Lecture 12

Emerging Sustainable
Technologies
Engr. Gerard Ang
School of EECE
 Photovoltaic
(Solar Electricity) Power

• Solar cell (also called a photovoltaic

cell) – is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It
is a form of photoelectric cell, defined
as a device whose electrical
characteristics, e.g. current, voltage, or
resistance – vary when exposed to light.
Principle of Operation
of Solar (PV) Cells
 Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic (PV) system – collects solar energy and converts it to electricity.

Components of a basic PV System:

1. An array of solar cells that converts sunlight into DC electricity
2. An inverter that changes DC electricity into AC electricity
3. A connection to the utility grid for additional power or a bank of batteries to
store collected electricity
 Types of Photovoltaic Systems

1. Off-Grid PV Systems or autonomous PV systems – they produce power

independently of the utility grid.
2. Grid-Connected PV System – they interface with the utility grid.

Stand-Alone Off-Grid Grid-Connected

PV Systems PV System
Conducting A Power Load Analysis

The first step in the process of investigating a PV system for a home or small
business is to calculate the power load. A thorough examination of electricity
needs of the building helps determine:
• The size of the system needed
• How energy needs fluctuate throughout the day and over the year
• Measures that can be taken to reduce electricity use and increase the
efficiency
 Wind Energy Systems

• Winds – are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by

the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the
earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain,
bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion
energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used
to generate electricity.
• Wind power – it is the conversion of wind energy into a useful
form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make
electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for
pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
 Types of Wind Turbines

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) – have the main rotor shaft and
electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind.
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) – have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. Vertical-axis wind machines make up just five percent of the wind
machines used today. The typical vertical wind machine stands 100 feet tall
and 50 feet wide.
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Darrieus Vertical-Axis Giromills Savonius Vertical-Axis

Wind Turbines Wind Turbines
Wind Turbine Components
Wind Turbine Components
Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:
1. The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost,
includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational
energy.
2. The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine
cost, includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely
a gearbox, for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed
rotation suitable for generating electricity.
3. The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind
turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.
Total Power of the Windstream

The total power of the windstream is given by:

𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝑻 = 𝒎𝒗 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟑
𝟐
𝒎 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗
𝟐 𝟐

Where:
PT = total power of the windstream, W
m = mass flow rate, kg/s
v = incoming velocity, m/s
ρ = density of air, kg/m3
A = area swept by the wind blades of the turbine
Coefficient of Performance
Coefficient of Performance – is defined as the ratio of the power delivered by
the rotor P to the maximum power available PT.

𝑷 𝑷
𝑪𝒑 = =
𝑷𝑻 𝟏 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟑
𝟐

Betz’s Law
According to Betz's law, no turbine can capture more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the
kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27 (0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient.
This was published by Albert Betz.

Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) – is the ratio of the speed of the tip of the rotor to the
wind speed v.
 Effects of Surface
Roughness and Elevation

• The roughness of the surface over which the wind blows affects its speed.
• Uneven surfaces, such as areas with trees and buildings, create more
friction and turbulence than smooth surfaces such as lakes or open land.
• Greater friction means reduced wind speeds near the ground. In contrast,
higher elevations generally yield greater wind speeds.
 Effects of Surface
Roughness and Elevation
The approximate increase of speed with height for different surfaces can be
calculated from the following equation:

𝒑
𝒉𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏
𝒉𝟏

Where:
v1 = known (reference) wind speed at height h1 above ground
v2 = speed at a second height h2
p = coefficient determining the wind change
COEFFICIENT (p) FOR DIFFERENT
TYPES OF GROUND COVER
 Sample Problems

1. The known mean wind velocity is 14.7 mph at a site at a height of 33

feet. Approximate the wind velocity at a height of 100 feet for a site
located in the suburbs where p = 0.30.

Solution:
𝑝 0.30
ℎ2 100
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 = 14.7
ℎ1 33

𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝒑𝒉
 Sample Problems

2. The undisturbed wind speed at a location is Vi = 30 mph, the speed of turbine

is 60% of this value and the speed at exit is 40% of Vi. The rotor diameter is 9
m, ρ = 1.293 kg/m3. Calculate (a) the power available in undisturbed wind at
the turbine rotor, (b) the power in the wind at outlet, (c) the power
developed by the turbine and (d) the coefficient of performance.

Solution:

𝑚𝑖 1,609.34 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = 30 × × = 13.42
ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝑑 = 9 = 63.62 𝑚2
4 4
(a) For the power available in undisturbed wind at the turbine rotor

1 1
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 = 1.293 63.62 (0.6) 13.42 3
2 2

𝑷𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑾

(b) For the power in the wind at outlet

1 3
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 1.293 63.62 (0.4) 13.42
2

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑾
(c) For the power developed by the turbine

𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 59.64 − 39.76

𝑷𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑾

(d) For the coefficient of performance

𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 19.88
𝐶𝑝 = = × 100%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 59.64

𝑪𝒑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑%
 Sample Problems
3. A 27 mph wind at 14.7 psia and a temperature of 70 deg F enters a two
bladed wind turbine with a diameter of 36 ft. Calculate (a) the power of the
incoming wind (b) the theoretical maximum power that could be extracted.

Solution:
𝑚𝑖 1,609.34 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑣 = 27 × × = 12.07
ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒 3,600 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 = 101,325 𝑃𝑎

5
𝑇= 70 + 460 = 294.44 𝐾
9
 Recall 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

For air, R = 287.058 J/kg-K

𝑘𝑔
101,325 = 𝜌(287.058)(294.44) 𝜌 = 1.2 3
𝑚
2
𝜋 2 𝜋 0.3048 𝑚
𝐴= 𝑑 = 36 𝑓𝑡 × = 94.56 𝑚2
4 4 1 𝑓𝑡

(a) For the power of incoming wind

1 3 1 3
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 1.2 94.56 12.07
2 2

𝑷𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕 𝒌𝑾
(b) For the theoretical maximum power that could be extracted
16
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (99.77)
27

𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝑾
 Sample Problems
4. A wind turbine is designed to produce power when the speed of the
generator is at least 905 rpm, which correlates to a wind speed of 5 m/s. The
turbine has a fixed tip speed ratio of 70% and a sweep diameter of 10 m.
Compute the gear ratio.

Solution:
TSR = rotor speed / wind speed
0.7 = rotor speed / 5
Rotor speed = 3.5 m/s

rotor speed = (3.5 m/s x 60)/(2 x π x 5) = 6.68 rpm

Gear ratio = generator speed / rotor speed
Gear ratio = 905/6.68 = 135.47:1
Power Density of the Windstream

The power density of the windstream is given by:

𝟏 𝟑 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝒉
−
𝜹 = 𝝆𝒗 𝝆= 𝒆 𝟐𝟗.𝟑(𝑻+𝟐𝟕𝟑)
𝟐 𝑻 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Where: δ = power density of the wind, W/m2

ρ = density of air, kg/m3
v = incoming velocity, m/s
h = elevation of the wind above sea level, m
T = air temperature, deg C
 Sample Problems
5. The Tehachapi is a desert city in California with an elevation of about 350 m,
and is known for its extensive wind farms. Compute the power density of the
wind when the air temperature is 30 deg C and the speed of the wind is 12
m/s.

Solution:

353 ℎ 353 350

− −
𝜌= 𝑒 29.3(𝑇+273) = 𝑒 29.3(30+273)
𝑇 + 273 30 + 273
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 1.12
𝑚3

1 1 𝑾
𝛿 = 𝜌𝑣 3 = 1.12 12 3 𝜹 = 𝟗𝟔𝟕. 𝟔𝟖
2 2 𝒎𝟐
 Typical Rating of
Wind Energy Conversion Systems

Rated Output Few watts to 2.5 MW

Wind Speed 15 to 35 mph (6.7 to 15 m/s)
Number of Blades 2 to 6
Speed of Rotor at rated 17.5 rpm to 35 rpm for 2 MW
output range 40 rpm to 60 rpm for 40 to 200 kW
3.65 m for 1.5 kW
4.88 to 11.58 m for 6 to 40 kW
Blade Diameters
48.8 to 61 m for 200 kW
91.4 m for 2500 kW 2-blade unit
Wood for up 10 kW
Rotor Blade Material Aluminum and its alloys for up to 2000 kW
Steel for largest sizes required