Module 2 - Maclaurins Series - Presentation
Module 2 - Maclaurins Series - Presentation
Module 2
Differential Calculus II
Department of Mathematics
Acharya Institute of Technology
Bengaluru - 560107
Taylor’s series : Taylor’s series expansion for the given function 𝑓 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 − 𝑎 or
about the point ‘a’ is given by
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 2 ′′ 𝑥−𝑎 3 ′′′ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓′ 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +….+ 𝑓𝑛 𝑎
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑥3 𝑥5
⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 − +
6 120
𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦′ 2 = −2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦2 0 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝒚𝟐 𝟎 = −𝟏
𝑦𝑦3 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 2𝑦1 𝑦2 = −4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦3 0 + 3 1 −1 = −4
𝒚𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 = −𝟒𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 ⟹ 𝒚𝟑 𝟎 = −𝟏
𝑦𝑦4 + 𝑦𝑦3 + 3𝑦1 𝑦3 + 3 𝑦2 2 = 8𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦4 0 + 4 1 −1 + 3 −1 2 =0
𝟐
𝒚𝒚𝟒 + 𝟒𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 ⟹ 𝒚𝟒 𝟎 = 𝟏
Substituting these values, we get the Maclaurin’s series in the form
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑦 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 1 + x 1 + −1 + −1 + 1
2 6 24
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
=1+𝑥− − +
2 6 24
⟹ 2𝑦3 0 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦3 0 = 0
Finally 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦4 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑦3 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑦2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑦3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑦2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑦2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑦3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1 1 1
⟹ 1 + 1 𝑦4 0 − 0 − 3 − =1 ⟹ 2𝑦4 0 = − ⟹ 𝑦4 0 = −
2 2 4
y e x cos x y (0) e 0 1
y1 e x cos x (cos x x sin x) y (cos x x sin x) y1 (0) 1
y 2 y1 (cos x x sin x) y (2 sin x x cos x) y 2 (0) 1
y3 y 2 (cos x x sin x) 2 y1 (2 sin x x cos x) y (3 cos x x sin x)
y3 (0) 2
y4 y3 (cos x x sin x) 3 y2 (2 sin x x cos x) 3 y1 (3 cos x x sin x) y (4 sin x x cos x)
y4 (0) 2 9 11
Substituting these values, we get the Maclaurin’s series in the form
𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑦=𝑒 =1+𝑥+ + −2 + −11
2 6 24
𝑥2 𝑥3 11x4
Thus 𝑒 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1+𝑥 + − −
2 3 24
Solutions :
1. sin 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 =
−1 𝑥3 3𝑥 5
2. sin 𝑥=𝑥 + 3 +
40
x2 𝑥4 x6
3. log secx = 2
+
12
+
45
x x 𝑥2 𝑥4
4. log 1 + e = log2 + 2 + 8
− 192
∞0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1∞ which do not represent any value. Such expressions are called Indeterminate Forms.
There is no actual value for this expressions. We can evaluate such limits that lead to
indeterminate forms by using L’Hospital’s Rule.
Statement: If f x and g x are two functions such that
i. lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
ii. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥
Then lim = lim i.e differentiate both numerator and denominator separately
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ 𝑥
The above rule can be extended if 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔′ 𝑎 = 0 then
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥
lim = lim ′ = lim ′′
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑥
Note: i) lim =1 ii) lim =1 iii) lim =1 iv) lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 1
1. lim Ans:
𝑥→0 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔 1+𝑥 2
𝜋
log 𝑥−
2. lim𝜋 2
Ans: 0
𝑥→ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−𝑥 1
3. lim 𝑥 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 Ans:
𝑥→0 3
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
4. lim Ans: 0
𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
1
Example 6 : Evaluate lim − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥
1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Soln. lim − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = lim − ∞ − ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥+𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 0 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥+𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑥 1 1
1. lim − Ans:
𝑥→0 𝑥−1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2
𝑎 𝑥
3. lim − cot Ans: 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑎
1
4. lim 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 Ans: 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
Limits of the form 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏∞: To evaluate such limits, where function to the
power of function exists, we call such an expression as some constant, then take
logarithm on both sides of the function whose limit is required and rewrite the
0 ∞
expressions to get 𝑜𝑟 form and then apply the L’Hospital’s Rule.
0 ∞
To evaluate the limits of the form 00 , ∞0 , and 1∞ i.e, where function to the power of
function exists, first identify the form
Take such an expression as some constant A.
0 ∞
Take logarithm on both sides and rewrite the expressions to get 𝑜𝑟 form and
0 ∞
then apply the L’Hospital’s Rule.
See any possible simplification can be done
Continue till we obtain the finite value
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ∞ × 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥2 0
−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 0
− sec2 𝑥 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim =−
𝑥→0 2 2
1
− 1
Hence 𝐴 = 𝑒 2 =
𝑒
𝜋𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim tan 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 − ∞ × 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2− 0
𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝜋𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 cot 0
2𝑎
1
−
𝑎
𝑥
2−
𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝜋 𝜋𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 − co𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2𝑎 2𝑎
2 𝜋𝑥
2 sin 2𝑎 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim . 𝑥 =
𝑥→𝑎 𝜋 2−
𝑎
𝜋
𝟐
∴𝑨=𝒆 𝝅
1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∞ × 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 0
𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥 0
1 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥2
1
𝐴 = 𝑒0 = 1
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑥
Hence lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
Sol. Let A = lim 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 1∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
1
1
l𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐴 = lim 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 = lim log 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥 ∞ × 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥 0 𝑎𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎+1 / 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥
= lim 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 0 𝑥→0 1
l𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐴 = log 𝑎𝑒 ⟹ 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑒
1
Hence lim 𝑎𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒
𝑥→0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎+𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏+𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 1
= = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑐
3 3
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = log 𝑎𝑏𝑐 3
1
∴ 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 3
1
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝝅 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐𝒙 Ans :
𝒙→ 𝑒
𝟒
𝟏
1
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 𝒙𝟐 −
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 Ans : 𝑒 3
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
1
−
4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝝅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒙 Ans : 𝑒 3
𝒙→
𝟐
𝟏
1
𝟐𝒙 +𝟑𝒙 +𝟒𝒙 𝒙
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 Ans : 24 3
𝒙→𝟎 𝟑
𝟏
1
𝒂𝒙 +𝒃𝒙 +𝒄𝒙 +𝒅𝒙 𝒙
6. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 Ans : 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 4
𝒙→𝟎 𝟒