Engineering Chemistry Module-4

Unit 4
[Water Analysis; Water Technology: Sources and impurities of water, Hardness of water, Boiler troubles,
Techniques for water softening (Lime-Soda, Zeolite, Ion Exchange and Reverse Osmosis process),
Determination of Hardness and alkalinity, Numerical problems]
Water Analysis [Part I]
Water is nature's most wonderful, abundant and useful compound. Of the many essential elements for the
existence of human beings, animals and plants (wiz. air, water, food, shelter, etc.), water is rated to be of the
greatest importance. Without food, human can survive for a number of days, but water is such an essential thing
that without it one cannot survive.
Sources of water:
Surface waters: Surface water, generally, contains suspended matter, which often contains the disease–
producing (or pathogenic) bacteria. Hence, such waters as such are not considered to be safe for human
consumption.
Examples of surface water are Rain water, Lake water, Sea water.
Underground waters: In general, it is clearer in appearance due to the filtering action of the soil, but contain
more of dissolved salts. Thus, water from these sources contains more hardness. Usually, underground water is
of high organic purity.
Examples of underground water are Spring and Well water.
Types of impurities in water:
Natural water is, usually contaminated three types of impurities.
1. Physical impurities. 2. Chemical impurities. 3. Biological impurities.
1. Physical impurities:
(a) Colour: Colour in water is usually caused by metallic substances like salts of iron,
manganese, peat, industrial effluents etc.
(b) Turbidity: It is due to the colloidal, extremely fine suspension such as clay, slit,
finely divided matter etc.
(c) Taste: Bitter taste can be due to the presence of iron, aluminium, manganese sulphate or excess
of lime. Brackish taste is due to the presence of unusual amount of salts.
(d) Odour: The causes of odour in polluted rivers are;
• Presence of inorganic and organic compounds of N, S & P and the putrefaction of proteins and other organic
materials present in sewage;
• Industrial effluents containing organic substances such as alcohols, aldehydes, phenols etc. flowing into the
water bodies.
2.Chemical impurities:
(a) Acidity: (b) Gases (c) Mineral matter:
3.Biological impurities: These are algae, pathogenic bacteria, fungi, pathogens, parasite worms etc.

Hardness of water
Hardness is the property of water which prevents the lather formation of soap.
Cause of hardness: Hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg) and other heavy metals. These react with soluble sodium soap to form insoluble salts of Ca and Mg.
2C17 𝐻35 COONa + CaSO4 → ( 𝐶17 𝐻35 COO)2 Ca ↓ +Na2 SO4
Sodium stearate Calcium stearate
2C17 𝐻35 COONa + MgCl2 → (𝐶17 𝐻35 COO)2 Mg ↓ +2NaCl
Sodium stearate Magnesium stearate

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Thus, the precipitate formed is the insoluble soap of calcium and magnesium. Hence a large quantity of soap is
required to produce lather with hard water.
Types of Hardness:
(1) Temporary Hardness or Carbonate Hardness or Alkaline Hardness: It is due to the presence of
dissolved salts of bicarbonates of Ca, Mg and other heavy metals and the carbonates of magnesium and
iron.
Example: Ca(HCO𝟑 ) 𝟐 , Mg(HCO𝟑 )𝟐 , MgCO3
Removal: It can be removed by By boiling of the water
𝛥
Ca(HCO3 ) 2 → CaCO3 ↓ +CO2 ↑ +𝐻2 𝑂
Calcium Calcium
bicarbonate carbonate (insoluble)
𝛥
Mg(HCO3 )2 → Mg(OH) 2 ↓ +CO2 ↑
Magnesium Magnesium
bicarbonate hydroxide (insoluble)

(2) Permanent hardness or Non-Carbonate hardness or Non Alkaline Hardness : It is due to the presence
of chlorides and sulphate of Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and other heavy metals like iron (Fe).
It cannot be removed by boiling.
Example: CaCl2 , MgCl𝟐, CaSO4 , MgSO4 , Ca(NO3) 2 , Mg(NO3) 2

Q. Why does soap not give lather with hard water? write chemical reactions in support of your answer.
Ans. A sample of hard water, when treated with soap does not produce lather, but forms insoluble white scum
or precipitate. This is due to the formation of insoluble soaps of calcium & magnesium.
2C17 H 35COONa + CaSO 4 → (C17 H 35COO )2 Ca  + Na 2SO 4
Sodium stearate Calcium stearate
2C 17 H 35 COONa + MgCl 2 → (C17 H 35 COO )2 Mg  +2NaCl
Sodium stearate Magnesium stearate

Boiler troubles due to Hard Water

For steam generation in boilers, hard water creates many problems like:
1. Scale and Sludge
2. Caustic embrittlement
3. Priming and Foaming
4. Boiler corrosion
1.Scale and Sludge
Scales are hard substances which stick very firmly to the inner surfaces of the boiler wall. Scales are difficult
to remove even with the help of a hammer. Examples: CaSO4, CaCO3, Mg (OH)2
Disadvantages of scale formation:
i) Wastage of fuel

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ii) Lowering of boiler safety

iii) Decrease in efficiency of boiler
iv) Danger of Explosion
Removal of scales:
• Mechanical/chemical method.
• Loosely adhering scales are removed with the help scraper/wire brush.
• Thick scales are removed by giving thermal shocks.

Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler.
e.g., MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.
Disadvantages
• Sludges are poor conductors of heat, so they tend to waste a portion of heat generated.
• Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of the boiler.
Removal: Sludge can be removed by using
• Easily removed with wire brush
• By blow down
2.Caustic embrittlement
It is the phenomenon during which the boilers material becomes brittle due to accumulation of caustic
substances.
• It is a type of boiler corrosion, caused by highly alkaline water in the boiler.
• In lime-soda process, it is likely that, some residual is still present in the softened water
• This Na2CO3 decomposes to give NaOH and CO2 due to which the boiler water becomes “Caustic”.
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2↑
Removal:
• By using sodium phosphate as softening reagent in the external treatment of boiler water.
• By maintaining pH value of water and neutralization of alkali
3. Priming and Foaming
Priming
It is the process in which some particles in water are carried along with the steam. The resulting process is
called as wet steam. The process of formation of wet steam in boilers is called as priming.
Foaming
It is the production of continuous foam or hard and stable bubblers in boilers. Foaming is due to the presence
of substance like oil in boiling water.

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Causes of Priming & Foaming

• Presence of dissolved salts
• High velocity steam due to sudden boiling
• Improper boiler design
Removal:
• By adding antifoaming agent
• By using well softened water
4.Boiler corrosion
Decay of boiler materials (Fe) due to the chemical attack of dissolved gases or salts on its surface is
called boiler corrosion.

Boiler corrosion is of three types

1. Corrosion due to dissolved O2
2. Corrosion due to dissolved CO2
3. Corrosion due to acids formed by dissolved salts
Degree of Hardness
It is defined as the total quantity of hardness producing salt present in water. It is expressed in terms of
equivalents of CaCO3.
The reason for choosing CaCO3 as the standard for reporting hardness of water because:
• The molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100 , which makes calculations easy.
• It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment.

Degree of Hardness (Equivalents of CaCO3 )

= Strength ofhardnessproducingsubstance × Multiplicationfactor

Massofhardnessproducingsubstance×Eq.wt.ofCaCO3
=
Eq.wt.ofthesubstance
Units of Hardness:
• Parts per million (ppm)
1ppm=1 part of CaCO3 equivalence hardness causing substance present in 10 6 parts of water
• Milligrams per liter (mg/litre)
1mg/L=1mg of CaCO3 equivalence hardness causing substance present in one liter of water
• Clare's Degree( oCl)
1o Clarke= 1part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 70000 parts of water
• Degrees French ( oFr)
1o Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water
• Milliequivalent per liter (milli eq./litre)
1milli eq./L= 50 mg of CaCO3 equivalence hardness
Relationship between various units:
1mg/L = 1ppm = 0.1 oFr = 0.07oCl = 0.02 millieq./litre
(milligrams (parts per (degree (degree ( milliequivalent
per liter) million) French) Clarke) per liter )
Important points for calculations:

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Q.1 Calculate the calcium carbonate equivalent hardness of a water sample containing 204 mg of CaSO4 per litre
Ans Hardness=( 204 x 100/2)/136/2

= 150 mg/l = 150 ppm

Q.2 How many grams of MgCO3 dissolved per liter gives 84 ppm of hardness.
Ans. 70.56 mg/l

Q.3 A water sample has the following analysis:

Mg (HCO3)2 = 83mg/l, Ca(HCO 3)2 = 134 mg/l, CaSO 4 = 124mg/l, MgCl 2 = 84mg/l, CaCl 2 =
94mg/l, NaCl = 50mg/l. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness in ppm and change in degree
Clark.
Ans.

Temporary hardness = Ca (HCO3)2 + Mg (HCO3)2 of CaCO3 equivalent

= 56.8 + 82.7
= 139.5 mg/l = 139.5 ppm
= 139.5 x 0.07 °Cl = 9.77 °Cl
Permanent Hardness = CaSO4 + MgCl2 + CaCl2 of CaCO3 equivalent
= 91.2+ 88.4 +84.7
= 264.3 mg/l= 264.3 ppm
= 264.3 x 0.07 °Cl = 18.50 °Cl
Q.4 A sample of ground water has 150 mg/l of Ca ++ and 60 mg/l of Mg ++. Find the total hardness
expressed in milli-equivalents per litre and mg/l in terms of CaCO3 equivalent.
Ans.

Constituent Quantity mg/l Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent mg/l

Ca+ + 150 100/40 150 x 100/40= 375

Mg++ 60 100/24 60 x 100/24= 250

Total Hardness = CaCO3 equivalent of Ca+ + + Mg++
= 375 + 250 = 625 mg/l
In milli-equivalents per litre
= 625 x 0.02 = 12.5 millieq./litre

Q. 100 mL of water sample has a hardness equivalent to 12.5 mL of 0.08 N MgSO4. Find the hardness in degree
ppm.

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Ans. N1V1 of water sample = N2V2 of MgSO4

N1 X 100 = 0.08 x 12.55

N1= 0.08 x 12.5

100
= 0.01 N
Now, Hardness of water sample = N1 x Eq. wt. of CaCO3 in gm/L
= 0.01 x 50 = 0.5 gm/l
= 0.5 x 1000 mg/l
= 500 ppm
Q.6 A water sample has the following analysis:
Mg (HCO3)2 = 16.8mg/l, MgCl2 = 19 mg/l, Mg(NO3)2 = 29.6mg/l, CaCO3 = 20mg/l, MgSO 4 =
24.0mg/l, KOH = 0.9mg/l. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness in ppm and change in
degree Clark.
Ans. Temporary Hardness =31.5 ppm = 2.205oCl
Permanent Hardness= 60 ppm = 4.2 oCl

Q.7 Calculate the temporary, permanent & total hardness of a water sample in ppm that is analysed as:
Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L, Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L, CaSO4=136 mg/L, MgCl2=95 mg/L , CaCl2=111 mg/L
& SiO2 = 100 mg/L.
Ans. Temporary Hardness =150 ppm
Permanent Hardness= 300 ppm
Total Hardness= 450 ppm
Water Treatment Methods

Internal treatment methods:

The internal treatment methods used for the removal of scale formation in boilers.
• Phosphate conditioning
• Carbonate conditioning
• Calgon conditioning
• Collodial conditioning
Calgon conditioning: Involves in adding calgon to boiler water. It prevents the scale and sludge formation
by forming soluble complex compound with CaSO4.
Calgon = Sodium hexa Meta phosphate = (NaPO3)6
Na2 [Na4 (PO3)6] 2Na+ + [Na4P6O18]-
-2
2CaSO4 [ Na4P6O18] [Ca2P6O18]-2 + 2Na2SO4

External treatment methods:

The treatment of water is carried out before its entry into the boiler called external treatment methods.
Zeolite Method
Zeolite process or Permutit process: Zeolite is a Hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicate, capable of exchanging
reversibly its sodium ions with hardness producing ions in water .

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The artificial zeolite is called permutit having the formula:

Na2O. Al2O3. X SiO2 n H 2O

(X= 2-10, n = 2-6 )
Natural Zeolites:
• Natrolite - Na2O. Al2O3 4SiO2 .2H 2O
• Laumontite - CaO. Al2O3 4SiO2 .4H 2O
Process:
• Hard water is passed through the zeolite bed at a
specified rate.
• The hardness causing ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+ are
retained by the zeolite bed as CaZe and MgZe
respectively.
• Sodium salts are released during the reaction, as
byproduct.
• The following reactions takes place during softening
process:
To remove temporary hardness:
Na2Ze + Ca (HCO3)2 CaZe + 2NaHCO3
Na2Ze + Mg (HCO3)2 MgZe + 2NaHCO3
To remove permanent hardness:
Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + MgCl2 MgZe + 2NaCl
Na2Ze + CaSO4 CaZe + Na2SO4
Na2Ze + MgSO4 MgZe + Na2SO4
• Regeneration:
Exhausted zeolite is regenerated by treating the with a concentrated Brine solution (10% NaCl).
CaZe + 2 NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2 NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2
Exhausted Active
zeolite zeolite
Advantages:
i. It removes the hardness completely and water of about 10 ppm hardness is produced.
ii. The equipment used is compact, occupying a small space.
iii. No impurities are precipitated, so there is no danger of sludge formation.
iv. It requires less time for softening.
v. It requires less skill for maintenance as well as operation.
Disadvantages:
i. The treated water contains more sodium salts than in lime-soda process.
ii. This method causes caustic embrittlement.
iii. High turbidity water cannot be treated efficiently by this method.
iv. Warm water should not be softened as it may decompose zeolite slowly.

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Q. The hardness of 50,000 litres of a sample was removed by passing it through a zeolite softner. The
softner then required 200 litres of NaCl solution containing 125g / L of NaCl for regeneration.
Calculate the hardness of the sample of water.

Q. An exhausted zeolite softner was regenerated by passing 150 litres of NaCl solution, having strength
of 1.5 gm/l of NaCl. Find the total volume of water that can be softened by this zeolite softner, if the
hardness of water is 600ppm.

Ion Exchange Resin Method:

• Ion exchange process also known as demineralization or de-ionization process.
• In ion exchange process all the ions present in water are eliminated by using ion-exchange resins.
• Ion-Exchange resins are insoluble cross linked long chain organic polymers with a micro porous
structure, and the “functional Groups” attached to the chains are responsible for the ion-exchanging
properties.
• Ion exchange resins are classified as:

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• Cation Exchange Resins- Resins with acidic functional group are capable of
exchanging H+ ions with other cations.
• Anion Exchange Resins- Resins with basic functional groups are capable of
exchanging OH- ions with other anions.
Principle:
• Cation Exchange Resins: Hard water is allowed to pass through cation exchange resins,
which remove Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions and exchange equivalent amount of H+ ions.

2RH + Ca+2 R2Ca + 2H+

2RH + Mg+2 R2Mg + 2H+

• Anion Exchange Resins: After cation exchange resin, the water is passed through anion
exchange column which removes all the anions like Cl - , SO4-2 etc. and equivalent amount of
OH- ion is released from this column to water.

R’OH + Cl- R’Cl + OH-

2R’OH + SO4-2 R’2SO4+ 2OH-

• H+ and OH- ions, thus released in water from respective cation and anion exchange columns,
get combined to produce water molecules.
H+ + OH- H2O
Regenration:
• The exhausted cation exchanger is regenerated by passing it through dilute sulphuric acid.
R2Ca + 2H+ 2RH + Ca+2
Exhausted Cation Exchange
cation resin Resin
• The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by passing a dilute solution of NaOH.
R’2SO4 + 2OH- 2R’OH- + SO4-2
Exhausted Anion Exchange
anion resin Resin

Merits of Ion-exchange process:

i. The process can be
used to soften highly
acidic or alkaline
water.
ii. It produces water of
very low hardness (2
ppm)
Demerits of Ion-exchange
process:
i. The equipment is
costly and more
expensive chemicals Fig: Demineralization of water
are needed.
ii. If water contains turbidity, the output of the process is reduced.

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Lime -soda method

It is a process in which Lime, Ca (OH)2 and soda, Na2CO3 are added to the hard water to convert the soluble
calcium and magnesium salts to insoluble compounds by a chemical reaction.
The CaCO3 and Mg (OH)2 so precipitated are filtered off and removed easily.
Reactions are as follows: -
Lime removes the following hardness:
Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 ↓ +2H2 𝑂
Mg(HCO3 ) 2 + 2Ca ( OH)2 → Mg(OH) 2 ↓ +2CaCO3 + 2H2 𝑂
MgCl2 + Ca ( OH) 2 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ +CaCl2
MgSO4 + Ca ( OH) 2 → Mg(OH)2 ↓ +CaSO4
FeSO4 + Ca ( OH) 2 → Fe( OH)2 ↓ +CaSO4
Al2 ( SO4 )3 + 3Ca(OH)2 → 2Al( OH)3 + 3CaSO4
2HCl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 ↓ +2H2 𝑂
𝐻2 SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 ↓ +2H2 𝑂
Ca(OH) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 ↓ +𝐻2 𝑂
Ca(OH)2 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → CaS + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Soda removes the following hardness:
CaCl2 + Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 ↓ +2NaCl
CaSO4 + Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 ↓ +Na2 SO4

The Lime-Soda process may be classified into two

groups:
(i) Cold lime - Soda process
(ii) Hot lime - Soda process
Cold lime – Soda process:
• In this process softening of water is
carried out at room temperature by
adding lime and soda.
• A small amount of coagulant like
alum is added to precipitate finely
divided precipitates of CaCO3 and
Mg (OH)2.
Fig. Cold lime - Soda Plant
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al (OH)3
Sodium aluminate
Al2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH)3 + CaSO4 + CO2
Aluminium sulphate
Hot lime - Soda process:
• In this process hard water and softening chemicals are heated near about the boiling point of water.
• No coagulant is needed in this process.
• The reactions are much faster and rapid.
• Hot lime-soda plant consists of three parts:
i. Reaction tank: water, chemicals and steam are mixed
ii. Conical sedimentation tank: sludge settles down
iii. Sand filter: complete removal of sludge from the soft water is ensured

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Advantages of L-S process:-

i. It is very cheap and economical.
ii. Lesser amount of coagulants will be required,
if this process is combined with sedimentation
and coagulation.
iii. Fe & Mn (up to some extent) are also removed
from water.
iv. It leads to an increase in the pH value of water,
thus reducing the corrosion of the distribution
pipes. Fig. Hot Lime-Soda Plant
Disadvantages of L-S process:-
i. Careful operation and skilled supervision is required to get good results.
ii. Formation of large amount of sludge creates its disposal problem.
iii. This process cannot produce water having zero hardness.
iv. Softened water from L-S softeners is not good for boilers.

Comparison between cold L-S process and hot L-S process: -

Cold L-S process Hot L-S process
1.Reactions take place at slower rate Reactions take place at faster rate
2.Coagulants are added to settle down Coagulants are not required.
the precipitate
3.Temporary hardness is removed by Temporary hardness in removed by
adding lime boiling and hence lime consumption
is less.
4.No fuel consumption A steam is used, so there is fuel
consumption.
5. It takes longer time (few hours) It takes lesser time (few minutes)
6.The residual hardness is about The residual hardness is about
50-60 ppm 15-30 ppm.

Rules for solving numerical problems on lime-soda requirements for softening of hard water:
1.The units in which the impurities are analyzed and expressed are to be noted.
2. Substances which do not contribute towards hardness (KCl, NaCl, SiO 2, Na2SO4, Fe2O3 etc.) should be
ignored.
3. A substances causing "hardness should be converted into their respective CaCO 3 equivalents.
wt.of the impurity
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 equivalent of hardness causing impurity = 100 × × chemical equivalent of impurity
2
= Multiplication factor × wt. of impurity
4. If the impurities are given as CaCO3 or MgCO3, these should be considered due to Ca (HCO3)2 and Mg
(HCO3)2 respectively and they must only be expressed in terms of CaCO 3 and MgCO3.
5. If Ca2+ and Mg2+ is given, the ions Ca2+ and Mg2+ are treated as permanent hardness due to Ca and
Mg.
6. Since the treated water is shown to contain OH- and CO32- . These are formed from excess of Lime and
soda respectively. So, during calculations the corresponding amount to these should be added.

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Final Formula for calculating the amount of lime or soda required is given as:
74
Lime = [ temp. 𝐶𝑎2+ + 2 × temp. 𝑀𝑔2+ + perm. 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− − 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 ] × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100
If % purity is given,
74 100
Lime = [ temp. 𝐶𝑎2+ + 2 × temp. 𝑀𝑔2+ + perm. 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− − 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 ] × × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100 % 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦

106
Soda = [perm. 𝐶𝑎2+ + perm. 𝑀𝑔2+ + 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 − 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ] × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100
If % purity is given,
106 100
Soda = [perm. 𝐶𝑎 2+ + perm. 𝑀𝑔 2+ + 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 − 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ] × × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100 % 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦

Q. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening 5,000 litres of hard water containing 72
ppm of MgSO 4 .

Ans: Step 1 List out the given data

Given data: Wt. of MgSO4 = 72 ppm; Quantity of water = 5000 litres; Molecular wt. of MgSO4 =120
Step 2 Calculate the CaCO3 equivalent
wt. of 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 equivalent of 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 = 100 ×
2 × chemical equivalent of 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4
72
= 100 × = 60 ppm
2×60
Step 3 Calculation of lime requirement
74
Lime = [perm. 𝑀𝑔2+ (𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 )] × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100
74
Lime = × 60 × 5000 = 222000 𝑚𝑔 = 222𝑔 = 0.2𝐾𝑔
100
106
Soda = [perm. 𝑀𝑔2+ (𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 )] × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
100
106
Soda = × 60 × 5000 = 318000 𝑚𝑔 = 318𝑔 = 0.32𝐾𝑔
100

Reverse Osmosis:
• Osmosis is the phenomenon by virtue of which flow of solvent takes place from a region of low
concentration to high concentration when two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane.
• The flow continues till the concentration is equal on both the sides.
• The driving force for osmosis is osmotic pressure.
• However, if a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the concentrated
side, the flow of solvent reverses as it is forced to move from concentrated side to dilute side
across the membrane. This is the process of reverse osmosis.

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Advantages:
a. Colloidal SiO2 can be removed by reverse osmosis
which even cannot be removed by demineralization.
b. It is simple and reliable process.
c. Capital and operating expenses are low.
d. The life of the semi-permeable membrane is about 2
years and it can be easily replaced within a few
minutes.

Disadvantages:
a. Reverse osmosis removes dissolved minerals .
b. Reverse osmosis is usually not applicable for
concentrated solutions.

Application:
a.Waste water treatment.
b.Desalination of waste water.

1. Explain the basic principle of lime-soda process. Write the reaction involved during the lime soda
process.
2. A water sample on analysis gives the following data: Ca 2+ =20 ppm, Mg2+ =25 ppm, CO2=30 ppm,
HCO3- =150 ppm, K+ =10 ppm. Calculate the lime(87% pure) and soda(91% pure) required to soften106
liter of water sample. AKTU, Sem I 2018-19
3. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening 30000 liters of water, using 20 ppm of
sodium aluminate as coagulant. Impurities in water are as follows: Ca 2+ =160 ppm, Mg2+ =96 ppm,
dissolved CO2=34 ppm, HCO3- =403 ppm.
AKTU, Sem I 2017-18
4. Compare merits and demerits of Zeolite and Ion Exchange method.
AKTU, Sem I 2023-24
5. Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for the treatment of 20000 lts. of water whose analysis is as follows:
Ca (HCO3)2 = 40.5 ppm, Mg(HCO3)2 = 36.5ppm, CaCl2 = 27.75 ppm & MgSO4 = 30 ppm.
AKTU, Sem II 2021-22
6. Illustrate the principle of lime soda process.

Analysis of raw water gives the following data: Ca2+ = 20 ppm, Mg2+ = 25 ppm, CO2 = 30
+
ppm, HCO3- = 150 ppm, K = 10 ppm. Analysis of treated water: CO 32- = 45ppm, OH- = 68
ppm. Calculate the Lime (87% pure) and Soda (91% pure) required to soften 106 litre of sample water.
AKTU, Sem I 2023-24

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