Chapter 3

Gate-Level Minimization
Karnaugh Maps
POS Simplification
Don’t Care Conditions
NAND and NOR
Exclusive OR
K-Map

• Provide an alternative technique for representing

Boolean functions
• Box for every line of the Truth Table
• Karnaugh map's input values must be ordered such
that the values for adjacent columns vary by only a
single bit, for example, 00, 01, 11, and 10. This is
necessary to observe the variable transitions
– Known as a gray code
Multiple Inputs K-Map
K-Map Method

• The Karnaugh Map (K-Map) method uses a simple

procedure for minimizing Boolean functions.
– The map is a diagram made up of squares with each square
representing one minterm of the function.
– The key is to learn to identify visual patterns.
– The result is always an expression that is in one of the two standard
forms, SOP or POS.
– Much faster and more more efficient than previous minimization
techniques with Boolean algebra.
– It is possible to find two or more expressions that satisfy the
minimization criteria.
– Rules to consider
Every cell containing a 1 must be included at least once.
The largest possible “power of 2 rectangle” must be enclosed.
The 1’s must be enclosed in the smallest possible number of rectangles.
Two-Variable Map

• A two-variable map
holds four minterms for
two variables.
– We mark the squares of the
minterms that belong to a
given function.
Representing 2-Variable Functions

• K-Map for AND • K-Map for OR

Three-Variable Map

• A three-variable map
holds eight minterms for
three variables.
– Again, we mark the squares
of the minterms that belong
to a given function.
– Note that the sequence is not
arranged in a binary way.
– The sequence used, similar
to Gray code, allows only one
bit to change from column to
column and row to row.
Three-Variable Map
Mapping Functions

• When you have already been provided a function, you

can map the function into a K-map by remembering
– the cells of a k-map represent minterms
– a 1 in a cell indicates that the minterm is part of the function
– two adjacent 1’s represent a two literal term
– four adjacent 1’s represent a one literal term
– eight adjacent 1’s represent a true function, F = 1
Minimization Characteristic in 3-Variable Maps

• Since any two adjacent cells in a 3-variable map

represent a change in only a single bit, we use this to
do minimization.
– Consider the two cells for m0 and m1 where the difference is the
negation of the bit z.
– F = m0 + m1 = x’y’z’ + x’y’z = x’y’(z’ + z) = x’y’
Z

Y
Minimization Example

• Each of the two adjacent pairs of entries can be

simplified by eliminating the changing bit (z in both
cases). Z
– F (x,y,z) = x’y’ + xy

Y
Note on Adjacency

• So far, we have assumed that adjacent cells in the

map need to touch each other but this is not always
the case.
– m0 and m2 are considered adjacent
» m0 + m2 = x’y’z’ + x’yz’ = x’z’(y’ + y) = x’z’
– m4 and m6 are considered adjacent
» m4 + m6 = xy’z’ + xyz’ = xz’(y’ + y) = xz’
Z

Y
Another Example

• The four adjacent squares can be combined to give

the single literal term z’
• The remaining single term is combined with the
adjacent square that was already used to give us the
term x’y’
• F = z’ + x’y’ Z

Y
3-Variable Map Patterns

• The number of adjacent squares that may be

combined always represent a number that is a power
of 2 such as 1, 2, 4, and 8.
– One square represents one minterm with three literals.
– Two adjacent squares represents a term of two literals.
– Four adjacent squares represents a term of one literal.
– Eight adjacent squares represents the entire map and produces a
function that is always equal to 1.
 Mapping Functions (Example)

• Given the function

– F = x’z + xy’ + xy’z + yz
• Map the function
• Determine the sum of minterms equation
• Determine the minimum sum of products expression

1 1
x 1 1 1

• Sum of minterms: F = ∑(1, 3, 4, 5,

Y 7)
• Minimum sum of products: F = z + xy’
Another Minimization Example

• Each of the two adjacent pairs of entries can be

simplified by eliminating the changing bit.
– x is eliminated in column 2
– y is eliminated in the other pair.
– F = y’z + x’z’
Another Minimization Example

• Two variable maps.

– F=AB +AB +AB

B
0 1
A
0 0 1
1 1 1 F=A+B
• Three variable maps.
– F=AB’C’ +AB C +ABC +ABC  + A’B’C + A’BC’

BC
00 01 11 10
A
0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 F=A+B C +BC 
Another Minimization Example

a
b 0 1 a
0 0 1 b 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0
f=a
g = b'
ab ab
c 00 01 11 10 c 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
cout = ab + bc + ac
f=a
 Example 3-1

– Simplify boolean function

F(x,y,z) = (2,3,4,5)
• Sol:
– 1 is marked in each minterm
that represents the function
– Find the possible adjacent
squares and mark them with
rectangles
– The upper right rectangle
represents the area
enclosed closed by x’y
(eliminating the changing
bit)
– Similarly lower left
rectangle represents xy’
– The logical sum of these
two terms gives:
F = x'y + xy'
 Example 3-2

– F(x,y,z) = (3,4,6,7)
• Sol:
– 1 is marked in each minterm
that represents the function
– Find the possible adjacent
squares and mark them with
rectangles
– Two adjecent squares are
combined in the third
column to give a two-literal
term yz
– The remaining two squares
with 1’s are enclosed in half
rectangles. This gives two-
literal term xz’
– The logical sum of these
two terms gives:
F = yz + xz’
 Example 3-3
– F(x,y,z) = (0,2,4,5,6)
• Sol:
– 1 is marked in each minterm
that represents the function
– Find the possible adjacent
squares and mark them with
rectangles
– We combine four adjacent
squares to get a single literal
term z’ as m0+m2+m4+m6
= x'y'z'+x'yz'+xy'z'+xyz‘
= x'z'(y'+y) +xz'(y'+y)
= x'z' + xz‘ = z'
– The remaining two squares
with 1’s are enclosed by a
rectangle (with one square that
is already used once). This
gives two-literal term xy’
– The logical sum of these two
terms gives:
F = z’ + xy’
 Example 3-4
– F = A'C + A'B + AB'C + BC
– express it in sum of minterms
find the minimal sum of
products expression
• Sol:
– The two squares corresponding
to the first term A’C. (A’ first
row and C two middle columns)
– A’B has 1’s in squares 011 and
010 in the same way
– AB’C has 1 square 101 and BC
has two 1’s in squares 011 and
111
– The function has total of 5
minterms as shown in figure
– Find the possible adjacent
squares and mark them with
rectangles as shown in the map
– It can be simplified with only
two terms giving:
F = C + A’B
 Four-Variable Map

• A four-variable map holds

16 minterms for four
variables.
– Again, we mark the squares
of the minterms that belong
to a given function.
– Note that the sequence is not
arranged in a binary way.
– The sequence used is a Gray
code and allows only one bit
to change from column to
column and row to row.
4-Variable Map
4-Variable Map Patterns

• The number of adjacent squares that may be

combined always represent a number that is a power
of 2 such as 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16.
– One square represents one minterm with four literals.
– Two adjacent squares represents a term of three literals.
– Four adjacent squares represents a term of two literals.
– Eight adjacent squares represents a term of one literal.
– Sixteen adjacent squares represents the entire map and produces a
function that is always equal to 1.
Minimization Example

• The eight adjacent squares can be combined to form

the one literal term y.
• Four adjacent squares can be combined to form the
two literal term wz’.
• F = y + wz’
 Another Example

• Four adjacent corners can be combined to form

the two literal term x’z’.
• Four adjacent squares can be combined to form
the two literal term x’y.
• The remaining 1 is combined with a single
adjacent 1 to obtain the three literal term w’y’z’.
• F = x’z’ + x’y + w’y’z’
Another Example

• F=ABC +ACD +ABC+AB CD +ABC +AB C

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 0 0 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
11 1 1 1 1 F=BC +CD + AC+ AD 
10 1 0 1 1
Another Example

• F(A,B,C,D) = m(0,3,5,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15)
– F = C + A’BD + B’D’
C + A’BD + B’D’

A 1111
0111
1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0
D
C
1 1 1 1 D
A
C 1000
1 1 1 1 0000 B
B

Solution set can be considered as a coordinate

System!
Another Example

A A A
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
D D D
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
C C C
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
B B B

K-map for LT K-map for EQ K-map for GT

LT = A' B' D + A' C + B' C D

EQ = A'B'C'D' + A'BC'D + ABCD + AB'CD’
GT = B C' D' + A C' + A B D'
 Example 3-5
– F(w,x,y,z) =
(0,1,2,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14)
• Sol:
– 1 is marked in each minterm
that represents the function
– Find the possible adjacent
squares and mark them with
rectangles
– We combine eight adjacent
squares to get a single literal
term y’
– The top two 1’s on the right
are combined with the top
two 1,son the left to give the
term w’z’
– We combine the single
square left on right with three
adjecent squares that are
already used to give the term
xz’
– The logical sum of these
three terms gives:
F = y’ + w’z’+xz’
 Example 3-6
– F=
A’B’C’+B’CD’+A’BCD’+AB’C’
• Sol:
– Each of three literal term in
map is represented by two
squares and four literal term
in map is represented by one
square
– We combine the 1’s in the four
corners to give the term B’D’
– The two left hand 1’s in the
top row are combined with
two 1’s in the bottom row to
give the term B’C’
– The remaining 1’s may be
combined in the two-square
area to give the term A’CD’
– The logical sum of these three
terms gives:
F = B’D’ + B’C’+ A’CD’
Prime Implicants

• A prime implicant is a product term obtained by

combining the maximum possible number of adjacent
squares in the map.
– A single 1 on a map represents a prime implicant if it is not adjacent
to any other 1.
– Two adjacent 1’s form a prime implicant, provided they are not
within a group of four adjacent squares.
– Four adjacent 1’s form a prime implicant if they are not within a
group of eight adjacent squares, and so on.
• If a minterm in a square is covered by only one prime
implicant, that prime implicant is said to be essential.
– They are found by looking at each square marked with a 1 and
checking the number of prime implicants that cover it. Those with
only one prime implicant are essential.
 Example of Prime Implicants

• Two essential prime implicants (caused by m0 and m5)

– This gives us two terms: x’z’ and xz
• Finding prime implicants for the remainders results in
four expressions:
– F = xz + x’z’ + yz + wz
– F = xz + x’z’ + yz + wx’
– F = xz + x’z’ + x’y + wz
– F = xz + x’z’ + x’y + wx’