaction):
Highly reactive metal displace less reactive metal from its salt.
Metal + Salt solution of B Salt solution of A + metal B
Example:
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu

Ques: What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of

Ques: Why some metal catches fire when dissolved in water? iron (ll) sulphate? Write chemical reaction.
Ans: Some metals like ‘Na’ and ‘K’ react with water and displace H2
gas. Reaction with Na and k is so violent that large amount of heat
released which makes H2 to catch fire.

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2. Chlorine

3. Aluminium
5. Reaction of metals with non – metals:
As metals from cations by losing e- as follows:
- Na Na+ + e-
4. Argon
2,8,1 2 ,8

- Ca Ca+2 + 2e-
2,8,8,2 2,8,8
5. Magnesium
And, non- metals from anions by gaining e- as follows:
- Cl + e- Cl
2,8,7 2,8,8

- S + 2e- S-2 Ques: Explain bond formation of sodium chloride by using Lewis dot
2,8,6 2,8,8 structure.
Ans:
 Ionic bond (Electrovalent compound):
Chemical bond between cation and anion is called ionic bond.
Or
Force of attraction between cation and anion is called ionic bond.
For example: Na Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Cl – Ques: Explain bond formation of aluminium oxide.
Ans:
And, Na+ + Cl – NaCl

 Lewis dot structure:

1. Sodium

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Metal Ore
 Properties of ionic compounds Iron Haematite
Zinc Zinc blende
1. Physical nature: Mercury Cinnabar
All ionic compounds are crystalline solid and hard due to strong force Aluminium Bauxite
of attraction and they are brittle.
 Metallurgy:
2. Melting and boiling point: Scientific process in which metal is extracted by various process from
Ionic compounds are strong and hence have high melting point and its ores.
boiling point. Metallurgy has following three steps:
1. Concentration of ore
3. Solubility: 2. Extraction of metals
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in 3. Refining of metals
alcohol.
1. Concentration of ore
4. Conduction of electricity: In this method, impurities along with ores (known as gangue) are
Ionic compounds dissociate into ions in water and hence solution of removed which increases the concentration of ore.
ionic compound is good conductor of electricity. Note: Method of concentration of ore depends on nature of ore and
nature of gangue.
Ques: Explain why solid ionic compounds are bad conductors of
electricity? 2. Extraction of metal
Ans: Extracting metal from ore, is called extraction of metal. For
extraction, all metals are divided into three major parts:
a) Highly reactive metals: k, Na, Ca, Mg, Al etc.
b) Moderately reactive metal: Zn, fe, Pb, Cu, Al etc.
c) Less reactive metal: Hg, Cu, Ag etc.

 Extraction of metals Calcinations: Conversion of carbonates into oxides by heating in

Minerals: Natural occurring compounds containing metals are absence of O2 is called calcinations.
called minerals. Example, ZnCO3 ZnO + CO2
Ores: Minerals from which metal can be extracted conveniently and
profitably is called ore.

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Roasting: Conversion of sulphides (or sulphates) into oxides by heating

in presence of O2, is called roasting.
Example, ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2

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Ques: Explain how we can extract Hg (least reactive) metal from its Ans:
sulphide (HgS)?
Ans:

Ques: Explain how we can extract Cu (least reactive) metal from its  Thermit reaction
ore (Cu2S)? Displacement reaction between Al and Fe2O3 produces large amount
Ans: of heat so that reaction produces molten iron, this type of reaction is
known as thermit reaction.
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
Note: This reaction is used to join railway tracks.

Ques: Why we cannot take aqueous solution of highly reactive metal

salts (NaCl) for extraction of metal?
Ans:

Ques: Explain how we can extract Zn (middle reactive) metal from

ZnS?

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 Corrosion
Gradually eaten up metals by the action of air moisture or any
chemical on their surface, is called corrosion.
Note: Corrosion of iron metal is called rusting of iron.

 Refining of metals Conditions for rusting of iron:

The metals produced by various reduction processed described 1. Presence of moisture (water)
above are not very pure. They contain impurities, which must be 2. Presence of air (O2)
removed to obtain pure metals. The most widely used method for
refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic refining Activity to show that O2 and moist air is required for rusting of iron:

Ques: Why highly reactive metals are not refined by electrolytic

refining?
Ans:
Prevention from corrosion:
1. By painting, oiling and greasing
2. By galvanising objects
3. By chrome plating
4. Anodising
5. Making alloys.

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 Alloys: 6. A metal A, which is used in thermit process, when heated with

Homogeneous mixture of two or more metals and metals with non- oxygen gives an oxide B, which is amphoteric in nature.
metals is called alloy. It is prepared by melting first primary metal Identify A and B. Write down the reactions of oxide B with HCl
and adding other elements in defined ratio. and NaOH.
(2)
For example: 7. Give reason for the following:
Brass – alloy of ‘Cu’ and ‘Zn’ a) Ionic compounds usually have high melting and boiling points.
Bronze- alloy of ‘Cu’ and ‘Sn’ b) Metals are good conductors of electricity whereas non-metals are
Solder – alloy of ‘Pb’ and ‘Sn’ not. (2)
Amalgam – alloy of mercury and any other metal or element. 8. The electronic configuration of three elements X, Y and Z are X – 2,8;
Y – 2,8,7 and Z – 22,8,2. Which of them is a metal and a non-metal?
Properties of alloy: (2)
1. Harder than parental metals. 9. What are constituents of solder alloy? Which property of solder
2. High resistance. makes it suitable for welding electrical wires? (2)
3. High melting and boiling point than parental atom. 10. (a) Atomic number of Mg is 12 and oxygen is 8. Show the formation
of MgO from its elements.
Ques: What do you mean by “metals in native state”? (b) How is an oxide of metal obtained from the carbonate ore and
Ans: Some inert or less reactive metals found in nature in force or sulphide ore? (3)
native state. There is no need to extract them. Example: Au, Ag, Pt etc. 11. A non-metal A which is the largest constituent of air, when heated
with H2 in 1 : 3 ratio in the presence of catalyst (Fe) gives a gas B. On
heating with O2 it gives an oxide C. If this oxide is passed into water
Test your knowledge: in the presence of air it gives an acid D which acts as a strong
1. Name one metal which react with very dilute HNO3 to evolve oxidising agent. Identify A, B, C and D. (3)
hydrogen gas. (1) 12. Given below are the steps for extraction of copper from its ore.
2. An element A forms two oxides AO and AO2. The oxide AO is neutral Write the reaction involved:
whereas the oxide AO2 is basic in nature. Would you call element A a (a) Roasting of copper (I) sulphide
metal or a non – metal? (1) (b) Reduction of copper (I) oxide with copper (I) sulphide
3. A non – metal X exists in two different forms Y and Z. Y is the hardest (c) Electrolytic refining (3)
natural substance, whereas Z is a good conductor of electricity. 13. (a) An element X on reacting with oxygen forms an oxide X2O. The
Identify Y and Z. (1) oxide dissolves in water and turns blue litmus red. Predict the
4. By which method metals of high reactivity is purified? (1) element is metal or non-metal?
5. Why does calcium float in water? (1) (b) A solution of copper sulphate was kept in an iron pot. After few
days, the pot developed some holes in it. How will you account for
this? (3)

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
Substances which produces magnetic field around them are called
magnet. Every magnet consist of two poles: 1) North pole: End which
align towards north of earth.
2) South pole: End which align towards south of earth.

CURRENT  Magnetic field lines

Imaginary lines which represents magnetic field around a magnet,
are called magnetic field lines.
 Oersted experiment:
In 1820, Hans Christan Orested accidentally discovered that a
compass needle get deflected when an electric current passed
through a metallic placed nearby.

 Magnetic effect of current

Effect in which, electric current through conductor produces
magnetic field around it. As shown by Oerested in his experiment.

 Properties of magnetic field lines

1. Continuous curve, no breaks.
2. Starts from North Pole and ends at South Pole outside the magnet
but moves South to north inside the magnet.
3. Magnetic field is strong if they are closer and vice-versa.
4. Two magnetic field lines never cross each other.
5. Tangent to magnetic field lines shows direction of magnetic field.

 Magnetic field: Ques: Explain why magnetic field lines never intersect each other?
Space surrounding a magnet within which a magnetic force is Ans:
experienced is called magnetic field. It has both magnitude and
direction and hence a vector quantity.
S.I unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T).

 Magnet and its poles

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1. Current: Magnetic field strength is directly proportional to the

amount of current flowing in conductor.
- Tracing magnetic field by using compass: 2. Distance: Magnetic field strength is inversely proportional to the
distance from conductor.

3. Direction of current: If direction of current changes, if changes the

direction of magnetic field.

 Right hand thumb rule:

Conductors to be studied in this chapter

1. Straight wire
2. Circular loop
Imagine that you are holding a current carrying straight conductor in
3. Solenoid
your right hand such that the thumb points towards the direction of
current. Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the
1. Current carrying straight wire: direction of field lines of the magnetic field.
Shape of magnetic field for straight wire is in the form of
concentric circles having centre at its conductor.
Ques: A current through power line flowing east to west direction.
What is the direction of magnetic field at a point directly below it and
Factors affecting magnetic field for straight conductor: at a point directly above it?
Ans:

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2. Radius of loop:

3. Distance from loop:

2. Magnetic field due to current carrying circular loop:

At every point of a current carrying circular loop, the concentric
circles representing the magnetic field around it would become
larger and larger as we move away from wire. By the time we reach
at the centre of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would Ques: Consider a circular loop of wire lying in the plane of the table.
appear as straight lines. Let the current pass through the loop clockwise. Apply right-hand rule
Right hand rule can give direction of magnetic field at any point. to find out the direction of the magnetic field inside and outside the
loop.
Ans:

Ques: Draw a diagram to represents uniform magnetic field in a

region.
Ans:
Factors affecting magnetic field for circular loop:
1. Current in the loop:

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3. Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid:  Factors affecting magnetic field of solenoid:
Magnetic field for a solenoid is a similar as bar magnet as shown in
diagram. 1. Current in solenoid:

2. Number of turns in solenoid:

3. Distance from solenoid:

End attached to –ve terminal act as N-pole and end attached to +ve
terminal act as S-pole.

Direction of magnetic field: * N-pole to S-pole outside; * S-pole to

N-pole inside Ques: Magnetic field inside a solenoid is:
a) Zero
 Field inside solenoid is uniform and having shape given b) Decreasing N to S-pole
c) Same throughout solenoid
as follows:
d) Increasing from N to S-pole

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Ans:

 Electromagnet:
A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to
magnetise a piece of magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed
inside the coil. The magnet so Ques: Why we use soft iron core to magnetise it?
formed is called an Ans:
electromagnet.

Difference between  Force on a current – carrying conductor in magnetic field:

permanent magnet and French scientist Andre Marie Ampere suggested that:
electromagnet: Whenever current carrying conductor kept in magnetic field, it
experience some force.

Direction of force experienced by conductor can be given by

Fleming’s left hand rule.
Ques: Give some uses of electromagnet?
Ans: Ques: Why current carrying conductor experience some force
when kept in magnetic field?
Ans:

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 Electric motor:
Device which converts electric energy into mechanical energy, is
called electric motor.

 Fleming’s left hand rule: Principle: Whenever current carrying conductor (loop) is kept in
Stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of your left hand magnetic field, it experiences some force.
such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If fore
finger points in the direction of magnetic field and middle finger in
the direction of current, than thumb will point the direction of
magnetic force.

Working and construction:

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Ques: What do you mean by commutator? What are split rings?

Ans: Commutator is a device which reverses the direction of current
(flow of current). In electric motor split rings act as commutator, hence
reverses the direction of current.

Ques: Give some features of electric motor used commercially?

Ans: (i) Electromagnet, not permanent.
(ii) Large number of turns on coil.
(iii) Soft iron core of loop.

Ques: Name some devices which consist of electric motor?

Ans:

Ques: Give energy transformation of electric motor.

Ans:

 Electromagnetic induction: (Faraday’s law) (EMI)

Whenever magnetic field (flux) linked with circuit changes, an
induced voltage hence induced current is produced in the circuit.
This physical process is called electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s
law).

Activity 1 to show EMI:

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Activity 2 to show EMI:

 Fleming’s right hand rule:

Stretch forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand so

that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the fore finger

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indicates the direction of magnetic field and thumb shows the

direction of motion of conductor, then the middle finger will show
the direction of induced current.

 Electric generator:
Device which converts mechanical energy into electric energy is
called electric generator.

Working and construction:

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 Alternating current (AC)

Ques: What is the frequency of current supplied in India?
It is a type of current which changes its direction in regular interval
Ans: 50 Hz.
of time. Its graphical representation is as follows:
Ques: How AC generator can generate DC?
Ans: If rings are replaced by split rings or commutator.

 Domestic electric circuits:

Every domestic electric current is generally consist of three wires:
 Direct current (DC)
It is a type of current which have constant value with respect to
1. Live wire: Red in colour and also known as positive wire.
time. Its graphical representation is as follows:
2. Neutral wire: Black in colour and also known as negative wire.
Note: There is a potential difference of 220V between the two
wires.
3. Earth wire: Green in colour

Ques: What is the function of earth wire?

 Difference between AC and DC Ans: It carries extra charges from the body of metal appliances to earth
and hence prevent us from electric shocks.

- Domestic household circuit also consists of two sub divisions of

circuits. First circuit having current of 5A and second consists of
15A.

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Ques: What precaution should be taken to avoid overloading of

domestic electric circuits?
Ans:
5A circuit is for small electrical appliances like T.V, bulbs, tube lights etc
and 15A circuit is for heavy appliances like microwaves, electric heater,
electric iron etc.

 Short circuit: Test your knowledge

If the insulation of the live wire and the neutral wire gets damaged,
1. State the rule which gives the direction of force acting on a current –
the two wires touch each other. This touching of wire causes
carrying conductor kept in a magnetic field. (1)
resistance to decrease to very small value and hence current
2. What does the degree of closeness of the field lines represent? (1)
becomes very large. This is known as electric short circuiting.
3. What is the safety method used for protecting home appliances
from short circuiting or overloading in domestic electric fittings? (1)
 Overloading 4. A charged particles enters at right angles into a uniform magnetic
Accidental rise in the supply of voltage causes overloading. field. What should be the nature of charge on the particle if it begins
Sometimes overloading is caused by connecting too many appliances to move in a direction pointing vertically out of the page due to its
to a single socket. interaction with the magnetic field? (1)
Overloading can cause electric short circuiting.

Ques: An electric oven of 2KW power rating is operated in a domestic

electric (220V) that has a current rating of 5A. What result do you
expect? Explain.
5. Why cannot two magnetic field lines cross each other? (1)
Ans:
6. (a) On what principle does electric fuse work?

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(b) What is the frequency of A.C in India? State one advantage of A.C
over D.C. (2)
7. Two coils 1 and 2 of insulated copper wire having large but different
number of turns are wound over a cardboard cylinder. Coil is
connected to battery and a plug key. Coil 2 is connected to a
galvanometer. How will the galvanometer reading change when (i)
key is plugged in and (ii) key is taken out? Give reason for your
answer in each case. (2)
8. Why is it necessary to connect an earth wire to electric appliances
having metallic bodies? (2)
9. A student while studying the force experienced by a current carrying
conductor kept in a magnetic field records the following
observations:
(a) The force experienced by the conductor increases as the current
is increased.
(b) The force experienced by the conductor decreases as the
strength of the magnetic field is increased.
Which of the two observations is correct and why? (2)
10. What is the solenoid? What does the divergence of magnetic field
lines near the ends of a current carrying straight solenoid indicate?
(3)
11. How will the magnetic field produced at a point P by a current
carrying circular coil change if we increase the
(i) Value of current flowing through the coil,
(ii) distance of the point P from the coil,
(iii) number of turns of the coil? (3)
12. Mention two ways to induce electric current in a coil. When is the
induced current produced highest? State the rule used to find
direction of this induced current. (3)

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LIFE PROCESSES
Carbohydrate, fats, proteins etc.

Some common nutrients for plants

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc.
 Living bodies - Bodies having life, are called living bodies.
Example: plants and animals.
 Different mode of nutrition
1. Autotrophic nutrition
 Non-living bodies – Bodies do not having life, are called non-
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
living bodies. Example: Soil, minerals etc.

 Autotrophic nutrition
 Characters of living bodies A mode of nutrition in which organisms obtain or synthesis their
1. They can move themselves. own food by using raw materials like CO2, H2O, sunlight etc, is called
2. They can respire. autotrophic nutrition.
3. They need air, food and water to live. Organisms which synthesis their own food by using raw
4. They grow. materials like CO2, H2O, sunlight etc, are called autotrophies.
5. They respond to stimuli etc. Example: All green plants.

 Life processes – All the processes done by living body to maintain Ques: Explain the process of photosynthesis?
its life on earth are called life processes. Ans: It is the process by which green plants synthesis their food
There are some life processes given below: (glucose) by using CO2, H2O in sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll, is
1. Nutrition, 2. Respiration, 3. Transportation, 4. Excretion, 5. called photosynthesis.
Reproduction 6CO2 + 6H2 + sunlight chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
(glucose)
Ques: Why reproduction is considered as life process? There are three major steps involved in photosynthesis:
Ans: Reproduction ensures the balance in population of a whole 1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
species. If a particular species stops reproduction, the whole species 2. Conversion of light energy into chemical and then splitting of water
may get extinct. Hence reproduction is a life process for whole species into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
but not for individual. 3. Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates (glucose)

 Nutrition Ques: Explain how plants get CO2 and release O2 during
Process of feeding living body with energy or materials which photosynthesis?
provide energy, is called nutrition and chemicals or materials Ans: There are Small pores on the surface of leaves known as stomata.
provided are called nutrients. They control the massive transportation of CO2 and O2 through leaves.
Some common nutrients for animals:

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another organism (known as host) and obtain its food from there, is
called parasitic nutrition. Example: Hookworm, leeches etc.

3. Holozoic nutrition
In this method organism consume complex nutrients and then
digest it, is called holozoic nutrition. Example: Human, Amoeba etc.

Ques: What are the major steps in the nutrition of holozoic nutrition?
Ans: There are five major steps:
1. Ingestion: Process of intake of food (or nutrients).
Guard cells control opening and closing of pore by absorbing or 2. Digestion: Conversion of complex food into simpler molecules.
releasing water. Each stomatal pore is surrounded by a pair of cell. 3. Absorption: Separating out digested food from indigested food.
4. Assimilation: Transporting and utilising of food throughout the body
Ques: From where plants get water? And explain how? and hence used for growth and repairing.
Ans: Xylem vessel present from roots to leaves, transport water to 5. Egestion: Excreting out waste or undigested food from body.
leaves. They absorb water from soil by osmosis.
Ques: How holozoic nutrition is different from parasitic and
 Heterotrophic nutrition saprophytic mode?
Mode of nutrition in which organisms cannot synthesis their food Ans:
from raw materials like CO2, H2O and hence obtain food from other
organisms.
Example: Amoeba, humans etc.

 Types of heterotrophic nutrition

1. Saprophytic nutrition
Mode of heterotrophic nutrition, in which organism obtain their
food from dead and decaying plants or animals and organisms are Ques: Explain nutrition in amoeba?
called saprophytes. Ans:
Example, Bread mould, neurospora.

2. Parasitic nutrition
The mode of heterotrophic nutrition, in which an organism
(known as parasite) lives on the body surface or inside the body of

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Ques: Explain nutrition in human beings

Ans:

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Ques: Define duodenum and ileum.

Ans: Duodenum: Wider part of small intestine is called Duodenum.
Ileum: Remaining part of small intestine other than Duodenum, is
called Ileum.

Ques: Give the functions of the following:

Ans:
1. Pepsin:
2. Trypsin:
3. Mucus:
4. Amylase:
5. Lipase:
6. HCl in stomach:

Ques: How small intestine is designed to absorb digested food?

Ans: The small intestine is the main region of absorption of digested
food. The inner lining of small intestine has millions of tiny finger – like
projections called ‘villi’. They give inner lining of small intestine a large
surface area for absorption of food. The villi are richly supplied with
blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of
the body.

 Respiration:
The process of releasing energy by the oxidation of food, is called
respiration.

 Major differences between Breathing and respiration

Breathing Respiration
1. The process of obtaining O2 1. The process of releasing
and releasing CO2. energy from food.
2. Physical process. 2. Chemical process.
3. Takes place in lungs. 3. Takes place in lungs as well
as in mitochondria.
4. Utilises energy. 4. Release energy.

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Ques: Explain the activity which shows that CO2 is released during  Types of respiration
respiration or breathing? 1. Aerobic respiration 2. Anaerobic respiration
Ans:
1. Aerobic Respiration: The respiration which needs oxygen or occurs
in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration. It consists of two
steps:

i) Glycolisis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate (or pyruvic acid)

is called glycolysis. It occurs in the cytoplasm.

ii) Kerb’s cycle: It is the process of converting pyruvate into CO2 and
H2O along with the release of considerable amount of energy. It occurs
in the mitochondria.
One molecule of glucose liberates 38 ATP of energy during aerobic
respiration.
Glucolysis O2
Glucose Pyruvic acid 6CO2 + H2O + 38 ATP
In cytoplasm in mitochondria (energy)

Note: ATP – Adinosine triphosphate

2. Anaerobic respiration: The respiration which takes place in the

absence of O2 is called, aerobic respiration.

 In yeast
During respiration, glucose is broken down into ethyl alcohol and
CO2 with small amount of energy (Only 2 ATP).
Glucolysis in yeast cell
Glucose Pyruvic acid 2C2H5OH + CO2 + 2 ATP
In cytoplasm

 In humans

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The energy is obtained by aerobic respiration but sometimes Roots: Roots contains tenticels (tiny pores) or hair like structure
anaerobic respiration occurs in muscles during vigorous exercise through which exchange of gas takes place by the process of diffusion.
when oxygen gets consumed faster than its supply by the blood.
During the anaerobic respiration in the muscles the glucose Ques: What do you mean by fermentation?
converted into lactic acid with the release of 2 ATP of energy. Ans: Conversion of sugar (glucose) into alcohol is called fermentation. It
is done by anaerobic respiration of food containing large amount of
Glucolysis absence of O2 starch, like grapes.
Glucose Pyruvic acid Lactic acid + 2 ATP
In cytoplasm in muscles (energy)

Ques: “Cramps occurs during sudden or rapid exercise”. Explain.

Ans:

 Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. It takes place in the 1. It takes place in the
presence of oxygen, and O2 is presence of O2.
utilised.
2. Complete breakdown of 2. Partial breakdown of food.
food. 3. End products are may be Ques: Explain how aquatic organisms respire?
3. End products are CO2 and C2H5OH and CO2 or lactic acid. Ans: Aquatic plants and animals intake O2 dissolved in water. As water
H2O. 4. Produces small amount of content O2 or concentration of O2 in water is less, hence rate of
energy. respiration is much more in aquatic organisms.
4. Produce large amount of In fishes, water is intake by them through mouth and force it past the
energy. gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.

Ques: How respiration occurs in roots and leaves of plants?

Ans: Leaves: Through stomata, exchange of gases takes place by the  Respiration in humans
process of diffusion. Major organs in respiratory system of humans are:

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1. Nose (Nostrils) 2. Trachea (Wind pipe) 3. diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result. Because of
Lungs this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli. The blood
brings CO2 from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the
4. Bronchi 5. Bronchioles 6. O2 in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the
Alveoli body. During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain a residual
volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed
and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

In human beings, air is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air Ques: How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximise the
passing through the nostrils is filtered by five hairs that line the passage. area for exchange of gases?
Form here, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs. Ans:
Rings of cartilage are present in the throat. These ensure that the air
passage does not collapse.

Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes
which finally terminates in balloon – like structure which are called
alveoli. The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can
take place. The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of
blood vessels. When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our

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 Transportation:
It is a life process in which useful substances (O2, food, CO2 etc) are  Circulation and transportation in humans beings:
transported from one body part to another. The blood passes through the heart twice through separate
pathways for completing one cycle. This type of circulation is called
 Transportation in humans double circulation. The double circulation of blood includes:
BLOOD: It is a fluid connective tissue which transports substances 1. Systematic circulation 2. Pulmonary circulation
and having following components:
1. Red blood cells or Erythrocytes 1. Systematic Circulation: It supplies oxygenated blood from left auricle
2. White blood cells or Leucocytes to left ventricle, which is pumped to aorta to distribute blood to various
3. Blood platelets body parts. The deoxygenated blood is collected from the various body
4. Blood plasma (or Plasma) organs by the veins to pour into vena cava and finally into the right
atrium. Right atrium transfers this blood into right ventricle.
1. RBC’s – Contain red pigment known as haemoglobin which carries
oxygen throughout the body. 2. Pulmonary Circulation: The deoxygenated blood is pushed by the
right ventricle into the lungs for oxygenation through pulmonary artery.
2. WBC’s – They immune the body by engulfing foreign matter like The oxygenated blood is brought back to left atrium of the human heart
bacteria, duct etc, entertaining the body, and are hence called soldiers. through pulmonary vein. From left atrium, the oxygenated blood is
They also produce antibodies against antigens and pushed into the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated
antitoxins against toxins. blood into aorta for systematic circulation.
This is known as double circulation.
3. Blood platelets – Participate in blood clotting.

4. Blood plasma – It is 90% of water which transport food, CO2 and

nitrogenous wastes in disoolved form.

Ques: Why RBC’s are red in colour?

Ans:

Ques: Give the shapes of RBC’s and WBC’s.

Ans:

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Ans: In humans, having four chambered heart. The left side and right
side of heart is completely separated to prevent the oxygenated blood
from mixing with deoxygenated blood. Such a separation allows a highly
efficient supply of oxygen to the body cells which is necessary for
producing a lot of energy.

 Lymph
There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is
called lymph or tissue fluid.

Ques: How it is formed?

Ans: Through the pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount
of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces in
the tissues to form fluids.

Ques: Where does it flows?

Ans: In lymph vessels or lymphatic capillaries.

Ques: What is the function of lymph?

Ans: It is similar to plasma but contains less protein. It carries digested
and absorbed fat from intestine and drains extra cellular space back
into blood.

Ques: Write the difference between blood and lymph?

Ans:
Blood Lymph
1. Red in colour. 1. Colourless (Off white)
2. RBC’s are present 2. Absent
3. Lymphocytes less in 3. More in number
number.
4. Nutritive substances are 4. Less
more.
Ques: Why it is necessary for blood to have double circulation in 5. Oxygen is more. 5. Less
human beings? 6. Carbon dioxide in normal 6. More

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amount. Ques: How is food transported in plants?

7. More soluble protein than 7. More insoluble than Ans: The food manufactured by the leaves of a plant is transported to
insoluble. soluble. its other parts through a kind of tube system called phloem. The
transport of food is called translocation.
 Transportation in plants: Food molecules enter the phloem elements or cells from mesophyll
There are two transporting units in plants. cells of the leaf. Once they enter phloem, they can be transported
1. Xylem tissue: Transport water and minerals upwards or downwards to all parts of plant, including roots.
2. Phloem tissue: Transport food. Transportation occurs mainly through sieve tubes of phloem. The end
walls of sieve plates, forming a continuous passage from root tips to
stem tips through which dissolved food substances move freely.
Ques: How are water and minerals transported in plants?
Ans: In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the root, system and
leaves are inter-connected to form a continuous system of water –  Excretion:
conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant. The biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic
wastes from the body is called excretion.

 Excretion in human beings:

The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a
pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys are located
in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.

Water gets into the roots hairs by the process of diffusion. At the roots,
cells in contact with the soil activity take up ions. This creates a
difference in concentration of these ions between the root and the soil.
Water, therefore moves into the root from the soil.
Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of the leaf creates a
suction which pulls water from xylem cells of roots (the transpiration
pull).

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 Function of Nephron:

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the 1. Filtration: Filtration of blood takes place in Bowman’s capsule from
urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released through urethra. the capillaries of glomerulus. This take place under high pressure. The
filtrate passes into the tabular part of the nephron. This filtrate contains
 Structure and function of nephrons: glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, salts and major amount of water.
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney.
2. Reabsorption: As the filtrate flows along the tubule useful substances
such as glucose, amino acids, salts and water are selectively reabsorbed
into the blood capillaries surrounding the nephron tubule.

3. Tubular secretion: Certain substances which are harmful and not

needed by the body like ammonia, potassium, creatinine and hydrogen
ions are secreted from the capillary blood into the lumen of distal
tubule. This is called tubular secretion.

Note: The fluid entering the collecting tubule is called urine.

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Ques: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory Test your knowledge
products? 1. Which is the first enzyme to mix with food in the digestive tract? (1)
Ans: 1. Plants get rid of gaseous waste through stomata on leaves and 2. What prevents backflow of blood inside the heart during
lenticles in stems. concentration? (1)
2. Solid waste by shedding leaves, peeling bark and felling of fruits. 3. Why does the lack of oxygen in muscles often lead to cramps among
3. Also by secreting gums and resins. cricketers? (1)
4. Excess water is eliminated by the process of transpiration. 4. What process in plants is known as transpiration? (1)
5. What is the main toxic waste kidney filters from the blood? (1)
6. How do guard cells regulate opening and closing of stomatal pores?
(2)
7. Mention the components of the transport system in highly organised
plants. State the functions of these components, (2)
8. What is the function of trachea? Why do it walls not collapse even
when there is less air in it? (2)
9. What will happen if diaphragm of a person gets ruptured in an
accident? (2)
10. Name the following (3)
a) The process in plants that links light energy with chemical energy.
b) Organism that can prepare their own food.
c) The cell organelle where photosynthesis occurs.
d) Cells that surround a stomatal pore.
e) Organisms that cannot prepare their own food.
f) An enzyme secreted from gastric glands in stomach that acts on
proteins.
11. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases. (3)
12. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory
Ques: How dialysis is different from electro-dialysis?
products? (3)
Ans:
13. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of
multicellular organisms like humans? (3)

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ELECTRICITY
 Electrostatics: Branch of science which deals with the study of
charged particles at rest.

 Electrodynamics Branch of science which deals with study of

charged particles in motion.

 Current (Electric current): Flow of charges from a particular

cross-section of area of conductor per unit time, is called electric  Direction of current
current. Conventionally, electric current flows from positive terminal to
େ୦ୟ୰୥ୣ
negative terminal of battery. And, electrons move from negative
Mathematically, Current ൌ   terminal to positive terminal of cell or battery.
୘୧୫ୣ
୕
 ൌ
୲ Ammeter: An instrument which measures current in the circuit.
S.I unit of current is Ampere (A) named after Andre – Marie Ampere.
Ques: Why ammeter is always connected in series to the circuit?
Ques: Define 1-Ampere.
Ans:
Ans: When 1 coulomb of charge passes through cross section of
conductor in 1 sec, then current in the conductor is said to be 1 Ampere.
ଵେ୭୳୪୭୫ୠ
ͳ’‡”‡ ൌ 
ଵୱୣୡ
ଵେ
ͳ ൌ
ଵୱୣୡ
Note: Coulomb is unit of charge.
1 e - = -1.6 X 10 -19 C

Ques: Calculate how many e – ‘s make 1 C of charge? Ques: A current of O.5A is drawn by a bulb for 10min. Find the amount
Ans: of electric charge that flows through the circuit.
Ans:

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In the absence of any potential difference, net electron present in

the container (Conductor) moves randomly hence consist no
conductor current.
Inet = 0

b) With potential difference

Ques: Calculate net electric current flowing through conductor if in 103

sec, if transfer 1014 e –‘s. Whenever conductor applied by some potential difference, e-‘s
Ans: moves towards +ve terminal of battery (cell) and move in regular
pattern to execute some electric current.
Note: Motion of e-‘s is opposite to that of direction current.

 Drift velocity: Velocity by which e-‘s or any other charged particles

move towards opposite end of battery (cell), is called drift velocity
(Vd).

Ques: What is the value of average drift velocity of e- in conductor in

absence of potential difference?
Ans:

 Flow of charge particles (e – ‘s) in conductor

a) Without any potential difference (Battery)

 Electric potential and potential difference

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Electric potential: Work done in moving a charge particle from

infinite to particular point per unit charge, is called electric potential.
Potential difference: Work done in moving a charge particle from a
given point to another per unit charge, is called potential difference
or simply potential. Ques: How many energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing
୛୭୰୩ୢ୭୬ୣ through a 6V battery?
Potential difference =
ୡ୦ୟ୰୥ୣ Ans:
୛
V= ୕
S.I unit of potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro
Volta.

Ques: Define 1 volt.

Ans: 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points in a current
carrying conductor when 1 Joule of work is done to move a charge of 1
Coulomb from one point to another.
ଵ୎୭୳୪ୣ
Mathematically, 1 Volt =
ଵେ୭୳୪୭୫ୠ

ଵ୎
1V=
ଵେ
Note: Voltmeter is an instrument which measures potential difference
across to ends.
Ques: An e—is moved from A to B with energy consumed by e—equal
Ques: How voltmeter is connected in circuit to measure P.D and Why to 400J. Find P.D across conductor.
so?
Ans:

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Ques: Show that work done in moving neutron in some potential  Ohm’s law
difference is always ‘zero’? Ohm’s law suggested the relation between potential difference and
Ans: current in the circuit. According to Ohm’s law:
Being temperature and dimensions remains constant, current
flowing in the circuit is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the conductor.
Mathematically,
V‫ן‬I
or V = RI
where, R = Constant = known as resistance
୚
or, R =
୍

Note: Value of R (Resistance) is independent with respect to values

of ‘V’ and ‘I’.
 Circuit diagram
It is the schematic diagram to represent electric circuit in the form of
conventional symbols.
 Resistance
It is a property of conductor which opposes the flow of current in the
circuit.
୚
R=
୍

୍
Therefore R ‫ ן‬୚
Ques: Explain how ‘current’ and ‘resistance’ are related to each other?
Ans:

 Types of circuits

1. Open circuit: Circuit in which no current is flowing and switch is

off, known as open circuit.
2. Closed circuit: Circuit in which current is flowing and switch is
on, known as closed circuit.

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 S.I unit of resistance Ques: The potential difference between the terminals of an electric
S.I unit of resistance is ‘Ohm’ represented by Ohm = π heater is 60 V when it draws a current of 4A from the source. What
current will the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to
Ques: Define 1 Ohm. 120 V?
Ans: If the current of 1 Ampere is flowing through conductor having
potential difference 1 volt, then resistance of conductor is said to be 1
Ohm (Ω).
ଵ୚୭୪୲
1 Ohm =
ଵ୅୫୮ୣ୰ୣ

Ques: How much current will an electric bulb draw from 220V source
if the resistance of the bulb filament is 1200 Ω? How much current will
an electric heater coil draw from a 220 V source if the resistance of
heater coil is 100 Ω.
Ans:

 Factors on which resistance depends

a) Length of conductor:
R‫ן‬l .............. (1)
b) Area of conductor
ଵ
R‫ן‬୅ ............... (2)
c) Nature of material:
for conductors, it is low and, for insulators, it is high.
Combining (1) and (2)
୪
R‫ן‬
୅
୪
Or, R = ߩ ୅

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Where, ߩ is constant, which only depends on nature of material.

 Resistivity
A constant which increase or decrease the value of resistance and
only depends on nature of material, is called resistivity.
ୖଡ଼୅
Mathematically, ߩ =
୪
S.I unit of ߩ is Ohm-metre (π݉ሻ
Note: Conductors have low ‘ߩԢ Ques: The following table gives the value of electrical resistivity of
Insulators have high ߩᇱ some materials:
Alloys have intermediate ߩᇱ Ǥ Material Copper Silver Constantan
Ques: Explain how value of ߩᇱ change in the value of ‘l’ or ‘A’?
Electrical 1.61X 1.62 X 49 X 10-8
-8 -8
resistivity (Ωm) 10 10
Which one of these materials is the best conductor and why?

Ques: A copper wire has diameter 0.5mm and resistivity of 1.6 X 10-8
Ωm. What will be the length of this wire to make its resistance 10Ω?

Ques: A wire of length is doubled and the area of cross – section is

halved. How will its
a) Resistance change b) Resistivity change

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Ques: Discuss the effect of temperature on resistance of conductor.

Ans: Effect of temperature on resistance is different on different
materials:
a) On conductors: Resistance ‫ ן‬Temperature 2. Parallel combination:
b) On insulators: No effect It is a type of combination in which each resistor have some
ଵ
c) On semi conductor: Resistance ‫ ן‬ voltage but different current. Net resistance in parallel combination
்௘௠௣௘௥௔௧௨௥௘
can be calculated as follows:
ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ
 Combination of resistors = + + .....................
ୖ౤౛౪ ୖభ ୖమ ୖయ ୖ౤
1. Series of combination of resistors:
When there is equal current in resistors, they said to be in ૚ ૚ ૚ ૚ ૚
series combination. In series combination, net resistance of circuit Ques: Derive
‫ܜ܍ܖ ܀‬
= ‫ ܀‬+ ‫ ܀‬+ ‫ ܀‬.....................‫ ܀‬. For parallel
૚ ૛ ૜ ‫ܖ‬
can be calculated as: combination.
Rnet = R1 + R2 + R3 + ........... + Rn

Ques: Derive R1 + R2 + R3 + ........... + Rn for series combination of

resistors.

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-Problems on combination of resistance:

Ques: Name the combination of resistors in which (i) Current through

each resistor remains same (ii) voltage through each resistor is same.

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Ques: Resistance of a metal wire of length 1m is 26 Ω at 20o C. If the

diameter of the wire is 0.3mm, what will be the resistivity of the
metal at that temperature?

Ques: Several electric lamps designed to be used on a 220V electric

supply line, are rated 10W. How many camps can be connected in
parallel with each other across the two wires of 220 V line if the
maximum allowable current is 5A?

Ques: How can three resistors of resistance 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω be

connected to give a total resistance of (i) 4 Ω (ii) 1 Ω

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2. P = I2R

 Electric power
Work done by an electric appliance per unit time, is called electric
power.
Or
Energy consumed by electric appliance per unit time, is called
electric power.
Mathematically,
୛୭୰୩ୢ୭୬ୣ
Power =
୲୧୫ୣ
୉୬ୣ୰୥୷ୡ୭୬ୱ୳୫ୣୢ
=
୲୧୫ୣ
୛ ୚మ
P = 3. P =
୲ ୖ
S.I unit of power is Watt (W). It is a scalar quantity.

Ques: Define 1 Watt.

Ans: When 1 Joule of work is done or 1J of energy is consumed in 1 sec,
power is said to be 1 Watt.
ଵ୎
1W =
ଵୱୣୡ

 Other formulae for power

1. P = V X I

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Ques: What will be the power of a bulb, if it consumes 3.6 X 107 Joules
of energy in 2 hours.
Ans:

 Commercial unit of energy

Ques: Two bulbs of 40W each are used for 1 hour. What amount of “kWh” is the commercial unit of energy. “kWh” stands for kilowatt
energy will it consume? hour.
Ans:
Ques: Show that 1kWh = 36,00,000 J.
Ans:

Ques: A bulb of 60W and tube light of 40W is used for 10 days. Find
energy consumed in Watt?
Ans:

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Ques: Convert 40J into kWh?

Ans:

Ques: An electric refrigerator rated 400W operates 8 hour/ day. What

is the cost of the energy to operate it for 30 days at Rs 3 per kWh?
Ans:

Ques: Calculate energy in kWh if 100 W bulb is used for the month of
April?
Ans:

Ques: An electric motor takes 5A from a 220V line. Determine the

power of the motor and the energy consumed 2h.
Ans:
 Joules law of heating
According to joules law of heating, whenever there is current in the
conductor, there is heating effect which is directly proportional to
square of current, directly proportional to resistance and directly
proportional for the time which current is flowing:
Mathematically, H ‫ ן‬I2 ................ (1)
H ‫ ן‬R .............. (2)

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H ‫ ן‬t ................ (3) It is a safety device which breaks the circuit when excess
Combining (1), (2) and (3) current enters household circuit. Electric fuse is made up of copper
H ‫ ן‬I2Rt wire, which melts when excess current flows through it, hence prevent
Or, H = kI2Rt household appliances from break down.
where k = 1
So, H = I2Rt 3. Heating devices:
Heating effect is also used in heating devices, such as toaster,
oven, kettle, laundry, iron etc.

 Applications of heating effect of current  Household circuits

1. Electric bulb: House hold circuits are connected in parallel series circuit, due to
The electric heating is used to produce light, as in an electric following reason:
bulb. The filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is 1. In parallel combination voltage across each device is same, but in
possible, so that it gets very hot and emits light. A strong metal with series combination voltage across each device is different.
high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 33800 C) is used for 2. In parallel combination, net resistance is low as compare to series.
making bulb filaments. 3. In parallel combination, we can switch on and off devices
independently but not in series.
Ques: Why electric bulbs are filled with inert or non – reactive gases
like Nr or Argon?
Ans: Non-reactive gases provide inert environment, hence prevent
filament to catch fire at high temperature. Also prevent from oxidation
of filament.

Ques: Why alloys like tungsten is used as filament instead of metals?

2. Electric fuse:

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Which one of them is the best conductor? And which is an insulator

and why?
(b) A wire of resistivity p is stretched to twice its length. What will be
 Test yourself its new resistivity?
1. Define the unit of electric current. 12. Answer the following questions using the data in the given circuit
2. What is the minimum resistance which can be made using five diagram:
resistors each 1/5Ω? (a) Calculate potential difference across 4Ω resistor.
3. Draw a circuit diagram of a circuit consisting of a cell of 1.5V, 10Ω (b) Calculate the power dissipated in 4Ω resistor.
resistor and a plug key all connected in series. (c) Calculate the difference in ammeter reading, if any.
4. Write a mathematical expression of Joule’s law of heating effect of
current. Name one device which works on this principle.
5. Should the resistance of an ammeter be low high? Give reason?
6. In an experiment to study the relationship between the potential
difference across a resistor and the current through it, a student
recorded the following observations:
Potential 2 3 4.5 5 6
difference
(V)
Current (A) 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.24
Find in which one of the above sets of readings the trend is different
from others and must be rejected. Calculate the mean value of
resistance of the resistor based on the remaining sets of readings.
7. Two electric bulbs A and B are marked 40W – 220V and 60W – 220V
respectively. Which one of the two has greater resistance?
8. How is an ammeter and a voltmeter connected in a circuit and why?
9. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating
element does?
10. Name two safety measures commonly used in domestic electric
circuits and appliances. What precautions should be taken to avoid
the overloading of domestic electric circuit?
11. (a) Table gives the resistivity of three materials (in Ohm) A, B, C.
Samples A B C
—8 17
Resistivity 1.6 X 10 7.5 X 10 44 X 10 -6

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CONTROL & CORDINATION

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LIGHT: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

 REFLECTION: 1. Luminous:

 Introduction
The bouncing back of rays of light from a
polished and shiny surface is called reflection
or reflection of light. 2. Non-luminous:
Reflection is one of the unique properties of
light. It is the reflection of light, which enables
us to see any object.
 Laws of Reflection of light:
- First law: The angle of incidence and angle of
reflection is always equal.
›’‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘Š‡”‡Ǥ
- Second law: The incident ray, reflected ray and
normal to the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

Object: Anything which emits light ray(s), is

said to be an object in optics.

Types of objects:
There are two type of objects:

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Image: Optical appearance formed during
reflection or refraction of light is called image.

 Types of Image formed by mirrors:-

1.Real image:- Image which is formed in front
of the mirror and it can be obtained on a
screen is called real image.
2.Virtual image:- Image which is formed
behind the mirror and cannot be obtained on a  A plane mirror always form virtual and erect
screen is called virtual image. image.
 The distance of image and that of object is
 Mirror : equal from the mirror.
Mirror is a shiny polished object (glass) which  The image formed is always of same size to
reflects most of the rays of light falling upon it. that of object.
One side of mirror is polished with suitable  The image formed by a plane mirror is laterally
material to make the other side reflective. inverted.

Types of Mirror:- Spherical Mirror: Mirrors having curved

1. Plane reflecting surface are called spherical mirrors.
2. Spherical. A spherical mirror is a part of a sphere.

Plane Mirror:- A mirror having a flat surface is  Type of spherical mirror:

called plane mirror. 1.Concave
2.Convex.
Formation of image in plane mirror:-

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Concave Mirror: Spherical mirror with
reflecting surface curved inwards is called
concave mirror.

Convex Mirror: Spherical mirror with reflecting

surface curved outwards is called convex
mirror.
1.Pole: The centre of reflecting surface of a
spherical mirror is known as Pole. Pole lies on
the surface of spherical mirror. Pole is
generally represented by ‘P’.

2.Centre of Curvature: The centre of sphere; of

Important terms in the case of spherical which the reflecting surface of a spherical
mirror: mirror is a part; is called the centre of
curvature of the spherical mirror. Centre of
curvature is denoted by letter ‘C’.
Note: In the case of concave mirror centre of
curvature lies in front of the reflecting surface.
On the other hand, centre of curvature lies
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behind the reflecting surface in the case of in front of the mirror. Thus, the focus lies in
convex mirror. front of a concave mirror.

3.Radius of Curvature: The distance between

centre of curvature and pole is called radius of
curvature. The radius of curvature of a
spherical mirror is denoted by letter ‘R’.

4. Aperture: The diameter of reflecting surface

of a spherical mirror is called aperture.

5.Principal Axis: Imaginary line passing # In the case of a convex mirror, parallel rays;
through the centre of curvature and pole of a coming from infinity; appear to be diverging
spherical mirror is called the Principal Axis. from behind the mirror. Thus, the focus lies
behind the convex mirror.
6.Focus or Principal Focus: Point on principal
axis at which parallel rays; coming from
infinity; converge or appear to converge after
reflection is called the Focus or Principal Focus
of the spherical mirror. Focus is represented by
letter ‘F’.

# In the case of a concave mirror, parallel rays;

coming from infinity; converge after reflection

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7.Focal length: The distance from pole to focus In the case of convex mirror:- A ray parallel to
is called focal length. Focal length is denoted principal axis appears to diverge from the
by letter ‘f’. principal focus after reflecting from the surface
Note: Focal length is equal to half of the radius of a convex mirror.
of curvature.

 Reflection of rays from a spherical mirror:

(A) Reflection of Rays parallel to Principal

Axis: (B) Reflection of ray passing through the
Principal Focus:
In the case of concave mirror:- A Ray parallel
to principal axis passes through the principal In the case of concave mirror: Ray passing
focus after reflection from a concave mirror. through the principal focus goes parallel to
principal axis after reflection in the case of
concave mirror.

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In the case of convex mirror:- A ray directed after reflecting from the surface of a convex
towards principal focus goes parallel to mirror.
principal axis after reflecting from the surface
of a convex mirror.

(D) Ray incident obliquely to the principal

axis: Ray obliquely to the principal axis goes
obliquely after reflecting from the pole of the
(C) Ray passing through the Centre of both concave and convex mirror and at the
curvature: same angle.
In the case of concave mirror:- Ray passing
through the centre of curvature returns at the
same path after reflecting from the surface of
a concave mirror.

 Formation of Image by a concave mirror:-

Formation of image depends upon the position
of the object. There are six possibilities of the
In the case of convex mirror: Ray appears to position of object in the case of concave
passing through or directed towards the centre mirror.
of curvature goes parallel to the principal axis
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(a) Object at infinity:- (b) Object between infinity and Centre of
Curvature:

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(c) Object at Centre of Curvature (C): (d) Object between Centre of curvature (C)
and Principal Focus (F):

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(e) Object at Principal Focus (F): (f) Object between Principal Focus (F) and
Pole (P):

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Different position of objects and formation of (a) Object at infinity:
image

 Formation of image by a convex mirror:-

There are only two possibilities of position of
object in the case of a convex mirror, i.e.
object at infinity and object between infinity
and pole of a convex mirror.

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b) Object between infinity and pole: Different Position Of Objects And Formation
Of Image:

 Use of Concave Mirror:-

1. As reflector in electric torch, head lights of
vehicle, search light, etc. The source of light is
put at the focus of the reflector, which
produces a strong parallel beam of light, which
helps in clear visibility.
2. As shaving mirror to produce larger image of
face to facilitate better viewing during shaving.
3. Concave mirror is used by dentists to see
larger image of teeth of the patient. When a
tooth is placed between focus and pole, the

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concave mirror produces a magnified image of
the tooth.
4. As reflector in solar furnace. By using
concave mirror in solar furnace the
concentrated rays of sunlight is obtained at
focus which produces enormous amount of
heat because of concentration.

# Use of Convex Mirror:

1. Convex mirror is used in rear view mirror of
vehicles; so that the driver can see the traffic
coming from behind. The field of view is widest
in case of a convex mirror, which enables it to
show a wider area from behind.
2. Convex mirror is used on hairpin bends on
the road; so that the driver can see the traffic
approaching from another side of the bend.

# Sign Convention for Spherical Mirror:-

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Mirror Formula:
Mirror formula shows the relation among
distance of object, distance of image and focal
length in case of spherical mirror. All distances
are measured from pole of the mirror.
The distance of object is denoted by ‘u’
The distance of image is denoted by ‘v’
Focal length is denoted by f

Magnification:-

 REFRACTION:-

 Introduction
- The change of direction of light because of
change of medium is known as Refraction or
Refraction of Light.
- Phenomenon of refraction takes place because
of difference in speed in different media.

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Case 2nd: when ray of light enters into a rarer
medium from a denser medium it bends away
from the normal.

- The light travels at faster speed in rare

medium and at slower speed in denser Laws of Refraction:-
medium. (a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal
- The angle between incident ray and normal is to the interface of given two transparent
called Angle of Incidence and it is denoted as media, all lie in same plane.
‘i’. The angle between refracted ray and (b) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence and
normal is called the Angle of Refraction. Angle sine of angle of refraction is always constant
of refraction is denoted by ‘r’. for the light of given colour and for the pair of
given media.
Case 1st : When ray of light enters from a rarer
medium into a denser medium, it bends Note: Second law of Refraction is also known
towards normal at the point of incidence. as Snell’s Law of Refraction.

The constant is called refractive index of the

second medium in relation to the first medium.

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 Refractive Index:- The refractive index is a  Spherical Lens:
relative value of speed of light in the given pair Concave and Convex lens are most commonly
of media. use spherical lens.
Thus, to calculate the refractive Index the
speed of light in two media is taken.  Convex lens:-
Lens having two spherical surface bulging
outwards is called Convex Lens. It is also
known as biconvex lens because of two
spherical surface bulging outwards.

 Concave lens:-
Lens having two spherical surface bulging
inwards is called Concave Lens. It is also known
as biconcave lens because of two spherical
surface bulging inwards.

 Lens
Lens is an optical device which converges or
diverges the rays of light before transmitting.

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Important terms for spherical lens:

1.Centre of curvature:- The centre of sphere of

part of which a lens is formed is called the Note: Similar to centres of curvature; convex
centre of curvature of the lens. Since concave and concave lenses have two Foci. These are
and convex lenses are formed by the represented as F1 and F2.
combination of two parts of spheres, therefore
they have two centres of curvature. 3.Principal Axis:- Imaginary line that passes
One centre of curvature is usually denoted by through the centres of curvature of a lens is
C1 and second is denoted by C2. called Principal Focus.

2.Focus: Point at which parallel rays of light 4.Optical centre:- The central point of a lens is
converge or appear to converge at a point on called its Optical Centre.
principle axis is called Focus or Principal Focus
of the lens. 5.Radius of curvature:- The distance between
optical centre and centre of curvature is called
the radius of curvature, which is generally
denoted by R.

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6. Focal Length:- The distance between optical 2) Refraction of ray passing through the
centre and principal focus is called focal length Principal focus:
of a lens.
Focal length of a lens is half of the radius of
curvature.

 Refraction of ray of light through Convex and

Concave Lenses:
1) Refraction of parallel ray:-

3) Ray passing through the optical centre of

lens:

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Formation of Image by convex lens:

There are six possibilities of position of object
in the case of convex lens:-
(a) Object at infinity:-

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(b) Object beyond centre of curvature, C1 or (c) Object at centre of curvature, C1 or 2F1:
2F1:-

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(d) Object between centre of curvature, C1 (e) Object at principal focus, F1:-
and principal focus, F1:

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(f) Between principal focus, F1 and optical  Image formation by Concave Lens:-
centre, O:- There are only two possibilities of position of
object in the case of a concave lens:-
(a) Object is at infinity:-

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Sign convention for lens:-
(b) Object is between optical centre, O and
infinity:

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 Lens Formula and Magnification:- Power of lens:-
The relation between distance of object, The degree of divergence or convergence of
distance of image and focal length for a lens is ray of light by a lens is expressed in terms of
called lens formula. the power of lens.
Power of a lens is denoted by ‘P’.
Note: The power of a lens is reciprocal of the
focal length.
Where, v is the distance of image,
u is the distance of object
f is the focal length of
lens.

Magnification:
The SI unit of Power of lens is dioptre and it is
denoted by ‘D’.
- 1 dioptre:

A convex lens has power in positive and a

concave lens has power in negative.

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Power of optical instruments having multiple
lenses:
If there is more than one lens used, then total
power of lenses is equal to the sum of power
of all individual lenses.
Example:- If there are three lenses used in an
optical device having powers equal to 1 D, 2D
and 3D respectively, Therefore, the total
power of the optical device = 1D + 2D + 3D =
6D.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. Define the principal focus of a concave mirror.
2. The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20cm. What is its focal length?
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object.
4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear – view mirror in vehicles?
5. Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 32cm.
6. A concave mirror produces three times magnified (enlarged) real image of an object placed at 10cm in front of it. Where is the image located?
7. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray bend towards the normal or away from the normal? Why?
8. Light enters from air to glass having refractive index 1.50. What is the speed of light in the glass? The speed of light in vacuum is 3 X 108 m/s.
9. Find out the medium having highest optical density. Also find the medium with lowest optical density.
10. You are given kerosene, turpentine and water. In which of these does the light travel fastest?
11. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the meaning of this statement?
12. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.
13. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle placed in front of the convex lens if the image is equal to the size of the object? Also,
find the power of the lens.
14. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2m.
15. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.
a) Headlights of a car.
b) Side/ rear – view mirror of a vehicle.
c) Solar furnace.
Support your answer with reason.
16. One – half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens produce a complete image of the object? Verify your answer
experimentally. Explain your observations.
17. An object 5cm in length is held 25cm away from a converging lens of a focal length 10cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and the
nature of the image formed.
18. A concave lens of focal length 15cm forms an image 10cm from the lens. How far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
19. An object is placed at a distance of 10cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15cm. Find the position and nature of the image.
20. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this mean?
21. An object 5.0cm in length is placed at a distance of 20cm in front of a convex mirror of radius of curvature 30cm. Find the position of the image,
its nature and size.
22. An object of size 7.0cm is placed at 27cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 18cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be
placed, so that a sharp focussed image can be obtained? Find the size and nature of the image.
23. Find the focal length of a lens of power – 2.0 D. What type of lens is this?
24. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power + 1.5D. find the focal length of the lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?
25. Show that angle of incident is equal to angle of emergent in a rectangular slab.
26. Show that power of plane mirror is zero.

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27. With the help of diagram, show how periscope works on the principle of multiple refraction.

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HUMAN EYE & IT’S COLORFUL WORLD

 Structure of Human Eye:- allow more light to enter eyes. In case of
strong light pupil contract allowing less light to
enter.
3. Iris:- Iris is made up of muscles. They control
the size of pupil.
4. Lens:- Lens lies just behind the pupil. Lens
becomes thin to increase its focal length. This
enables us to see distant objects clearly. To
focus on nearer objects, lens becomes thick to
decrease its focal length, this process is known
as power of accommodation.

Note: The minimum distance of clear vision is

The human eye is a spherical structure which 25cm. below this distance, we cannot see
fits in eye socket in the skull bone. There are things clearly without tension in eyes. Far point
following main parts in the human eye. of vision for normal eye is infinite.
1. Cornea: It is the outermost part of eye which
prevent eye ball from U.V. rays and maintain 5. Retina:- Retina works like a screen or camera
the shape and size of eye ball. film. Retina is full of light and colour sensitive
2. Pupil:- Pupil is the round black spot in front of cells. These cells, upon receiving image, sends
eye. It regulates the amount of light entering electrical signals to the brain, which processes
the eyes. In case of dim light pupil expand to these information to make a mental image of

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what we see. The photoreceptor cells in the 2] As two different images get imposed in the
eye are of two types, 1. Rod cells and 2. Cone brain so we are able to see a three dimensional
cells. The rod cells are sensitive to dim light. view of the world.
The cone cells are sensitive to bright light and Ques: Explain how human eye can
colour. accommodate nearby as well far objects?
6. Aqueous humour and virtuous humour: Liquid
present between cornea and eye lens and
liquid present between eye lens and retina
respectively.
7. Blind spot: It’s a spot in between retina at the
intersection of optic nerves, where no rods and
cones are present. Due to no rods and cones,
no image is formed at blind spot.
8. Ciliary muscles: These are active muscles
present around the eye lens which control the
power of eye lens and hence control power of
accommodation.  Malfunctioning(defects) of eyes:-

1. Cataract: In old age the cornea becomes

 Benefits of two eyes:- cloudy. This reduces the vision in old age.
1] One eye is having a field of vision of about Cataract can be cured by eye surgery.
150 degrees. Both the eyes enable us to see up Sometimes, artificial lens is also transplanted
to a field of 180 degrees. during cataract surgery. This is called Intra
Ocular Lens Transplantation.

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2. Myopia: Myopia is also known as near- 3. Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia is also known
sightedness. A person with myopia can see as far – sightedness. A person with
nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly
objects distinctly. but cannot see nearby objects distinctly. The
In a myopia eye, the image of a distant near point, for the person, is farther away from
object is formed in front of the retina and not the normal near point (25cm).
at the retina itself. The light rays from a nearby object
This defect may arise due to: are focused at a point behind the retina.
i. Excessive curvature of the eye lens, or This defect arises either because:
ii. Elongation of the eyeball. i. The focal length of the eye lens is too long, or
Correction of Myopia: ii. The eyeball has become too small.
Correction of Myopia:

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Ques: What is the major difference between
presbyopia and hypermetropyia?

4. Presbyopia: The power of accommodation of

the eye usually decreases with ageing. For
most people, the near point gradually recedes
away. They find it difficult to see nearby
objects comfortably and distinctly without
corrective eye – glasses. This defect is called
presbyopia. It arises due to the gradual
weakening of the ciliary muscles and
diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.

 Refraction of light through a Prism:-

Bifocal lens: Sometimes, a person may suffer An optical object to be defined as prism must
from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such have at least two faces with an angle between
people often require bifocal lenses. The upper them.
portion consists of a concave lens. It facilitates Triangular prism is the most common type of
distant vision. The lower part is a convex lens. prism. It has a triangular base and rectangular
It facilitates near vision. sides.

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Dispersion of light:
Due to the angle of the prism and due to
different wavelengths of different components
of white light; the emergent ray gets
segregated into different colours. Finally, a
colourful band of seven colours is obtained.
This phenomenon is called dispersion of white
light by the prism.

Formation of rainbow: Raindrops work like a

prism. When white light enters a raindrop, it
experiences refraction and total internal
refraction inside the raindrop. The emergent

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light experiences dispersion of light. As a Twinkling of stars:
result, rainbow is formed against the backdrop The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric
of sky. refraction of starlight, on entering the earth’s
atmosphere, star’s light undergoes refraction
continuously. The atmospheric refraction
occurs in a medium of gradually changing
refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends
starlight towards the normal, the apparent
position of the star is slightly different from its
actual position. The star appears slightly
higher (above) than its actual position when
viewed near the horizon. Further, this
apparent position of the star is not stationary.
Since the stars are very distant, they
approximate point-sized sources of light. As
the path of rays of light coming from the star
 ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION: goes on varying slightly, the apparent position
Atmosphere is composed of layers of various of the star fluctuates and the amount of
optical densities. Because of this, light rays starlight entering the eye flickers – the star
passing through various layers of atmosphere; sometimes appears brighter, and at some
get deviated. This is called atmospheric other time, fainter, which gives the twinkling
refraction. effect.
Many interesting phenomenon can be
observed because of atmospheric refraction.
Some of them are given here.

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 SCATTERING OF LIGHT:
When light hits a particle, it scatters in
different directions. Refraction happens
because of non – uniformities of particles of a
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset: medium. Many interesting phenomenon can
The sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before be observed because of scattering of light.
the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after Some of them are given here.
the actual sunset because of atmospheric
refraction. The apparent flattening of the sun’s
disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the
same phenomenon.

Tyndall effect
When a beam of light strikes such fine
particles, the path of the beam becomes

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visible. The light reaches us, after being The red is least scattered by fog or smoke.
reflected diffusely by these particles. The Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour
phenomenon of scattering of light by the even from a distance.
colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
Ques: Why are sun and surroundings appears
Ques: Why is the color of a clear sky blue? to be red during sunrise and sunset?
The molecules of air and other fine particles in During sunset or sunrise, sun is at maximum
the atmosphere have size smaller than the distance from the point of vision and light has
wavelength of visible light. These are more to travel the largest distance from these two
effective in scattering light of shorter points. In this propagation all lights (violet,
wavelengths at the blue end than light of indigo, blue, green, yellow) get scattered out.
longer wavelengths at the red end. Thus, when Red, orange, colours are left which makes the
sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the sun and its surroundings to appear reddish in
fine particles in air scatter the blue colour colour.
more strongly than red. The scattered blue
light enters our eyes. Ques: Why sun appears whitish in colour
Note: If the earth had no atmosphere, there when perpendicularly above from the point of
would not have been any scattering. Then, the vision?
sky would have looked dark. The sky appears At perpendicularly above the point of vision
dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, sun is nearest to the earth and light have to
as scattering is not prominent at such heights. travel the least distance and this least distance
Ques: Explain why ‘danger’ signal lights are do not cause any scattering of light which
red in colour? makes sun appears to be whitish in color.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
Ques1: What is meant by power of accommodation of the eye?
Ques2: A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.2m distinctly, what should be the type of the corrective lens used to restore
proper vision?
Ques3: What is the far point and near point of the human eye with normal vision?
Ques4: A student has difficulty reading the blackboard while sitting in the last row. What could be the defect the child is suffering from? How can
it be corrected?
Ques5: A person needs a lens of power – 5.5 diopters for correcting his near vision he needs a lens of power +1.5 diotre. What is the focal length
of the lens required for correcting (i) distant vision, and (ii) near vision?
Ques6: The fair point of a myopic person is 80cm in front of the eye. What is the nature and power of the lens required to correct the problem?
Ques7: make a diagram to show how hypermetropia is corrected. The near point of hypermetropic eye is 1m. What is the power of the lens
required to correct this defect? Assume that the near point of the normal eye is 25cm.
Ques8: Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer than 25cm?
Ques9: what happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an object from the eye?
Ques10: Why do stars twinkle?
Ques11: Explain why the planets do not twinkle?
Ques12: Why does the sun appear reddish early in the morning?
Ques13: Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?

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PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
Ques: What is the need of classification of of the element; which comes in the middle; is
elements? the arithmetic mean of rest of the two. On this
Classification of elements was done for the basis, he arranged three elements in one group
following reasons: which is known as ‘Traid’. This arrangement of
1. It makes easy to study chemical or physical element is known as Dobereiner’s Traids.
properties of elements.
2. We can compare properties of different Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K)
7.0 23.0 39.0
elements after classification.
3. Classification of elements gives a single
Calcium (Ca) Strontium (Sr) Barium (Ba)
glance view of all the elements present on 40.0 87.5 137.0
earth.
Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I)
35.5 80.0 127.0

Early attempts of classification of elements:-

Properties:
1. Dobereiner’s Traids: Group A:
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner was a German (i) All the elements in this group are metals.
chemist. His effort is considered as one of the (ii) All the elements in this group show same
earliest attempts to classify the elements into valency of +1.
groups. He found that when elements are (iii) All elements are known as alkali metals.
arranged into groups of three in the order of
their increasing atomic mass, the atomic mass
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Group B:
(i) All the elements in this group are metals. 2. Newlands’ law of Octaves:-
(ii) All the elements in this group show same
valency of +2.
(iii) All elements are known as alkali earth
metals.

Group C:
(i) All the elements in this group are non
metals.
(ii) All the elements in this group show same
Newlands found that every eighth element has
valency of - 1.
similar physical and chemical properties when
(iii) All elements are known as halogens.
they are arranged in increasing order of their
relative masses. This law is known as
 Limitations of Dobereiner’s Traids:-
Newlands’ Law of Octaves which states that
A) Dobereiner could find only three such traids
“any given element will exhibit analogous
and he could not even put all the elements
behavior to the eighth element following it in
known as that time in his traids.
table”. This means every eighth element has
B) The rules of Dobereiner’s traids could not be
the similar chemical and physical properties.
applied to the elements which had very low or
For example, sodium is the eighth element
high atomic mass. Such as; if F, Cl and Br are
from Lithium and both have similar properties.
put together in a traid, in increasing order of
Note: The arrangement of elements in
their atomic masses, the atomic mass of Cl is
Newlands’ Octave resembles the musical
not an arithmetic mean of atomic masses of F
notes. In musical notes, every eighth produces
and Br.
similar sound. Because of this, Newlands’
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classification of elements was popularly known 3.Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:-
as just Octaves.

 Limitations of Newlands’ Octaves:-

A) Newlands’ Octaves could be valid upto
calcium only; as beyond calcium, elements do
not obey the rules of octaves. Hence
Newlands’ Octaves was valid for lighter
elements only.
B) It appears that Newlands did not expect the
discovery of more elements than 56 which
were discovered till his time.
C) Iron; which has similar property as cobalt
and nickel, was placed far from them.
D) Cobalt and nickel were placed in the group
with chlorine and fluorine in spite of having Dmitri lvanovich Mendeleev, a Russian
different properties. scientist arranged the elements in increasing
Note: In spite of above limitations; Newlands order of their relative atomic masses were
was the first scientist who arranged the honoured with Noble prize in 1906 for his
elements in order of their increased relative Periodic Table.
atomic masses. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that the
properties of elements are the periodic
function of their relative atomic masses.
Mendeleev arranged all 63 elements; which
were discovered till his time; in the order of
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their increasing relative atomic masses in a 3. Position of noble gases which were
tabular form. It is known as Mendeleev’s discovered later:-
Periodic Table. He divided the table in eight Noble gases were discovered much later after
columns and seven rows. The columns are Mendeleev. After the discovery of noble gas,
known as groups and rows are known as they were placed in a separate group called
periods. Zero group, after VIII group, without making
any disturbance to the arrangement of any
 Merits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:- elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table.
1. Mendeleev left some blank spaces in his Noble gases are chemically un-reactive and
periodic table in order to place having similar present in very low concentration in the
properties in the same group. atmosphere.

2. Mendeleev predicted the discovery of some  Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:-

elements and named them as eka-boron, eka-
aluminium and eka-silicon. He gave the name 1. Position of hydrogen:-
of these elements prefixing the word ‘eka’ to Hydrogen has been placed in 1st group with
the name of the preceding elements. alkali metals, since hydrogen makes compound
Scandium, gallium and germanium have been in the same way as alkali metal do.
discovered later and took place of eka – On the other hand, hydrogen exists as
carbon, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon, diatomic molecule; similar to halogen and
respectively in the gap left in Mendeleev’s hydrogen makes covalent compounds also
periodic table; as their properties were exactly halogens do.
similar to the predicted elements. Thus, on the basis of properties of
hydrogen similar to halogen, hydrogen may be

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placed with halogens but Mendeleev did not  Modern Periodic Table:-
explain about this anomaly.

2. Position of Isotopes:-
Elements having same atomic number but
different atomic masses are known as
isotopes. Although isotopes were discovered
after Mendeleev, but it became a challenge to
accommodate those isotopes in Mendeleev’s
Periodic Table without disturbing the order of
elements.

3. Wrong order of elements:-

Mendeleev placed many elements in
- Law of Modern Periodic Table states that
wrong order of their increasing atomic masses
properties of elements are the periodic
in order to place elements having similar
function of their atomic numbers. In the
properties in similar group.
modern periodic table, elements are arranged
Example, The atomic mass of nickel is less than
in order of their increasing atomic numbers.
that of cobalt; in spite of that cobalt is placed
before nickel.
- Explanation of Modern Periodic Table:-
- Elements are arranged in order of their
increasing atomic numbers.
- The vertical columns are known as groups
and horizontal columns are known as periods;
in the modern periodic table.
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- There are 18 groups and 7 periods in modern 14th group:- Carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and
Periodic table. lead are placed in this group. Among them,
- Elements having same number of valance carbon is a non metal, silicon and germanium
electrons are placed in the same group. are metalloids and tin and lead are metals.
- Elements having same number of shells are These are known as carbon family elements.
placed in the same period.
16th group:- Oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium
- Groups in modern periodic table:- and polonium are placed in this group, among
which oxygen, sulphur and selenium are
1st group:- Alkali metals are placed in the 1st non-metals, tellurium is metalloid and
group in the modern periodic table. Hydrogen polonium is a metal. These are known as
is also placed in the 1st group although chalogens which means ores forming
hydrogen is not an alkali metal. elements.

2nd group:- Alkaline earth metals are placed in 17th group:- Non-metals are placed in the 17th
the 2nd group in the modern periodic table. group. Since halogens are placed in this group
hence this group is also known as group of
Note: Elements placed in 1st and 2nd groups in halogen.
the modern periodic table are collectively
known as light metals. 18th group:- Noble gases are placed in the 18th
group. This group is also known as zero group.
3rd to 12th group:- Transition elements are
placed from 3rd to 12th group in the modern Ques: Why group first elements are known as
periodic table. alkali metals?

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Ques: why group second elements are known as Ques: why group 16th elements are known as
alkali earth metals? chalogens ?

Ques: why group 3rd to 12th elements are Ques: why group 17th elements are known as
known as transition elements? halogens?

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Periods in modern periodic table:-
At present there are seven periods in the
Modern Periodic Table.
1 period:- This is known as very short period as
st

there are only two elements, i.e. hydrogen and

helium.
2nd and 3rd period:- There are total 8 elements in
each of the 2nd and 3rd periods. These periods
are known as short periods.
4 and 5th period:- There are total 18 elements in
th

each of the 4th and 5th periods. These periods

Ques: why group 18th elements are known as are known as long periods.
noble gases? 6 period:- There are total 32 elements in 6th
th

period. This period is known as very long

period.
7th period:- This period is known as incomplete
period. Blank spaces in this period are
supposed to be filled by the element
discovered in future.

- Positions of elements in modern periodic

table:-
Elements are placed in groups according to
their valance electrons and placed in periods

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according to the number of shells present in Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
them.
Position of elements in periodic table according to valence
electrons and number of shell
3. Size:- From left to right atomic size decreases
Valance Group Number of Period because left to right electrons in outermost
electrons member shell number shell increases which results in greater
1 1 1 1 electrostatic force between nucleus and
2 2 2 2 outermost shell hence, size contracts and
3 13 3 3 decreases from left to right.
4 14 4 4
4. Tendency to loose electrons:- It is difficult to
5 15 5 5
loose electron by a small atom as compared to
6 16 6 6
a bigger one. As left to right size decreases
7 17 7 7
which results in decrease in the tendency to
8 18
loose electrons.

5. Tendency to gain electrons:- From left to right

- Properties of elements from left to right in a
size decreases and for a shorter/ smaller atom
period
it is easy to gain electron, hence from left to
right tendency to gain electron increases due
1. Valence electrons:- From left to right valence
to decrease in size.
electrons increases from 1 to 8.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6. Metallic character:- From left to right
tendency to loose electron decreases and a
2. Valency:- From left to right valency increases good metal loose electrons easily hence from
from 1 to 4 and then decreases from 4 to 0. left to right tendency to loose electrons

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decreases and hence metallic character also Properties of elements from left to right in a
decreases. period:

7. Non metallic character:- A good non metal is 1. Valence electrons: From top to bottom there
one which gain electron easily. From left to is no change in valence electrons. Hence
right tendency to gain electron increases and number of valence electrons remains same
hence non metallic character increases from from top to bottom.
left to right. Li Na K
2, 1 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 1
8. Nature of oxides:- As metallic oxides are basic 2. Valency: In a group from top to bottom there
in nature and non metallic oxides are acidic in is no change in the valency as valence
nature (sometimes neutral) and from left to electrons remain same.
right metallic character decreases and non
metallic character increases hence oxides Fl Cl B I
become more acidic from basic moving left to -1 -1 -1 -1
right.
3. Size: In a group from top to bottom size
increases due to increase in number of shell.
9. Reactivity:- Reactivity of elements first
decrease than increases from left to right 4. Tendency to lose electrons: From top to
hence elements on either left or right are most bottom in a group size increases and hence it is
reactive and elements in between are least easy to lose electrons, hence tendency to lose
reactive. electrons increases from top to bottom.
5. Tendency to gain electrons: From top to
bottom size increases, hence it become

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difficult to gain electron and tendency to gain Reactivity: From top to bottom size increases and
electron decreases. for metals reactivity increases but decreases for
non metals.
6. Metallic character: As bigger elements lose
electrons easily are good metals, hence from
top to bottom size increases and metallic
character also increases.
7. Non-metallic character: As elements gain
electrons easily are good non metals hence
from top to bottom size increases, hence non
metallic character decreases.
8. Nature of oxides: As metallic oxides are basic
and non metallic are acidic from top to bottom
metals remains metal and non metals remain
non metals. Hence there is no change in nature
of oxides from top to bottom.

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HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

 Heredity: The passing of traits from the bulging biceps, it does not mean that his son
parents to offspring is called heredity. This is would born with bulging biceps.
heredity which is responsible for many  Inheritable Traits: Traits which can be
commonly observable facts; like siblings expressed in subsequent generations are
looking similar in overall appearance. called inheritable traits. Such traits bring a
 Genotype: The complete set of genes in an change in the genotype of the organism and
organism’s genome is called genotype. They hence become inheritable. Example: blood
are note visible physically. Example: blood group.
group.
 Phenotype: The observable characters in an  Accumulation of variations during
organism make the phenotype. Phenotype is a reproduction:-
result of genotype’s interaction with the Asexual reproduction involves a single parent
environment. Due to this reason, many and hence not ideal for facilitating variations.
phenotypes are not inheritable. Example: Some minor variations do occur due to
colour of eye. inaccuracies in DNA replication. But the
 Acquired Traits: Traits which are acquired due quantum of variations would be too little and
to interaction with the environment are called would take too many years to show effect.
acquired traits. Acquired traits are not Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, is
inheritable. For example, if a boxer develops ideal for facilitating variations because two
parents are involved in it. The offspring’s
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genotype is contributed by two parents and  Monohybrid cross:
hence chances of variations are very high.

 Rules of inheritance:-
Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments
on pea plants and proposed the rules of
inheritance; based on his observations. Mendel
observed that characters are often present in
pairs. A pair of contrasting characters is called
allele.

 Possible reasons of pea plants used by

Mendel:-
Pea can be termed as biennial plant, i.e. two
generations of a pea plant can grow in a given
year. This means that Mendel could get
enough time to observe a larger number of
generations. Many easily identifiable and
contrasting characters are present in pea
plants. Cross pollination can be easily included
in pea plants.

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 Dihybrid Cross:

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- Mendel’s First Law: The law of segregation: chromosome, while a sperm may have either X
Every individual possesses a pair of alleles for or Y chromosome as the 23rd chromosome.
a particular trait. During gamete formation, a When a sperm with X chromosome fertilizes
gamete receives only one trait from the the egg, the resulting zygote would develop
alleles. A particular trait can be dominant or into a female child. When a sperm with Y
recessive in a particular generation. chromosome fertilizes the egg, the resulting
zygote would develop into a male child.
- Mendel’s second law: Law of independent
Assortment: Alleles of different characters
separate independent from each other during
gamete formation.

 Sex Determination in Humans:

Cells in human beings contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes. Out of them the 23rd pair is
composed of different types of chromosomes
which are named as X and Y chromosomes.
The 23rd pair contains one X and one Y
chromosome in a male. On the other hand, the
23rd pair in a female contains X and X
chromosomes. This means that all the eggs
would have X chromosome as the 23rd

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 Evolution:
The change in inherited traits in biological
population over subsequent generations is
called evolution.
Scientists have proven that life evolved in
the form of simple unicellular organisms on
this earth; and all the organisms which are Situation2:
present today have evolved from a common
ancestor. The idea of evolution is based on the
premise of a common ancestry.
To understand how evolution takes place, let
us take some imaginary examples.

Situation1:

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Situation3: 1. Organisms have unlimited capacity to
reproduce: Organisms can reproduce offspring
at a fast pace. This is necessary for survivals,
because a higher number of offspring ensures
that at least some of them could survive. Each
organism has to struggle for its day to day
survival. For example; a frog lays thousands of
eggs at one go. The spawn is releases in water
and it is left to fend for itself. Most of the eggs
are either washed away or are eaten by
predators. However, some portion of eggs
from the spawn develops into tadpoles. Once
again, many tadpoles are eaten up by
predators; leaving a few which develop into
adults. It is evident, that a large number of
eggs are needed to ensure that at least some
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: of them develop into adults.
Charles Darwin wrote his famous book ‘Origin
of Species’. He threw new insights on 2. Natural selection: Different individuals of a
evolution of species. Some salient points of particular species have different traits. Those
Darwin’s theory are as follows: with more suitable traits are selected by the
nature. Each organism needs a particular trait

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for finding food and finding mate. Those with in the setup. Some amino acids and sugar were
better traits are finally able to pass on their also formed. This proved the hypothesis of J. B.
traits to the next generation. S. Haldane that life originated from inorganic
raw materials.
3. Survival of the fittest: Those organisms
which are the fittest are able to survive, while 5. Speciation: The process of origin of a new
others perish. That is how many species species is called speciation. A species is a group
become extinct and some species continue to of organisms in which most of the characters
evolve over a period of time. are similar and members of a species are able
to breed among themselves. Speciation can
4. Molecular Origin of Life: Stanley L. Miler happen if two groups of the same species or
and Harold C. Urey, conducted the Miller – somehow prevented from interbreeding for
Urey experiment in 1953 to demonstrate how several generations. This can happen because
the life would have originated on the earth. of geographical segregation is called genetic
They created an environment in laboratory drift.
which mimicked the environment of earth as it
was during the time of origin of life. Water,  Evolution and classification:
methane, ammonia and hydrogen were used The modern system of classification is based
in that experiment. The liquid was heated to on evolutionary relationship. This is also
initiate evaporation and electrodes were used known as phylogenetic classification. The
to create electric discharge. At the end of two kingdom is the highest taxa, while the species
weeks, some organic molecules were formed is the lowest taxa. Members of a species have

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a higher number of common characters, than
members of a kingdom. For example, all
human beings belong to the species Homo
sapiens. Human beings can interbreed;
irrespective of their race or skin color. All
human beings come under the class
mammalian; as do the monkeys, elephants and
cows. Apparently, each species of the class
mammalian is quite different yet they have
certain common characters; like hairs on the 2. Analogous Organs: Organs which have
body and mammary glands in females. different design but serve a common function
Similarly, all animals are eukaryotes and cell in different animals are called analogous
wall is absent in their cells. The degree of organs. For example;
similarity or dissimilarity shows that all animals
have evolved from a common ancestor.

Proof of evolution:

1. Homologous Organs: Organs which have

common design but serve different functions
in different animals are called homologous
organs. For example;

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3. Fossils: The preserved remains of animals or composed of a single lens. Most of the animals
plants or other organisms from the distant past cannot differentiate among colors. Depth
are called fossils. The term distant is a key perception is also weak in many animals.
term in this definition. Scientists usually take Human eyes are the most advanced; because
10,000 years as the minimum age for the humans can recognize colors and have very
remains to be categorized as fossil. Many good depth perception.
fossils have been discovered till date. These
fossils tell us about many extinct animals and
also give insights into how the evolution could  Evolution Vs Progress:-
have taken place. Evolution does not mean progress in every
case. This can be proved by example of
 Evolution by stages:- bacteria. Bacteria are the simplest and one of
Evolution of complex organs and thus of the oldest organisms on the earth. Their simple
complex organisms has happened in stages. body design does not make them weak from
Let us take the example of evolution of eyes. any angle. Bacteria are known to survive some
Planaria is the first animal which shows ‘eye’ of the harshest climates, like craters of
like structure. The dark spots on planaria are volcanoes and sulphur springs. Many animals
light sensitive spots but a planaria cannot have certain features which hamper even their
distinguish between two different objects. routine activities. For example, the branch-like
Eyes of insects are compound eyes which are horns of antelope are a handicap for them.
made up of thousands of optical surfaces. Eyes When an antelope runs for its life; there are
of higher animals are simple eyes which are times when its horns get entangled in branches

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or bushes. This results in the death of the and finally to Australia. From the Indian
antelope. Colorful feathers of a male peacock Peninsula, branch migrated towards China and
are very good when it comes to attract a subsequently to the North America, the
female. But because of its conspicuous humans migrated to the South America. From
feathers, it can be easily spotted by a predator. the Mediterranean sea, the second branch
Because of its bulky feather it cannot fly away migrated towards Europe, where they are
to safety. believed to replace the Neanderthals.

 Human Evolution:
The modern humans called Homo sapiens.
Many scientific investigations have shown that
the modern humans evolved in Africa. They
migrated towards north; in due course of time
and settled near what is known as the
Mediterranean Sea. When the ice age ended,
melting of ice resulted in the rise in water
level. The humans migrated in different
directions from that area. One branch went to
the western Asia, then to the Indian Peninsula

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
Ques1: If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing species and a trait B exists in 60% of the same population, which trait
is likely to have arisen earlier?
Ques2: How does the creation of variations in a species promote survival?
Ques3: How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive?
Ques4: How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently?
Ques5: A man with blood group A marries a woman with blood group O and their daughter has blood group O. Is this information enough to tell
you which of the traits – blood group A or O – is dominant? Why or why not?
Ques6: How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?
Ques7: What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population?
Ques8: Why are traits acquired during the life – time of an individual not inherited?
Ques9: Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from the point of view of genetics?
Ques10: What factors could lead to the rise of new species?
Ques11: Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self – pollinating plant species? Why or why not?
Ques12: Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that reproduces asexually? Why or why not?
Ques13: Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close two species are in evolutionary terms.
Ques14: Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered homologous organs? Why or why not?
Ques15: What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?
Ques16: Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour and looks said to belong to the same species?
Ques17: In evolutionary terms, can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish and chimpanzees have a ‘better’ body design? Why or why not?

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OUR ENVIRONMENT
 Environment: Our surrounding is called Soil is the reservoir of various nutrients
environment. which are utilized by plants. Through plants,
these nutrients reach other living beings.
 Ecosystem: This is a system of
interdependence among various living beings 2) Biotic component: All living beings make the
and non – living things in a given habitat. An biotic component of an ecosystem.
ecosystem has two types of components, Green plants play the role of producers,
because they prepare food by photosynthesis.
Animals and other living beings play
1) Biotic component the role of consumers, because they take food
2) Abiotic component. (directly or indirectly) from plants.
Bacteria and fungi play the role of
1) Abiotic component: All the non – living decomposers, as they decompose dead
things make the abiotic component of an remains of plants and animals so that raw
ecosystem. Air, water and soil are the abiotic materials of organisms can be channelized
components. Air provides oxygen (for back to the environment.
respiration), carbon dioxide (for
photosynthesis) and other gases for various  Food chain: Food chain is a simple
needs of the living beings. representation of transfer of energy from the
Water is essential for all living beings sun to different biotic components of an
because all the metabolic activities happen in ecosystem. Also food chain can be defined as a
the presence of water. cycle in which who eats whom.

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Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Green  10% Law:
plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy during photosynthesis. When an animal
takes food, this energy is supplied to the
animal and the process goes on. A simple food
chain can be shown as follows:
Producer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer

Grass Deer Lion

 Food web: There can be many food chains

which are interlinked at various levels. Thus,
many food chains form a network which is
called food web.

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Ques. Why there can’t be more than 3 or 4 Types of substances:
members in a food chain?
Ans. In a food chain only 10% of energy is 1) Biodegradable Substance: Substances which
passed on from level to another in a food chain can be decomposed by microorganisms are
hence, least amount of energy is received by called biodegradable substances. All the
the last member. If there so happen that a organic substances are biodegradable.
member which is 5th, 6th or above in a food For example:
chain will get energy may be insufficient to
survive.

 Balance in the Ecosystem: There is a delicate

balance in an ecosystem, as far as number of
organisms at a particular trophic level is 2) Non-biodegradable Substance: Substances
concerned. An increase or decrease in which cannot be decomposed by
population of any organism can disturb this microorganisms are non-biodegradable. All
balance. inorganic substances are non-biodegradable.
Many synthetic substances are also non-
Ques. What will happen if all the deers are biodegradable.
killed from the food chain….. Grass, deer, For example:
lion?
Ans. If all the deers are killed in a jungle, the
lions would be left with no food. This would
endanger the existence of lions. Once the lions
and deer would be finished, it would result in
population explosion of green plants.

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 Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is also  Harmful effects of ozone depletion:
known as stratosphere. When ultraviolet Ozone depletion allows ultraviolet rays to
radiations act on oxygen, the oxygen gets enter earth’s atmosphere and UV rays have
converted into ozone. the following bad effects:
i. It causes skin cancer.
ii. Causes cataract.
iii. Affect aquatic life.

Ozone layer works like a protective shield for  Problems of Waste Disposal: (4 R’s)
living beings. The ozone layer wards off 1. Reduce
harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sun. 2. Recycle
Use of CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbon) has damaged 3. Reuse and,
the ozone layer. As a result, the ozone layer 4. Recover
has become thinner at certain parts.
In 1987, the UNEP (United Nations
Environment Programme) succeeded in
forging an agreement among different nations
to freeze the CFC production at 1986 level.
Later, an agreement was signed among
different nations to phase out CFCs.

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 Disposable cups in train
We will remember the time when the tea in
trains was served in plastic gasses. Then there
is a introduction of disposable cups was hailed
as a step forward for reasons of hygiene. No
one at that time perhaps thought about the
impact caused by the disposal of millions of
these cups on a daily basis. Some time back,
kullads, that is disposable cups made of clay,
were suggested as an alternative. But a little
thought showed that making these kullads on
large scale would result in the loss of the fertile
top soils now disposable cups were being used
in the trains.

 Biological magnification/ bio magnification

The concentration of harmful substances
increases from one trophic level to another.
This increase in concentration in harmful
substances is known as biological
magnification or bio magnification.

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MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Resources:
Anything which fulfill our atleast one basic 2. Non-exhaustible:
need, is said to be a resource.
Types of resources:
1. Natural resources: Resources which are
obtained by nature are called natural
resources. For example:

- Management of natural resources is all about

2. Man-made: Resources which are the judicious in a way that the exhaustible
synthesized by humans are called man-made resources can last for many generations to
resources. For example: come and non-exhaustible resources can be
maintained in as pristine form as possible.

Further resources are of two types:  Consequences of exploitation of Natural

Resources
1. Exhaustible resources: There are many consequences of exploitation
of natural resources. Some examples are given
below:

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a) Burning of fossil fuels creates air pollution.
Excess amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere leads to global warming. Some
polluting gases; like oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur lead to acid rain, which is harmful for
living beings. Acid rain is also harmful for
monuments and buildings.
b) Excess exploitation of groundwater leads to a
drastic fall in water table. This is the reason
many places are experiencing acute shortage
of drinking water.
c) Overuse of fertilizers and insecticides leads to
soil pollution and soil erosion. Many pollutants
are directly flown into water bodies. This has
resulted in water pollution in many rivers,
lakes and even oceans.

 Sustainable development:

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- Forest and wildlife:

Conservation of forests and wildlife is  Local people and forest conservation
necessary to protect the biodiversity. This is Before the beginning of the colonial rule in
important because loss of biodiversity leads to India, forest dwellers were free to utilize the
ecological imbalance. But any conservation resources from forests as they wished. But
effort for forest and wildlife must keep the things changed when the British rulers took
interests of all stakeholders in mind. over the control of the forests in India. They
restricted the access of forest dwellers to
Stakeholders: forest resources. This created huge problems
The stakeholders who are directly or indirectly for many people who had traditionally been
affected by forest are as follows: dependent on forests for the survival.
- People living in or around forests; as they
After the independence of India,
depend on various forest lands.
the forest department took over but the
- The forest department which is the owner of
interest of forest dwellers continued to be
the forest land.
ignored for a long time. The forest was cut to
- Various industrialists who depend on forest for
obtain timber for making railways and for
many raw materials. For example; the beedi
various construction activities. The cleared
industry needs kendu leaves as raw materials.
forest was replaced by planting eucalyptus
Wood is used as raw material in many
trees which led to the problem of
industries.
monoculture. Growing a single species is
- The wildlife and nature enthusiasts.

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called monoculture. It disturbs the their sheep in the protected area. Now, in the
biodiversity of an area. absence of grazing by the sheep, the grasses
grow very tall in the region. Tall grasses fall over
There are many examples which suggest
and prevent fresh growth of grass. This shows
that involvement of local communities is
that by excluding and alienating the local people
necessary for any conservation effort. The
from forests, proper conservation efforts
Bishnoi community of Rajasthan is one such
cannot be carried out.
example. Amrita Devi Bishnoi is still
remembered with reverence for the way she
 Chipko Movement
fought for protecting the khejri trees in 1731.
The Chipko Movement began in the early
The ‘Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for
1980s from a small village; Reni in Garhwal
Wildlife Conservation’ has been named in her
district. The women of the village began
honour.
hugging a tree to prevent the cutting of trees
by the contractors. The Chipko Movement
Another example is of nomadic herders of the later spread to other parts of India. It had been
Himalayas. The nomadic herders used to graze instrumental in stopping deforestation to a
their animals near the great Himalayan National large extent.
Park. Every summer, the nomadic people
brought their herds down the valley so that the  Arabari’s Example of People’s Participation in
sheep could get plenty of glass to eat. When the Forest Management
National Park was made in that area, the In 1972, the forest department realized its
nomadic herders were stopped from grazing mistake while reviving the degraded sal forests

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of Arabari forest range. Arabari forest lies in of the rainfall during monsoon; which means
Midnapore district of West Bengal. The earlier that for the rest of the year water may not be
methods of policing and surveillance were a available in adequate quantity. Moreover, the
total failure as they often led to frequent rainfall is not even throughout the country.
clashes with local people. It also led to While there are some areas which
alienation of people from the conservation get excess rainfall, there are some other areas
programme. Then came a forest officer, named which get scanty rainfall. Mismanagement of
A K Banerjee; who was a real visionary. He water resources often leads to shortage of
involved the local people in the revival of 1,272 drinking water at many places.
hectares of forest. In lieu of that the villagers Traditionally, small dams and other
were given employment in silviculture and reservoirs were built so that rain water could
harvest and were given 25% of the harvest. be stored for later use. But the arrival of the
They were also allowed to gather firewood British changed these systems. The concept of
fodder against a nominal payment. Due to large dams and large irrigation projects came
active participation of the local community with the British. The same policies were
there was remarkable revival of the Arabari sal followed by the new government which took
forest. By 1983, the value of the forest rose to over the reign of the independent India. Along
Rs. 12.5 crores. with making the mega projects, the
government also took controls of the
Water for all traditional irrigation systems.
Water is essential for the survival of all living
beings. India is a country which receives most  Problems Associated with large Dams.

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- Large dams lead to inequitable distribution of and kattas in Karnatka are some of the ancient
water. While some places get plenty of water, water harvesting, including water conveyance,
many other places are left without water. structures. These are still in use at many
- Building a large dam leads to displacement of a places.
large population. It leads to social unrest. The traditional water harvesting structures are
- Building a large dam consumes huge amount location specific and have been perfected by
of public money and thus leads to economic people over a long period of time. They take
problems. into account the local geography and the need
- It also leads to deforestation because of of the local people and hence are highly
submersion of a vast area of land. Moreover, efficient.
decomposition of the submerged vegetation The traditional water harvesting structures
results in evolution of methane gas which usually focus on recharging the groundwater
ultimately leads to global warming. rather making an open reservoir. It has several
advantages. Unlike surface water, the
 Water harvesting groundwater does not evaporate and thus loss
Water harvesting is an age-old concept in because of evaporation is prevented. The
India. Khadins, tanks and nadis in Rajasthan, groundwater does not provide a breeding
bandharas and tals in Maharashtra, bundhis in ground for the mosquitoes and hence is good
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, ahars and for public health as well. The groundwater is
pynes in Bihar, kulhs in Himachal Pradesh, relatively protected from contamination by
ponds in the Kandi belt of Jammu region, and human activities.
eris (tanks) in Tamil Nadu, surangams in Kerala,

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 Coal and petroleum
Coal and petroleum are the main energy
resources for us. But since these are
exhaustible in nature so we need to find out
alternate sources of energy.
Scientists are working on developing
some alternate energy sources so that
dependency on coal and petroleum can be
reduced. Some examples are given below:
- Solar energy is being used to produce
electricity at many places. Although the
technologies for solar energy are still costly but
future prospects look bright.
- Fuel cell is another development which may
help in replacing the internal combustion
engines from automobiles.
- Hydrogen is being used as fuel in buses and
cars in many countries. Hydrogen, when used
as a fuel produces water as byproduct. Thus,
hydrogen can be an environment- friendly fuel.

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HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE

Reproduction: Reproduction is an integral feature Sexual Reproduction: When two parents are
of all living beings. The process by which a living involved and gamete formation takes; the method
being produces its own like is called reproduction. is called sexual reproduction.

Importance of Reproduction: Types of Asexual reproduction :

Reproduction is important for each species, 1. Binary Fission: Most of the unicellular animals
because this is the only way for a living being to prefer this method for reproduction. In this
continue its lineage. Apart from being important method, mother cell divides into two daughter
for a particular individual, reproduction is also cells; and each daughter cell begins its life like a
important for the whole ecosystem. new individual. The parental generation ceases to
exist after binary fission.
Reproduction helps in maintaining a proper
balance among various biotic constituents of the Amoeba is a very good example of the
ecosystem. Moreover, reproduction also facilitates organism which reproduces by binary fission.
evolution because variations come through
reproduction; over several generations.

Types of Reproduction: There are two main types,

viz. 1. Asexual and 2. Sexual reproduction.

1. Asexual Reproduction: When a single parent is

involved and no gamete formation takes place; the
method is called asexual reproduction.
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2. Multiple Fission 3. Budding:

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3. Fragmentation: 4. Regeneration:

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5. Spore formation: - Advantages of Spore Formation.

6. Vegetative Propagation: Vegetative propagation

is a special case, as it happens in higher plants;
which otherwise have the capability to reproduce
sexually. When a vegetative part of a flowering
plant reproduces a new plant, it is called vegetative
propagation. Some examples of vegetative
propagation are given below.

a) Tuber of Potato: The potato tuber is a modified

stem. Many dotes can be seen on the surface of

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potato. These are called ‘eyes’ of potato. Each ‘eye’ Advantages of Asexual Reproduction:
of a potato can give rise to a new potato plant.
Farmers utilize this capability of potatoes to grow  The organism does not have to depend on
potato more quickly; which is not possible by using another organism for carrying out
the seeds of potato. reproduction; because a single parent is
needed.
b) Leaf of Bryophyllum: Leaves of bryophyllum  It takes less time than sexual reproduction
have notches on the margin. If a leaf is put under and hence more number of offspring can be
the soil, small saplings grow from the notches on produced in shorter time.
the leaf margin.  The offspring are exact clones of their parent.
 Desirable characteristics can be easily
- Artificial Vegetative Propagation: Man has used
incorporated into plants with artificial
artificial vegetative propagation to grow many
vegetative propagation.
plants. This has enabled farmers and horticulturists
to grow many plants in shorter duration and has Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:
helped them to earn more profit. Artificial
vegetative propagation has also helped in  As a single parent is involved, so there is
developing many new varieties of plants. negligible chance of variation.
 In most of the cases in simple organisms, the
- Preferred means of artificial vegetative parent generation ceases to exist after
propagation: asexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction cannot give rise to
1) Stem cutting,
biodiversity which is important for a healthy
2) Layering and ecosystem.

3) Grafting.

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- Sexual Reproduction and Variations: replication is a foolproof process, yet some
As discussed earlier, sexual reproduction involves alterations do take place. These alterations may
two parents and gamete formation. Gametes are lead to some variations in the characters of the
special cells which are formed after meiosis. There daughter cells.
are two types of gametes, viz. male and female
gametes. The number of chromosomes is haploid - Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:
in the gametes. When gametes fuse during
fertilization, the number of chromosomes becomes
diploid. This is important for maintaining the
unique identity of a particular species which
reproduces by sexual method.

In sexual reproduction, the offspring gets sets

of genes from two different individuals. This leads
to subtle variation through subsequent
generations. These variations accumulate over
thousand of generations and finally may give rise to
a new species. That is how all complex organisms
have evolved from a common ancestor.

- DNA Replication:
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes
a copy of itself. DNA replication happens during the
S – phase (synthesis phase) of the cell cycle. This is
important because the daughter cells would need
additional copies of the DNA. The process of DNA
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- Pollination: The pollen grains need to be
transferred to the stigma so that fertilization can
take place. The transfer of pollen grains from
anther to the stigma is called pollination.

Pollination is of two types:

1. Self pollination: If the pollen grains from the

same flower or the same plant are transferred to
the stigma; it is called self pollination.

2. Cross pollination: If pollen grains from a

different plant are transferred to the stigma; it is
called cross-pollination.

Note: Cross pollination is better; from the

perspective of variations. Many agents help
plants in cross pollination, e.g. insects, animals,
air, water, etc. Insects are the main pollinators
for the plant kingdom.

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- Differentiate between self and cross Fertilisation:
pollination:
The fusion of male and female gametes is called
fertilization.

The product of fertilization is called zygote.

Zygote undergoes several rounds of mitosis and
develops into an embryo. Subsequently, the
embryo develops into a new individual.

Fertilization in flowering plant:

After landing at the stigma, pollen grains absorb
moisture and germinate. A pollen grain develops a
pollen tube; which penetrates through the tissue of
the style and reaches the ovule. Pollen nuclei are
transferred through the pollen tube. After
fertilization, zygote is formed; which finally
develops into the embryo.

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Structure of Seed: A seed contains an embryo, Reproduction in Human Beings:
some reserve food and is enclosed by a protective
covering; called seed coat. The reserve food is Male Reproductive System:
stored in the cotyledons. The embryo has two The male reproductive system in human beings is
pointed parts. The upper part is called plumule composed of following parts:
which gives rise to the shoot system. The lower
1. Testis: There is a pair of testes; which lie in a skin
part is called radicle which gives rise to the root
pouch; called scrotum. Scrotum is suspended
system. Cotyledons supply food when the embryo
outside the body; below the abdominal cavity. This
needs it during germination. Seed germination is
helps in maintaining the temperature of testes
the process by which the embryo in the seed kick-
below the body temperature. This is necessary for
starts a new life.
optimum sperm production.

Testis primarily serves the function of

sperm production. Sperms are the male gametes.
Apart from that, testis also produces testosterone.

Testosterone is also called the male

hormone, as it is responsible for developing certain
secondary sexual characters in boys.

2. Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is the tube which

carries sperms to the seminal vesicle.

3. Seminal Vesicle: This is the place where sperms

are stored. Secretions from the seminal vesicle and
prostate gland add up to make the semen.
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4. Penis: It is a muscular organ which serves the Female Reproductive System:
genitor-urinary functions. It is the organ which
eject sperms(semen) into the female body. The female reproductive system in human beings is
composed of following parts:
The urethra works as the common passage for
urine as well as for sperms. 1. Uterus: Uterus is the place where the embryo
gets implanted and develops into a newborn baby.
The wall of the uterus provides safety and nutrition
to the growing foetus.

2. Fallopian Tubes: One fallopian tube comes out

from each side at the top of the uterus. The
fallopian tubes end in finger-like structures; called
flimbriae. Fertilization happens in the fallopian
tube.

3. Ovary: There are two ovaries; one near each

fallopian tube. Ovary produces the eggs or the
female gametes.

4. Vagina: The cervix (mouth of the uterus) opens

into the vagina. Vagina is a muscular tube-like
organs; which serves as the passage for the sperms
and also as the canal during the child birth.

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around 12 – 13 years of age in boys. It usually ends
at around 18th year of age in girls and at around
19th year of age in boys. Since the years during
puberty end in ‘teens’; hence this phase is also
called teenage.

- Changes in Boys during Puberty:

1. The boys suddenly grow in height dramatically. 2.

Voice becomes deep and the Adam’s apple
becomes prominent. 3. Shoulders become broad
and body becomes muscular. 4. Facial hairs begin
to grow. Hairs also grow under the armpit and in
the pubic region.

- Changes in Girls during Puberty:

1. The voice becomes thin. 2. Shoulders and hip

Note: Male and female sex organs are collectively become rounded. 3. Breasts get enlarged. 4. Hairs
known as gonads. grow under the armpit and in the pubic region.

Puberty: - Sexual Dimorphism: The physical dissimilarities in

the male and female of a species which give them
There is a distinct phase in life cycle of humans different appearances are called sexual dimorphism.
which marks the onset and attainment of sexual
maturity. This period is called puberty. It usually
starts at around 10 – 11 years of age in girls and at
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- Secondary Sexual Characters: Features which - Reproductive Health:
highlight sexual dimorphism are called secondary
sexual characters. Or

Characters which differentiate between male and

female without considering sex organs like, facial
hairs, voice, broaden shoulders etc.

- Menstruation: During each ovulation cycle, the

uterus prepares itself in anticipation of a possible
pregnancy. The uterine wall develops an additional
lining. When the egg is not fertilized, it gets
disintegrated and so does the additional lining in
the uterine wall. The fragments of disintegrated
tissues are shed; along with blood. This is observed
in the form of bleeding through the vagina which
can last from 3 to 7 days.

The whole sequence of events during an

ovulation cycle is called menstrual cycle. The
bleeding which occurs for few days is called
menstruation.

The first menstrual flow is called

menarche and the last menstrual flow (which
happens in the late 40s) is called menopause.

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STD’s (Sexually transmitted diseases) :

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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

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