.....................................PSIR by Dr.

Bijendra K Jha
Notes on Introduction of Western Political Philosophy

Introduction:
In our everyday life we observe several laws framed by the government and we obey the
government order without inquiring about it. Have you ever thought about why we obey the state
and what makes the government a legitimate authority? On what account a citizen should revolt
against the government’s decision? Do citizens possess the right to revolt? If yes, when and what
would be the correct mode of revolution-peaceful or armed? Does the government have an
obligation to provide security and peace against threats? Why do we follow the rule of law or the

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decision of the supreme leader is enough to govern the society? How can we ensure a good and
happy life? In western political thought we analyze such questions through lanes provided by

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several philosophers.
Western political thought essentially took birth and flourished in the ancient greek-city state
wherein several (Athenian) philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, along with Sophists
provided a systematic thought about man, society and state. These philosophers established a
school of thought and tradition called the Socrates tradition which gave importance to debate,
deliberation and contemplation in concluding wisdom, ideas and virtue. This method they
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applied to understand the nature of human beings, society and government. Athenians debated a
series important questions which are still not answered clearly and are a matter of open debate,
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for instance, who can be called citizen and what define citizenship, why do we need State and
what should be the role of the State, what is the role of citizen in the State, who should be the
ultimate judge whether a king (a man) or law; what constitute justice; why should State not only
provide education but also regulate and monitor it, what is constitution and what should be role
of the Constitution in order to govern people; what is revolution; does democracy a good form of
government or not. Even today, these questions are still contested. We, students of
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politics/political philosophy, are in search of a valid and verified answer.

In the West, at the advent of modernity, political thought was revived and taken up to a new
height by many scholars like Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacaques
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Rousseau, Montesquieu, Jeremey Bentham, J S Mill, Adam Smith, Thomas Pain, Hegel,
Emanuel Kant, Karl Marx, Hannah Arendt, John Rawls and list goes on. Each one of these
philosophers raised indispensable questions which were relevant in ancient Greek city-states, and
even we discuss today, for instance, why one should obey the state authority? What is the role of
religion in politics? Should politics and religion be separated or should they go together? What is
the basis of the government's legitimacy? Does private property should be a matter of right or
should it be abolished? How is to govern society and state, and is democracy an appropriate form
of government or not? Is the private sphere really a ‘private’ one and does not require
intervention of state or is personal (private) also a domain of politics (political)? In the history of
western political thought, these questions have been debated and we are still seeking answers to
these questions. Western Political Thought (WPT) helps us to understand answers to the above
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questions. In addition, it also helps us to understand a few political concepts like the concept of
state, rule of law, democracy, rights, equality, liberty, justice and power.
In this section, we shall discuss pertinent thoughts of the Greek Trio, namely, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. These philosophers compel us to think why still we study thoughts of these Greek-trio?
Is it relevant in the contemporary social and political world? If yes, how can they help us to learn
from their thoughts to solve contemporary issues?
Further, we shall know about the father of Modern political thought, Machiavelli, through his
writing the ‘Prince’ which brought salience of power and role of state in political thought and
established a realistic and pragmatic way to handle politics. However, Kautilya, a noted Indian

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philosopher, has already established many pragmatic ideas during the Mauryan Empire.
AlthoughMachiavelli and Kautilya belong to different ages and different locations, they have

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many similarities in their realistic thought to run the government.
Thereafter, we would discuss the important concepts and ideas propounded by three “Social
Contract” theorists, namely, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jaecques Rousseau. Their
ideas are classical like liberalism, individualism, rights, liberty, equality enriched by their
philosophy. They proposed a new theory of state and explained why we obey the government.
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In addition, we would talk about Utilitarian philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and J.S. Mill who
gave importance to utility. Both were staunch supporters of individual liberty and free-market.
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Their ideas promoted a new social philosophy called utilitarianism. For them, utility decides our
actions and motives. We agree on certain things because we think that there is a utility of such
things. For instance, do we need a state and we should obey the state?. Utilitarians believe that
the state has its utility as it aims at ‘greatest happiness to greatest number’ and we believe that it
is in our larger interest to believe in a common authority that is the state, and we obey the state as
it is good for all.
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The philosophy of early liberals and utilitarians promoted a social-economic and political order
called capitalism. It brought several changes in world politics in general and in European politics
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in particular. In the mid 19th century, European scholars rejected the existing capitalist system.
They accused capitalism as the root cause of the divide between have and have-not. Liberalism,
as scholars argued, has not benefited everyone equally. It de-humanized individuals and the
working class who are living on mere subsistence. These new scholars who were thinking from
the working class perspective called themselves socialists. Socialism evolved as an alternative
socio-economic and political order, and opposed the oppressive condition that lies in capitalism.
In this direction, the socialist ideas and concepts theorized by Karl Marx, Engel and Lenin that
influenced many.
The 20th century witnessed the rise of authoritarian regimes in Europe, for instance, Hitler,
Stalin and Mussolini in Germany, Russia and Italy respectively. The authoritarian regime
compelled thinkers to interrogate the origin of totalitarianism in political thought. Philosophers
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like Hannah Arendt and Karl Popper whose ideas are important to discuss, inquire about the
origin of modern totalitarianism and it is important to understand the modern authoritarian state
and their objective.

Chapter 2: Ancient Greek City-Setting Up the Context

In ancient Greek, a city-state was a politically organized community. There were more than 100
tiny city-states, and few of them are Athens, Sparta, Syracuse, Mellitus, Coronith, Mecedone,
Lesbos, Thebes, Platea, Aegina, Rhodes, and so on. States like Athense were a hub of knowledge
attracting people to engage in the world of education, like Shopists. Sophists were symbols of

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knowledge. They were like half-universities imparting education like history, music, art, ethics to
Athenian youth, and consequently they were highly respected in Athens due to their contribution

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to spreading knowledge in society like ancient Indian sages and seers. Later, Shopist started
taking money in exchange for imparting knowledge.
There was social stratification along the line of property, honour and citizenship. Land owning
people were citizens, and others were slaves, women, and (metics). Economy was primarly based
on agriculture yet people were engaged in crafts, and art. Slaves were an important part of the
Athenian economy and society. This led to decline in their reputation.
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Do you know what the literal meaning of Sophist is? The word Sophia means wisdom. The
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Sophist means a person possessing knowledge and wisdom. Look at few words like
Philosophy= Phil means love and Sophia means wisdom i.e. Philosophy means love for
wisdom. What is the meaning of Sophisticated?

Among all, Athens and Sparta were the most popular polis (city-state) due to efficient
community structure and most organized society. The government building and temples were
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built on hills (Acropolis). Each polis ruled itself, however, they differed greatly from each-other
in terms of government, administrative set-up, judicial system, political culture and philosophical
interest. For example, Athense had a democratic political set-up and it was the great centre of
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education, arts, culture, commerce, trade, and political activity which attracted more people from
outside. On the other hand, Sparta was ruled by Kings and a Council of Elders and organized a
highly skilled strong military set up.
In Athens each equal male has the right to vote and they governed themselves called as direct
democracy. Rather than have a strong Army, Athens organized their skillful navy. Sparta had a
strong army. They went for a long contested conflict known as the Peloponnesian war.
The Peloponnesian War (431 BCE-404BCE)
War fought between two leading states of ancient Greek, namely, Athens and Sparta. Each has an
alliance which engulfed every city-states of the ancient Greek world. The fight was recorded by
Thucydides in his work ``The History of Peloponnesian War”. In the war, Athens made an
alliance with majorly coastal (littoral states) of eastern and northern region whereas Sparta
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included the major land powers of the Peloponnese and central Greece states along with sea
power Coronith. Thus, Athens had a great navy whereas Sparta had a stronger army. There was a
war- truce-war between Athens and Sparta. Sparta won the war because of their brave fighters.
Men and women were highly skilled in fighting and Sparta, unlike Athens, did not allow
outsiders to live in Sparta.

In the post-Peloponnesian war(431-404 BCE) period, the government had nominated

30-member groups to revise the law, but they captured power with the help of the Sparta
government. It is popularly known as the rule of ‘Thirty Tyrants’. As the name suggests, they

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killed more than thousand and exiled many. This lasted only for 8 months, when a
pro-democracy faction of Athens launched a counter revolution and changed government from
oligarchy to democracy. Socrates had friends in both the camps, but he kept distance from

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politics as he was not happy with the current state of affairs. Perhaps he was unhappy with both
tyranny and democracy. There was rampant corruption and leaders were competitive for public
office and personal gains (like money and power). All around there was ignorance of the ruling
class. Athens was on verge of decline.
In Athens, the Sophist has great influences over masses. Because they were professional teachers
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of wisdom engaged in training Athenian youth in rhetoric, eloquence, logic, history,
mathematics, ethics, grammar. Interestingly, Athenian youth were interested in rhetoric to
participate in politics and capture power. It should be noted that the Sophists were foreigners
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who resided in Athens as metics (alien resident). They used to take money for teaching to
Athenian youth. Many of the Sophists were rhetoricians teaching rhetoric (oratory skills),
eloquence (persuasive speaking style) and practical ability in order to control elections, and to
gain their due in the state. Due to Sophists Athenian democracy declined, and youth became
morally corrupt. Socrates did not like it and he accused the Sophist for the decline of Athens and
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moral corruption of youth.

Introduction to the Great Trio: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

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Western political thought begins with ancient Greek political thought, especially thoughts of
Socrates (470-399 BCE), Plato (428/27 -347 BCE) and Aristotle (384-322 BCE). These three
philosophers are interlinked as Socrates is considered as teacher of Plato and Plato is regarded as
teacher of Aristotle. The pre-Socrates Greek thought was devoted to natural philosophy like the
planet, universe, stars, earth. They were more interested in astronomy like the shape and size of
the earth, the nature of the star, the orbit of the sun and moon, cause of solar eclipse etc. so they
were basically naturalists who talked about natural philosophy.
Socrates (470-399 BCE) started talking about life in the social world, about man, society, state
and government, about well-being and happiness. He initiated asking questions: how can human
beings live together? What should be the role of the state in a just society? What is just society?
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What is pious and what is impious? Therefore, Socrates is regarded as the ‘father of philosophy’
because he began gathering, disseminating and discussing knowledge about the human social
world. Socrates (470-399 BCE) is also known as the father of ethics. Look at the nature of
questions he posed in front of Athenian citizens, how can we live together? What is just society?
All questions are related to morality i.e. what is right and what is wrong, good and bad.
Unfortunately, we don’t have any work written materials like text or letters or monographs by
Socrates. We know Socrates thought through the writing of Plato and Xenophon.

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Source: Google images
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Socrates and the Sophists: Greek philosophy in its earlier phase was fundamentally
metaphysical (debating natural phenomena). It was only under the Sophists that philosophy took
a new turn and became predominantly humanistic. Socrates' intervention made social and
political philosophy at its zenith. He emphasized again and again that the first duty of man is to
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know himself. Hence his zest for searching enquiry into the definition of virtue. He supported the
Sophist’s idea that a man should be independent to think irrespective of laws and social
conventions but disagreed on several accounts.
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Sophists were subjectivits. For them, man is essentially relative to their environment and
changing modes of his society. Nothing is right or wrong except as we men make it so. Such
creed promotes unbridled freedom and anarchy. Socrates was too deep thinker and does not
believe such creed. For him, there should be objectivity. We must make a distinction between
good or evil which alone can guarantee social existence. He believed in the objective truth of
universal laws and was prepared to spend all his life searching for it, and ready to die for it. He
had a mission to search virtues and moral laws for good life and that is why Socrates transcended
all Sophists.
Socraties himself declared that he knows one thing that he knows nothing. Socrates' contribution
in philosophy is the theory of knowledge.
What is the Socratic method?
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It is logical reasoning also known as dialectic method. It means discussion, debate, deliberation
on important or any ideas, clarifying questions, defeating arguments of others and articulating
ideas effectively. By dialectic method (logical reasoning) our belief/opinion filtered and it
became true knowledge.

What was the accusation against socrates?

Socrates was a lifetime active moral teacher. He lived an ascetic life and was very talkative,
courageous and questioning. Plato depicted him as an ideal philosopher. He was a well known
figure due to his courageous argument and question. He rejected traditional notions of God and

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religion, and introduced new deities and gods. It irritated traditionalist believers who burnt
Socrates’ home as punishment and accused him of being impious.

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An obscure man named Meletus accused Socrates as wrong doer of following: he does not
recognize the city's God, introducing new divinities, and corrupting the youth citizens. Trial
conducted before the jury of 500 citizens, 280 voted for condemnation and 220 voted for
acquittal. Prosecution demanded death. Execution of death followed after a month by slow
poisoning (hemlock). Entire episode of trial and execution of death influenced one person, Plato.
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Socratic imposed moral and ethical questions before Athenian people. From Plato’s writing there
are important thematic statements given by Socrates as follows: knowledge is virtue, the
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unexamined life is not worth living, knowledge makes one to act in the right direction, knowledge
in question is the knowledge of the universal good. I am the wisest man alive, and I know one
thing that, I know nothing.

Socrates gave primacy to knowledge and wisdom. For him, every one should acquire knowledge
of their choice. It brings excellence to an individual and enables him to live a good life. Further,
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knowledge enables a person to inquire about the existing practices and think whether it is good
for the community or not. Examination through wisdom is self-reflective and good.

It informs people about its significance and helps to make a sound judgement. For Socrates, the
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unexamined life is not worth living. Therefore, we must question the existing practices. He said
good is nothing but intelligence. Knowledge ensures self-development and personality in an
individual. Each person should acquire knowledge as per their natural attitudes and suitability.

For Socrates, wisdom is virtuous. It is good for individual moral and civic life as it only can
ensure a good life. In contemporary times, knowledge is a virtue that tells us to pursue education
and promote intellectual growth, and improve ourselves to contribute positively in society.
Further, individuals should strive to be an informed citizen and make sound judgement in life.

Overall, the phrase ‘knowledge is virtue’ highlights the importance of getting education and
excellence in life. However, we must not take too much pride in ourselves and always be critical
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and inquisitive.

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Plato and His Life
Plato was born in 427 BCE in a Greek city-state called Athens. Athens was then going through

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tough times. The Peloponnesian War (430BC–404BC) was only three years old when Plato was
born. Athens and Sparta were involved in the conflict. Democracy in Athens received a jolt when
Pericles –a grand champion of Athenian democracy, died in 428BCE. Some oligarchic factions
emerged, and fighting took place between them and the supporters of democracy. Therefore,
there was a struggle between the oligarchic and democratic factions for the control of Athenian
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politics. Finally, the war ended with the defeat and surrender of Athens in 404 BC and the
subsequent installation of an oligarchic government there. Another important thing was
happening there. Socrates –the teacher or mentor of Plato, was facing a trial. The reason was:
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Socrates was responsible for corrupting the youth. He was the most loved and respected person
in Athens. But he was executed in 399. That was a very shocking incident for Plato. That
disheartened him, and he left Athens for Greece, Egypt, and Italy. But he returned to Athens in
387 BCE, and, in the same year, he established the "Academy" for giving political training to
people. Plato thus grew up in that turbulent time in Athens. His writings are, in a sense, in
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response to the crises of his time. He died in 347 BCE.

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Influence of Socrates on Plato

Plato had great respect and admiration for his teacher Socrates. The Socratic influence was to
such an extent that most of his dialogues reflect the conversations between Socrates and other
distinguished citizens of Athens. What we know today about Socrates is through the works of
Plato because Socrates did not leave any writings of his own. The fundamental idea of the
Republic that virtue is Knowledge was a Socratic doctrine. For him, administration is an art, and
in this art, there should be Knowledge. That is to say, Socrates emphasized the need for expert
Knowledge for the conduct of political affairs, which is the germ of the Platonic doctrine of
specialization developed in great detail in the Republic. Furthermore, Plato models his
philosopher Kings and Queens in tune with the Socratic teaching that ruling is an art. The rulers
are supposed to rule not for their advantage but the betterment of their fellow citizens. Many
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Platonic methodologies like dialectical and analogical are the examples of direct influence of
Socrates on Plato. His real name was Aristocles but his nickname was Platys means broad and
strong shoulders, so Aristocles became Plato. He was from an aristocratic family.

Plato’s Methodology
Plato follows a variety of methods in his writings. One of his methodologies is deductive, where
general principles are determined first and then related to a particular situation. Plato follows the
deductive method in that he attempts to find the features of the state that lie founded in his
imagination in the existing conditions prevailing in the city-states of ancient Greek society. The

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most popular methodology of Plato is dialectical, in which different individuals express their
opinion, and such views are examined and discussed, and, finally, a conclusion is reached. Plato's

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theory of Justice is the best example of this method. The teleological method is also found in
Plato's thinking. Teleology means 'the object with an objective'. It follows that every
phenomenon exists for itself and keeps moving towards its desired goal. This method finds
expression in his theory of Forms. Plato follows the analytical method in so far as he divides a
phenomenon into its possible parts then analyzes each part fully and gathers the results of all
parts together. This method can be seen when he discusses human and social organisms that form
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the basis of his ideal State. Plato has also followed analogy as a method in his philosophy.
Analogy means a form of reasoning in which one thing is inferred to be similar to another item in
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certain respects based on general similarity in other respects.

Work: Plato wrote 34 books and 13 letters most famous were: The Republic, The Statesmen
and The Law. Most of his writing was in dialogue form i.e. question-answer style. These
dialogues primarily deal with temperance, courage, virtue, wisdom, Knowledge, Justice, laws of
the State, theory of forms, nature of the soul, the question of ethics and immortality, the
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relationship between pleasure and sound, practical analysis of political and social issues. Plato
established ‘Academy’ in order to promote true spirit of knowledge.
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The Republic
Why did Plato write the classic text the Republic and what was the objective behind its writing?
Plato was not happy with Athenian democracy which symbolizes corruption, moral degradation
and quest for power and prestige in order to serve personal gains. Athenian democracy was on
decline and shophist became popular to foster education to Athenian youth. The democratic state
of Athens punished Socraties, the Plato’s teacher, for speaking the truth to the power and to the
people. It instigated Plato to write the classic text the Republic which suggested establishing an
Ideal State ruled by reason and prudence rather than instinct and unbridled freedom. In ancient
Athens, Sophists were teachers to the local citizenry in politics, rhetoric and eloquence which
attracted the local youth. In addition, Sophists were also teachers for training in music, history,
mathematics, art and crafts, and philosophy but the Sophist’s rhetoric methods like eloquence,
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power (for “self”), and money attracted the local youth which led to corruption and moral
degradation and finally decline of Athens.
Socrates was not happy with the politics of the day and he used the “dialectic method” to seek
truth and to produce ethical and moral knowledge for society (‘We”) . He wished to establish an
Ideal State, a perfect state, a just state which could foster a good life, happiness and well being.

Key ideas in the Republic

a. Theory of form
b. The allegory of cave

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c. Theory of ideal state
d. Division of Labour and Social Classes

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e. Idea of justice
f. Theory of education
g. Philosopher King
h. Communism: Private property and Family

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a. Theory of Forms
Plato said that how the human mind works and the way humans acquired knowledge. For him,
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different people have different capacities for learning and acquiring knowledge. Plato divides the
world into two parts: the intelligible world or the world of being/form; and the world of
becoming or senses.
The intelligible world or the world of being/form
It is a world of ideas which is real, perfect, unchangeable, fixed, immutable, eternal. The world
of becoming or sense is a material world which is changeable and not fixed. It is not a real world.
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For Plato, the world we see, touch and experience to our senses is not a real world but an image
copy or a shadow. Though we can experience the material world in everyday life, it is not real.
The real world is “World of Ideas” which is perfect, eternal and fixed. The world of ideas never
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created nor destroyed; it always exists from the beginning in perfect form. It is independent and
immune to change. On the other hand, the world of becoming is dependent on the world of ideas.
It is an illusionary world like power, money, property. It is destined to change.
Socrates/Plato thought that if the true world is a world of ideas and ultimate reality, how to get
those ideas. He suggested that it can be achieved through true guidance/teaching. Who is the
ultimate guide/teacher? Plato/Socrates said it is the soul which is the source of true
knowledge/prudence. He divided the soul into three parts, namely, wisdom, courage and appetite
which exist in each soul but are dominated by one either wisdom, or courage or appetite. Those
souls which are dominated by wisdom and prudence can guide the society for happiness, well
being and good life.
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Aristotle’s critique of Plato’s Idea of Form
Aristotle in his book of Politics criticized Plato’s Theory of Form. For Aristotle, the world of
being/form and the world of becoming (material world) are the same. There is no knowledge that
exists beyond the real world which is the material world. Both worlds are interlinked and
interdependent. They are not independent of each other. Aristotle argued that there are matters
and all ideas are the properties of matter. Ideas are not outside of the matter but within it. Ideas
give shape to matter and it resides within it.
Aristotle rejected Plato’s argument that idea is real and matter is illusion. He said that both are
inter-linked and only the material world is the real world.

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b. The Allegory of Cave
The allegory of the cave refers to the existence of two worlds or experiences of two different
worlds. It is about two radically different states of consciousness and awareness or two kinds of
outlooks and perspectives. Plato said that people act wrongly due to their ignorance and lack of
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true knowledge. Only true knowledge/wisdom takes one in the right direction for right conduct
and right conduct gives happiness, well-being and perfection.
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Often, we live, like living in a cave where lights come from burning of wood. We are able to see
only limited things but we feel very comfortable due to social connection. The real knowledge
lies outside of the cave where we are able to see everything very clearly due to sunlight.
The life in the cave is an illusion or maya. Real life is outside of the cave where one can get or
achieve knowledge/wisdom. Since life is comfortable within the cave dwellers do not like to go
outside, they do not want to break chains but if one comes outside of the caves and gains true
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knowledge, he is able to differentiate between illusion and reality. If he goes inside and tells his
fellow that true knowledge is outside of the cave, his fellows laugh at him. They are very
reluctant to come outside and change their perspective because they live in a circle of ignorance,
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very much comfortable and happy but if one breaks the chain and comes out, he knows the
ultimate reality and those who brought him outside of the cave are true guides.
Moral of the story:
a. a person does wrong actions due to ignorance.
b. The light inside of the cave means limited knowledge
c. Laughing, it shows resistance and ignorance
d. The person who pushes him out is true guide/teacher
e. Sunlight represents true knowledge.

c. Theory of Ideal State

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A student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, Plato was the first philosopher to write
systematically on ranges of issues like theory of knowledge, state, justice, education, social
classes, family, property, metaphysics, art of government, and list goes on. Born in an aristocratic
family in Greek city-state Athens, he received the finest education available for Athenian youth,
and from a young age felt himself destined for political participation and leadership. But Palto
witnessed the fall of Athenian democracy and gradually became disillusioned with pragmatic
politics, and left Athens in his twenties to travel Egypt, Greece, Italy and Sicily. After studying
abroad for over a decade, he returned to Athens and founded the Academy, an institution of
higher education. He wrote various books and letters and Republic was one of them. He

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visualized an ideal state consisting of three classes working for himself and for the state on an
architectonic concept of justice, wherein state should provide education to all and it is governed

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by the Philosopher King.

Why an ideal state?

Because the existing state was corrupt and morally degraded wherein Athenian youth were
engaged in accumulation of power. Sophists were one of the reasons for such degradation of
state. Plato and his teacher want an ideal state where citizens can live a good and happy life. (Pls
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read Plato’s concepts like Social classes, Justice, Education, Communism, Philosopher King to
understand clearly his theory of Ideal State).
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d. Division of Labour and Social Classes

Innate nature in Human Being:

Soul Virtue Classes Properties (Man Found in
of)
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Rational Wisdom Ruler Gold Rare

Spirit Courage Military Silver Not more not

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less

Appetite Temperance Artisan Copper Abundant

Man lives in society and they are dependent on each other for goods and services. There are
reciprocal needs in society, man avail services of others and offer goods and services in
exchange. Every member of the society both gives and receives goods and services. An ideal
state does recognize this mutual exchange and it tries to arrange the most adequate satisfaction of
needs for everyone. Every man performs their tasks needed and their social importance depends
on the value of work they do.
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For example, farmers produce more grains than they need and similarly, a shoe maker produces
more shoes than he wears. The exchange of goods is beneficial for both. Exchange of goods and
services is applicable to every society and all as no one is sufficient in himself.
Different men have different aptitudes and do some kind of work better than others. If everyone
would do work as they are naturally fitted to, society would produce plentiful goods and services
in order to satisfy each other’s needs.
What would be the role of an Ideal state here?
An ideal state would recognize the innate nature or aptitude of man and would provide training
and education. There are three kinds of soul corresponding to three kinds of classes as explained

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below:

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Soul and Social Classes
The idea of soul, Plato, borrowed from the Pythagoras and Pythagoras probably traveled to
northern India. Plato proposed three kinds of classes.
1. For Plato, the soul has three virtues, namely, Wisdom, courage and appetite along with
the fourth virtue that is Justice. Out of three virtues in each man, one dominates. Soul in
which wisdom dominates is a rational soul. It likes knowledge and prudence, and loves
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reasoning in order to produce knowledge. This kind of soul is rarely found and it is called
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the Man of Gold.
2. The Second kind of soul in which spirit dominates. It carries the virtue of courage. They
love adventure, victory and are capable to fight with their enemy in any circumstances.
They are Man of Silver as they are found neither rarely nor abundantly. This class
performs as soldiers. The ruler and soldier are collectively called as the guardian of the
state.
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3. The third kind of soul is appetite which carries temperance. This kind of soul loves
money, property, production and consumption. This class is called the Artisan class.
The fourth virtue in each soul is justice. Justice is arc-tectonic in nature, harmonizing and
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balancing all three kinds of virtues within the souls. It tells us to do whatever one is naturally
fitted or suited for. This way justice in the society can be established.

E. Debate on Justice
The Republic is an important and classical text written by Plato. The text is more concerned
about the concept of justice. The subtitle of the Republic is “Concerning Justice”. In the
Republic, the debate is over “right conduct” (Justice) which takes place at Cephalus house. It
was a very intense discussion (on “what is justice?”) among Cephalus, his son Polemarchus,
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Thrasymachus, Glaucon and Adeimantus. Cephalus, a metic and also an aristocrat, starts debate
on right conduct. Sitting at Cephalus house, each has advocated his own view of justice.
Cephalus’ argument: telling the truth, being honest in word and deed and paying one’s debt or
due is right conduct (Justice).
Socrates/Plato’s reply to Cephalus: Socrates dismissed Cephalus argument, he says that in
some cases it might be harmful to speak truth or returning one’s due/belonging. For example:
returning weapons to a mad person or telling the truth when it is better not to tell the truth might
cause harm but justice is always beneficial. It should not be harmful for everyone in the society.
Thus, he refuted the idea of Cephalus.

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Polemarchus argument: Polemarchus, son of Cephalus, entered into debate, he proposed that
giving each man his due and doing good to friends and harm to enemy is justice.

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Socrates/Plato refute Polemarchus argument and he puts three arguments against it:
a. Helping friends may lead to shameful acts. For example: if your friends engaged in
stealing, accompanying him is not justice
b. It is hard to identify who your real friend is, your pretend friend may turn into your
enemy or vice-versa.
c. A just person never do harm even to his enemy
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Now Thrasymachus entered into the debate about justice.
Thrasymachus argument: He was a sophist. Being a teacher of existing knowledge, he was a
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very pragmatic person, so he offered a realistic view on justice. He said that justice is the interest
of the stronger. It means might is right. The world understands the argument of the powerful, not
of the weak. In any state, laws are made by the party in power.
Socrates reply to Thrasymachus: Socrates demolished the idea of justice proposed by
Thrasymachus. He said the rulers (the party in power) might make mistakes due to his inability
of knowledge or ignorance. A good ruler, like a good doctor, treats everyone equally. They make
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laws for the entire society in order to benefit everyone. Therefore, justice cannot be in the
interest of the stronger only.
Glaucon argument: He proposed a contractual theory of justice. He said that justice is the
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interest of the weak. Since the weak cannot defend themselves so they came into a contract with
the stronger and created a state. Powerful offered protection to the weak and the weak agreed to
follow the powerful. So, justice is in the interest of the weak.
Socrates replied to the Glaucon: Socrates argued that justice is not only required by the weak,
it is also required by the powerful. Justice is a duty not a privilege. Therefore, justice is required
by everyone.
At the end, Glaucon asked Socrates, ``What is justice in your view? Socrates started explaining
society and kinds of souls, he said that there are different kinds of people in society, they have
different capacities to work due to the kinds of souls he has. In each soul there are four virtues
namely: wisdom, courage and appetite, and justice is the fourth virtue are arc tectonic in nature
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rebalancing harmonizing each part of the soul in proper manner so that an individual can do in
the areas in which he is naturally fitted. A just man does as per their innate nature.
The character of the society and state are built by a just man.
If a man (just) = Society (just) = state (just)
Athens cannot be an ideal state, if people are not just. A just man follows just a soul. In a just
soul, reason controls courage and courage controls appetite. Just soul means each element is at
its proper place, it means rationality (reason) at the top and it controls courage and courage
controls appetite. Each element of the soul performs their tasks. So, justice means:
1. Proper work as per innate nature

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2. Functional specialisation
3. Non-interference within the soul

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4. Mutual exchange to satisfy one’s other needs in order to establish an ideal state. State is
an individual writ large. We can understand the idea of justice at the level of the human
soul and if all people are doing what they are best it would be justice.

Nictzsche was a French Scholar. He Criticised Plato for Founding a just and rightly ordered
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society with the help of necessary myth.
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Karl popper;-He Criticised Plato for ignoring the concept of equality before law that was
prevalent in Ancient Athens.

Plato has created hierarchy in society. He did it intentionally in order to establish an ideal state.
He also ignored the concept of individualism propagated by the Sophists and he established an
ideal state which is like a totalitarian.
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F. Theory of Education:
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Thought Education;-Rousseau, a noted Philosophers of modern europe,depicted the republic as

the best ever written book on education.
Plato wrote extensively to establish an ideal state.

Q.What is the relationship between education and the ideal State?

For Plato, education is a positive means through which one can become a good citizen and live a
good life. A good citizen is needed for a good society and good society is needed for an ideal
state.
In an ideal state, society is divided into 3 classes based on the polity of the soul. To Nurture and
to train each soul, education is mandatory for all to develop them as fullest human good.
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Plato said that the state is first and foremost an educational institution. If virtue is knowledge, it
can be taught therefore, to develop the educational system is a very important part of an ideal
state. He said that all improvement is possible with a good system of education. For Plato
education can not be given in a private hand, it cannot be commercialized. State must see
whether citizens are getting education as per their requirement.
Plato advocated for compulsory and state directed schemes of education.
He said the state must ensure that education is given to people and must serve harmony and well
being for society and state.Therefore plato planned for a state controlled system of compulsory
education.

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Plato argued in his text the republic that it is materialless if the state is not providing education it
is destined to decline.

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● Plato Scheme of Education;-
1. Elementary Education;-
He divided into 2 parts;-
[a]. Pre Primary Education [ 0-6 years];-At this stage, Storytelling is a good way to teach
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children.Stories should tell children about great personalities and God in order to remove fear
from their mind and soul.
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[b].Primary Education;-[6-18 years].
At this stage of life each individual should be trained in gymnastics and music,gymnastics is
necessary to physical power. It can also be called training of mind. Because a great mind resides
in healthy people. Music is necessary in order to train mind music means study and interpretation
of poetry and master- Pisces as well as single and playing the Lyre.At these stage,people should
be aware of great literature.Qualities like self-control,courage and gentleness should be the
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purpose of the Primary Education.

18-20 Years, that is 2 years, is compulsory military training for all.

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First Examination;-It is a test for aptitude, those who are most suitable to peasants, traders,
craftsmen, manufacturers should be dropped from education.They should be allowed for
trading,business,property [money making].
Those who are successful should be given physical,mental and moral training through higher
education.

2.Higher Education;-Those scheme of education is dedicated to the guardian class is

that of a soldier and rulers. At these stage,Science and Arts should be taught Plato focused on
mathematics, astronomy and Logic.In Mathematics, algebra and geometry should be taught.It
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has various use in everyday life and military skills.Logic is necessary to cultivate reasons and
power of deliberation.It inculcate for intellectual and Inquiry among Students.

Second Examination;-A test for aptitude that means those who are failing the second
examination would join an exclusive category of shoulders. Those who are successful at those.
Stage would be qualified for further education.

Further higher Education;-At this stage, study of dialectic logic and philosophy are necessary for
the next 5 years. They would study the idea of Good and the Principle of being. They would

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receive experience in ruling and get appointed in military,administrative and Political offices.

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35-50 Age Experience;- The all rulers will get experience in military, political, legal,
administrative and Practical affairs of the state.At this stage, they would engage most of the time
in contemplation, Philosophy and political obligation.At the age of 50 they would grasp the idea
of good.They would be in position to do good to society.They would be qualified to become for
Philosopher king.
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Q1.Discuss Plato's Scheme of Education.
Q2.How is Plato's scheme of Education relevant in the Contamparing time.
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Q3.Comment virtue is knowledge-Socrates.
Q4.A life unexamined is not worth living-Socratics.
Q5.Knowledge is the question is the knowledge of the Universal good-Socratics.

G. Theory of Communism: Communism;-Refers to a system of social organisation in which all

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property is owned by the community.Each Person contributes and receives according to their
ability and needs.It means collective ownership.
● Plato proposed collective ownership of family and property for the Guardian Class Why.
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He Proposed for unity in the ideal state.What is the link between common ownership of
wives and property.
● Plato wants a guardian class [ruler and soldier]. Should remain indifferent to worldly
temptation and must maintain a high standard of statesmanship.For Plato, private
property and family often become surface of moral declination and corruption.
● Private property influences power and politics or vice versa.The wealthy people hold
office and indulge in private gains rather than engaging in the idea of good.Since men
copper or producing class will not be part of the govt, so there's no chance of corruption
for them.

What is the meaning of corruption is Plato's thought.

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Plato says when the ruling class uses public office for their private gains it is
corruption.Love of wealth and family is the biggest obstruction on the way of the
guardian class for loyalty. So he Proposed idea of communism for the ruling class and
guardian class because these two classes were supposed to hold public office in Plato's
State.

Plato's Scheme of Communism;-Plato's scheme of communism is strictly for political purposes.It

is to establish unity in the ideal state.He wants to remove all disturbing influences coming from
wealth and family.

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1. Prohibition of private property [Land/House/Money/Jewellery];-All will live in a barrack
and have meals at a common table.They will keep minimum required goods from

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producing class. Life of the gradian class would be like ‘’Friends Love All Things in
Common’’.
2. The Plato abolished Permanent monogamous sexual relation between Men And Women.
It means guardian classes but state controlled and regulated system of Sexulal
intercouse.It is to be done in the interest of state.It shall ensure that best and ablest man
and women stock come together and engage in reproduction. Philosopher king would
S along decide on sexual union, who will do sex with whome in order to produce best and
ablest child it is far genetic purpose.
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Plato said that there shall be certain festivals in which rulers would bring the fittest human stock
together and draw lots and make fair for reproduction.

● Once Children are born there would be taken care by the State appointed nurses.Except
Philosopher King,none would know the parent of these children even biological parents
and children would not know each-other.Therefore, all children would respectful towards
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their elder and their elders would show equal love and affection to all Children.
● In the republic, Plato gave more importance to women.He relivedWomen from their
household work and Child rearing work. In those schemes Women deserve equal
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treatment and have abilities to hold public offices and statesmanship . In Plato's ideal
State, Women are no longer subordinated, Subjugated and Secluded individuals.The
natural capacity of women are equal to men.Women are equally qualified as men to take
part in political administrative and military duties in Plato's ideal State.

Criticism;-
1. Plato's diagnosis of corruption is correct but his perceptions are unacceptable.
2. Aristotle,the greatest disciple of Plato, Criticised Plato's ideas of Private Property.
Why did Aristotle criticised plato's idea of private property.
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Why did Aristotle's criticism Plato's idea of private property?
Ans;- While Plato Was Perfectionist, Aristotle believed in moderation.According to Aristotle we
should not Sacrifice good for the sake of best because best in unachievable.If Plato wants a
perfect state or an ideal state, Aristotle Wants a best practical states.

Aristotle said;-
1. Both Private property and family full-fill the basic and important functions in individuals
life.There are time tested institutions and continuing from antiquity.It shows that family
and private property are rational and relevant institutions.

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2. It is true that private property is source of corruption but it also source of many virtues
like;-

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[a].It gives us a sense of achievement.
[b].It motivates a person to do hard work.
[c].Wealth provides a sense of reason,charity and it is one of the sources of political
stability.So just because property has one disadvantage like corruption,we can not ignore
many advantages provided by private property.
3.Aristotle said that like property,family is a natural institution.It is not an institution of child
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production.It gives a source of emotions,boundary,stability,happiness and sense of welfare.
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Difference Between Plato’s Communism and Marx’s Communism

Plato’s Communism Marx's Communism
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1.Plato’s idea of communism is largely Marx’s Communism is largely influenced by

influenced from Idealism. materialism in society.

2.The basis of class is quality of soul. The basis of class is the quality of capitalist
economy.

3.Plato’s ideas of communism are for class Marx’s ideas of communism promotes class
harmony. struggle.

4.Plato’s proposed idea of communism to Marx’s proposed idea of communism in order

form an ideal state. for abolition of the state.

5.Plato’s idea of communism was only for Karl Marx’s idea of communism for the entire
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guardian classes. society.

6.In Plato’s communism, there was In Karl Marx's idea of communism there was
prohibition of private property as well as prohibition for private property only.
private family.

7.In Plato's Communism there were three In Karl Marx's communism there is no class.
classes: rulers,soldiers and Artisans. Marx believed in classes and stateless society.

8.For in Plato's state peace and harmony Marxs proposed to overthrow the state

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sought to establish through the architectonic through violence. He was in favour of
virtue of Justice. liberation of individuals from ‘unfreedom’
and alienation.

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9.In Plato’s idea state is the source of virtue. Karl Marx's idea state is instrumental for
exploitation.

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Q1.Discuss Plato’s Scheme of Property and Family.[200].

Q2.Critically analyse Plato's idea of communism.
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Q3.What are the differences between Plato’s Communism and Modern Communism discussed?
Q4.Comment;-Knowledge is always superior to Law.-PLato.

H. Philosopher King: Plato believed that ignorance is the cause of all problems. An ideal state
cannot be possible until a philosopher king who has Prudence and Wisdom/govern the state.Only
Knowledge Can enable one to going right direction.Plato Cherished Socrates idea that
knowledge is virtue.He Thought that if Athens has to be great again it must be ruled by a
Philosopher king.

Qualifications of Philosopher King;-

1. No Discrimination on the basis of Sex.
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2. Minimum age is 50.
3. He/She should pass knowledge and idea of good and idea of being, expert in logic,
philosophy and dialectic.
4. Should not pass private and family.
Philosopher king has absolute power in the ideal state.He will have absolute freedom to
take decision, his knowledge can not be questioned like doctors knowledge.He has ultimate
knowledge.It would be a foolish act to limit a doctor's power on the basis of medical
book.Similar philosopher king who has supreme knowledge, and reason cannot be limited by law
or ordinance, philosopher king is not restricted by law book or public opinion.He is Supreme in

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the ideal State.

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Why does the Philosopher King Govern?
Plato’s Philosophers king is a symbol of Knowledge, wisdom and prudence,a rational soul who
posses all required skills and training in order to govern the ideal state.He knows truth and He
has grasped the Idea of Good and able to administer justice.He can foster a good system of
education and act for the good of the community.He has good character,sound mind and
truthfulness since she/he not possesses private property and private family, he or she is above
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from physical and material pleasures, and devoid of emotional ties.
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Statecraft is ultimate Soulcraft;-An ideal State ruled by philosophers king is worthy.Plato's
political philosophy has become a practical enterprise in which a good society or ideal society is
based on the highest form of knowledge.Philosopher king is like the Sun eliminating all. An
ideal is based on 3 soul which supposed to perform their duties under guidance of philosopher
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king.It is also based on timeless and unchanging principles theory of form.In this state all
malpractices and bad polity would be reformed.Important components/Element of an Ideal state
are prohibition of private property as private family idea of justice a good system of education,
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functional specialization and above all it is ruled/ governed by philosopher king and ideal state is
an ultimate soulcraft.

I. Critical Evaluation of Plato: Plato was the first philosopher who proposed gender
equality . He believed that men and women have equal capacity and can work together in
affairs of the Government.He said women should not suffer disadvantages due to
household work and child rearing.
Plato proposed education for all including women. For him, women should equally participate in
State affairs and hold public offices. His idea of Communism of wives is like a liberating
inference on women. Although Plato proposed gender equality he can not be leveled as
Feminist.His entire Concern was to establish an ideal state and he included women into Guardian
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classes (military and rulers) to strengthen his Ideal state rather than uplifting women. His entire
idea of making arbitrary sexual union among man and woman and separating mother from their
child seems like a punishment to women.

Criticism: There are following criticism leveled against Plato:

1. Plato was the first philosopher of modern totalitarianism.
2. Plato was an enemy to open society.
3. The genesis of modern totalitarianism lies in Plato’s philosophy.

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Karl Popper in his book “Open Society and its Enemy” inquired the genesis of modern

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totalitarianism. He inquired why totalitarians like Hitler in Nazi’s Germany, Stalin in the USSR
and Mussolini in Fascist Italy emerged? Further, where does this totalitarian philosophy come
from?
In a totalitarian state, one person along with his associate controls all spheres of life,
namely, political, social, economic and cultural. It is the enemy to open society which allows
individuals to exercise freedom and equality. In an open society, there’s a freedom of press, right
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to descent, free and independent political opposition, and independent judiciary
Plato was a champion of closed society as he divided society into three rigid classes and invested
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all powers including legislative, executive and judiciary, to philosopher king. He went further
and invested powers in the hand of the philosopher king to decide sexual union in his ideal state.
He vested absolute powers in the hand of the philosopher king and denied rule of law, freedom
and equality that was available in contemporary Athens.
Karl Popper in his book ‘’Open Society and its enemy’’ has explained that the ideas of three
philosophers,namely, Plato, Hegal and Marx are genesis of modern totalitarianism. He said that
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Plato’s ideas are totalitarian in nature due to three reasons, namely, Essentialism, Holism and
Historicism.
1. Essentialism: Plato gives primacy to ideas and talks about ideas as an essence of life. He
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rejected the material world as it is temporary and destroyable and said knowledge is an
ultimate. The person (ruler) who claims to possess knowledge is above the law and
question. It led to the emergence of totalitarianism.
2. Holism/Collectivism: It refers to giving primacy to the whole rather than its units. If we
see Plato's ideal state, he gave primacy to the state and subordinated individual choice
under the state. State becomes the champion and everything has to be looked at from the
perspective of the state, consequently, individual freedom and choice have no respect
which led to the rise of authoritarian states. He gave primacy to collectivism instead of
individualism.
3. Historicism: Karl Popper defined it as the ideas which give importance to utopian social
engineering. Utopian social engineering rejects the democratic (equality and freedom)
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social and political engineering and envisages institutions and structures which are a
threat to free and open society.

Plato found truth in such a way that does not allow criticism from citizens. His philosopher king
is upholder of absolute truth of its own kind. It is info liable and a trap of totalitarianism. In this
sense, Plato was a father of modern totalitarianism.

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THE STATESMAN
Plato in his classical word “The Statesman” proposed govt. based on rule of law. He found that

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human civilization has not developed so much so that the ideal state can be actualised. This is
Plato’s second best state.
Therefore, he proposed an actual state consists of
a. Rule of law;
b. Self-control;
c. Respect for the state institution; and
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d. Subordination of the self to the lawful leaders.
The actual state is Plato's second-best state.
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Classification of the Govt.:
Plato discusses five kinds of govt, namely:
1. Monarchy (the Rule of Kings/Queen)
2. Timocracy (Sys. Of govt where military rules)
3. Oligarchy (Rule by chosen few)
4. Democracy (Rule by Majority)
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5. Tyranny (Despotic ruler)

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THE LAW
This is the idea of a mixed state and he proposed the idea of a mixed state for political stability,
equality and the rule of law.
Monarchy (wisdom) + Democracy (rule of law) = The law
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Question For Practice

1. Comment: “Virtue is knowledge” (Socrates)
2. Comment: “Unexamined life is not worthful living” (Socrates)
3. Comment: All that is Platonic is Socratic
4. Comment: Realities is a shadow of ideas

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5. Comment: “For, no law or ordinance is mightier than knowledge”.
6. Comment: “Until philosophers are kings, or kings and Princes of this world have the

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spirit of philosophy, cities will never rest from the evils.”
7. Explain Plato’s communism with modern communism.
8. Plato’s theory of education “is the logical result of his conception of justice”. Discuss
9. Comment: “State is individual writ large.”
10. Comment: “Plato’s communism is supplementary machinery to give effect to and
reinforce that spirit which education is to create.” (Nettleship)
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11. Comment: “Western thought, one might say, has been either Platonic or anti-Platonic but
hardly ever non-Platonic.” (Karl Popper)
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12. Comment: “Plato was the enemy of an open society.” (Karl Popper)
13. Comment: “Statecraft is an ultimate soul craft.” (Plato)
14. Comment: “Plato was an anti-democratic.” (Crossman)
15. Comment: “Plato was wrong for his time and our.” (Crossman)
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