Chapter 11: Applications and

Processing of Metal Alloys

Course: Material Science (MEC213)

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
11/ /
 Metal Alloys
❑ Materials selection decisions may also be influenced by
the ease with which metal alloys may be formed or
manufactured into useful components.
❑ Alloy properties are altered by fabrication
processes, and, in addition, further property alterations
may be induced by the employment of appropriate
heat treatments.
❑ Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often
grouped into two classes—ferrous and nonferrous.
Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal
constituent, include steels and cast irons.

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
Classification Scheme for Ferrous Alloys

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Ferrous Alloys
❑ Ferrous alloys—those in which iron is the prime
constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any
other metal type.
❑ They are especially important as engineering
construction materials.
❑ Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
(1) iron containing compounds exist in abundant
quantities within the Earth’s crust;
(2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced
using relatively economical extraction, refining,
alloying, and fabrication techniques; and
(3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they
may be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical
and physical properties.
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Steels

Source: weerg
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Steels
❑ Steels are Fe (iron) – C (carbon) alloys that may contain appreciable
concentrations of other alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys
that have different compositions and/or heat treatments.
❑ The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon,
which is normally less than 1.0 wt%.
❑ Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon
concentration into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types.
❑ Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of
other alloying elements.
❑ Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities
other than carbon and a little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying
elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite
d
1400 L
g+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister &
1200 g 1148ºC L+Fe3C Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
g+Fe3C 1990.)
a800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 - 8
 Low-Carbon Steels
❑ These generally contain less than about 0.25
wt% C and are unresponsive to heat
treatments intended to form martensite;
strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
❑ Another group of Low-carbon alloys are the
high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They
contain other alloying elements such as copper,
vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined
concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and they
possess higher strengths than the plain low- Martensite:
carbon steels. Most may be strengthened by Very hard form of steel
heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in crystalline structure
excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi); in addition, they
are ductile, formable, and machinable.
❑ In metallurgy, cold forming or cold working is
any metalworking process in which metal is shaped
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the
ambient temperature.
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11 - 10
HSLA: High Strength Low Alloy Steel
 Unified Numbering System (UNS)
❑ A unified numbering system (UNS) is
used for uniformly indexing both
ferrous and nonferrous alloys.
❑ Each UNS number consists of a single-
letter prefix followed by a five-digit
number.
❑ The letter is indicative of the family of
metals to which an alloy belongs.
❑ The UNS designation for these alloys
begins with a G, followed by the AISI/
SAE number; the fifth digit is a zero.

❑ AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute

❑ SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Refinement of Steel from Ore

Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C → 2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 →2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron

Chapter 11 - 12
 Stainless Steels
❑ The stainless steels are highly resistant to
corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
environments, especially the ambient
atmosphere.
❑ Their predominant alloying element is
chromium (Cr); a concentration of at
least 11 wt% Cr is required.
❑ Corrosion resistance may also be
enhanced by nickel (Ni) and molybdenum
(Mo) additions.
❑ Stainless steels are divided into three Image credit: Ulbrich

classes on the basis of the predominant

phase constituent of the microstructure—
martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic.
❑ A wide range of mechanical properties
combined with excellent resistance to
corrosion make stainless steels very
versatile in their applicability.
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 14
 Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting (~1100 oC) – relatively easy to
cast
• Generally brittle

Image credit: Amazon

Chapter 11 - 15
 Types of Cast Iron
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron Callister &
• C, Si Rethwisch 8e.

• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant (Wear resistance refers to a
material's ability to resist material loss by some
mechanical action)

Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger but
less ductile

Chapter 11 - 17
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(c) & (d),
White iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle

Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile

Chapter 11 - 18
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

Compacted graphite iron

• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Alloys that are so brittle that forming or shaping

by appreciable deformation is not possible
typically are cast; these are classified as cast
alloys. However, those that are amenable to
mechanical deformation are termed wrought
alloys. Chapter 11 - 19
 Non-Ferrous Alloys
❑ Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in
exceedingly large quantities because they have such a
wide range of mechanical properties, may be
fabricated with relative ease, and are economical to
produce.
❑ However, they have some distinct limitations, chiefly (1)
a relatively high density, (2) a comparatively low
electrical conductivity, and (3) an inherent
susceptibility to corrosion in some common
environments. Thus, for many applications it is
advantageous or even necessary to use other alloys that
have more suitable property combinations.

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
Non-Ferrous Alloys/ Cont‘d

Image credit: twi global

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN Materials Science and Engineering Department
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Chapter 11 - 27
 Superalloys
primary constituent is Fe in them

Superalloy application
@ turbine blades

Callister et al., pg. 262

The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are used in
●

aircraft turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing

environments and high temperatures for reasonable time periods.

●Nickel (Ni) – Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), and Cobalt (Co) based. Other alloying elements
include the refractory metals: Niobium (Nb), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten (W),
Tantalum (Ta), Chromium (Cr), and Titanium (Ti)……

Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN / Materials Science & Engineering Department
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below
high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

Chapter 11 - 29
 Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
roll
force
• Drawing • Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 30
 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 31
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

Chapter 11 - 32
 Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

Chapter 11 - 34
 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
at low T
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

changed).
Chapter 11 - 37
Thermal Processing of Metals (Annealing)
– Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of
strength, ductility, toughness, hardness, or resistance to
corrosion.
●Annealing. The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is
exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended period and then slowly
cooled. In this process, metal gets rid of stresses and makes the grain structure
large and soft-edged so that when the metal is hit or stressed, it dents or perhaps
bends rather than breaking; it is also easier to sand, grind, or cut annealed metal.
●Tempering. The term tempering refers to a heat treatment used to increase the
toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening to
reduce some of the excess hardness. It is done by heating the metal to some
temperature below the critical point for a certain period, then allowing it to cool
in still air. Tempering makes the metal less hard while enabling it to sustain
impacts without breaking. Tempering will cause the dissolved alloying elements to
precipitate, or in the case of quenched steels, improve impact strength and
ductile properties.
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN / Materials Science & Engineering Department