— C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on April 28, 2022

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 – Riemann sums, areas, Definite Integrals.

Section 1 Area.
Our goal in this section is to find the formula of the area of a region in 2D. The basic idea is to
estimate the area in a systematic way that will lead to the exact value. Consider a positive function
f whose domain includes the interval [0, 4]. We want to estimate the area of the region bounded
by x = 0, x = 4, y = f (x) and y = 0.
4−0
Cut the interval [0, 4] into 4 subintervals of equal length: ∆x = 4
= 1 by using the cut points
0 = x0 < x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 = 4.

Select randomly in each subinterval sample points x∗1 < x∗2 < x∗3 < x∗4 , and create rectangles by
using the graph of f . (Few choices of sample points are above in the picture.) Compute their areas
and add up. The area of of our region can be approximated by:
A(R) ≈ f (x∗1 )∆x + f (x∗2 )∆x + f (x∗3 )∆x + f (x∗4 )∆x = (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + f (x∗4 ))∆x. It is just
an estimation. The big question is: how do we get better estimates? The intuition tells us that
2
only by better covering theregion by rectangles! That is achieved by increasing the number of
subintervals. We are led to the following definition.
Definition: Consider a positive, continuous function f (x) defined on [a, b]. Let n be a positive
integer. Divide the interval into n subintervals of equal length ∆x = b−a
n
by using the cut points
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ........... < xn = b
.

Select randomly sample points x∗i in each subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then we define the area of the
region bounded by x = a, x = b, y = f (x) and y = 0 by:
A(R) = limn→∞ (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + ............. + f (x∗n ))∆x.
Definition: The sum (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + ............. + f (x∗n ))∆x is called the Riemann sum
associated to f , [a, b], n and sample points x∗i s.
Definition: a) if x∗i = xi−1 , the sum is called a left sum.
b) if x∗i = xi , the sum is called a right sum.
xi−1 +xi
c) if x∗i = 2
, the sum is called a midpoint sum.
Exercise 1. If f (x) = x2 + 3 is defined on [2, 6], and n = 4, find the left, right and midpoint sums.
(Note that the function is positive.)
Solution: We have ∆x = 1, and x0 = 2 < x1 = 3 < x2 = 4 < x3 = 5 < x4 = 6.
a) L4 = (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + f (x∗4 ))∆x = (f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5))∆x = (22 + 3 + 32 + 3 +
42 + 3 + 52 + 3) × 1 = 66.
b)R4 = (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + f (x∗4 ))∆x = (f (3) + f (4) + f (5) + f (6))∆x = (32 + 3 + 42 + 3 + 52 +
3 + 62 + 3) × 1 = 98.
c) M4 = (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + f (x∗4 ))∆x = (f (2.5) + f (3.5) + f (4.5) + f (5.5))∆x = (2.52 + 3 +
3.52 + 3 + 4.52 + 3 + 5.52 + 3) × 1 = 81.
Remark: the bigger the n, the better the estimate!
Section 2 Definite integral
We can do more now. We consider functions f that are not necessarly positive.
Definition: Let f be a function on [a, b]. We define the definite integral of f between a and b to be
Rb
a
f (x)dx = limn→∞ (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + ............. + f (x∗n ))∆x.
NOW: one can use the sigma notation:
{ ni=1 f (x∗i )}∆x = (f (x∗1 ) + f (x∗2 ) + f (x∗3 ) + ............. + f (x∗n ))∆x
P

Note that when f is positive the integral is just the area. Note that in right side we have what we
called in section 1 the Riemann sums.
3
When f is not necessarly positive, there is a link between signed area and the integral:

It is useful when we need to compute definite integrals, and we know the values of areas of certain
regions.

Section 3: Estimating definite integrals using Riemann sums

R2 1
Exercise 1. Estimate 1 x
dx by using n = 10, and the left and right sums.

1 1
Solution: We have ∆x = 0.1, hence L10 = (1 + 1.1
+ ......... + 1.9
) × 0.1 = 0.7188 and R10 =
1 1
( 1.1 + ......... + 1.9 + 21 ) × 0.1 = 0.6688.

Section 4: Computing definite integrals using areas

R4
Exercise 1. Find 0
|x − 3|dx.

Solution: The function is positive. If we graph it we see that it is made out of two regions: 2
R4
triangles. So the integral is sum of the two areas: 0 |x − 3|dx = 3×3
2
+ 1×1
2
= 5. (Recall: base times
height over 2 for the area of a triangle!)
4
Section 5: Properties of the definite Integral
Rb Rb
a) a f (x)dx = a f (z)dz and it is a number, not a function-like antiderivatives!
Ra
b) a f (x)dx = 0 because ∆x = 0 in this case!
Rb Ra
c) a f (x)dx = − b f (x)dx — switching the limits of integration!
Due to the definition of the integral involving limits we get:
Rb Rb Rb
d) a f (x) ± g(x)dx = a f (x)dx ± a g(x)dx — good behaviour under addition, subtraction
Rb Rb
e) a cf (x)dx = c a f (x)dx , where c is any real number
Rb Rb
f) If f (x) ≤ g(x) on[a, b], then a f (x)dx ≤ a g(x)dx — same order!
Rb
g) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M on[a, b], then m(b − a) ≤ a f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a) — bounds for the integral!
Rb Rc Rc
g’) a f (x) dx + b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx — glueing together 2 pieces!
R1
Exercise 1. Show that 0 e−x dx ≤ 1.
Solution: From 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, one has that −1 ≤ −x ≤ 0 (just multiply by -1 the first inequality), and
since the exponential is increasing one gets e−x ≤ e0 = 1 = M . Apply g) from above now.
Rπ
Exercise 2. Show that 0 sin(x)dx ≤ π.
Solution: Since sin(x) ≤ 1 = M for any x, we get to apply g) again.
R3 R 10 R 10
Exercise3. Assume that 2 f (x)dx = 9 and 2 f (x)dx = −2. Find 3 2f (x)dx.
R 10 R 10
Solution: We have: 3 2f (x)dx = 2 3 f (x)dx =
R 10 R3
= 2{ 2 f (x)dx − 2 f (x)dx} = 2 × {−2 − 9} = −22.
R5 R5 R5
Exercise 4. Assume that 2 f (x)dx = 3 and 2 g(x)dx = −6. Find 2 −2f (x) + 4g(x)dx.
R5 R5 R5
Solution: One has 2 −2f (x) + 4g(x)dx = −2 2 f (x)dx + 4 2 g(x)dx = −2 × 3 + 4 × (−6) = −30.
IF YOU WANT MORE PRACTICE BEFORE NEXT WEEK DGDS, TRY THIS:
R3
Ex. 5 Find a) −2 1 − |x|dx
R8
b) 0 |x − 2|dx
5
 R3
c) −1
(x + 1)dx

THINK OF AREAS, AND SIGNED AREA IDEA FROM OUR LECTURE 1. OF COURSE YOU
WOULD NEED TO GRAPH!
HINT for a)

1×2
Area on top of x axis:
2
1×1 2×2
Area below of x axis: +
2 2
1×2 1×1 2×2
Now The integral: − −
2 2 2
HINT for b) Look at the graph: There are 2 triangles, both above x axis. So The integral is the sum
of the areas:
2×2 6×6
+ = 20.
2 2

HINT for c) Look at the graph: there is one triangle only, and on top of the x axis, hence the
integral is the area of that triangle:
6
4×4
= 8.
2

R4 R6 R6
Ex 6. If f (x) dx = 3, and 4 f (x) dx = −1, find 3 −2f (x) dx.
3
R6 R6 R4 R6 
HINT: One has: 3 −2f (x) dx = −2 3 f (x) dx = −2 3 f (x) dx + 4 f (x) dx = −2(3 − 1) = −4.
R8
Exc 7. Find 0 f (x) dx where f has domain [0, 8] and the graph is presented below:

Solution: Must use signed area: a rectangle, a triangle and half of a disk are above the x axis, while
the other half of a disk is below the x axis. Our integral is:
3 × 1 π12 π22
3×3+ + − ,
2 2 2
and now use a calc...

7
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on January 12, 2021

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 – Definite and Indefinite Integrals, FTC.

Section 1 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus I.

THERE IS A LINK BETWEEN INDEFINITE INTEGRALS AND DEFINITE INTEGRALS. First let
us recall what an antiderivative is. Given f (x) we say that the function F (x) is an antiderivative
of f (both functions defined on an interval I) if:
a) F is differentiable on I and
b) F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
The most general antiderivative is the indefinite integral:
R
f (x)dx = F (x) + C, where F (x) is an antiderivative of f and C is a real number.
R n xn+1
You used many formulae in Cal I, let us recall few: Power rule: x dx = + C if n 6= −1,
n+1
R
exponential rule: ex dx = ex + C,
R 1
log rule dx = ln |x| + C,
x
or cosine rule:
R
cos(x)dx = sin(x) + C. Please review your basic list of antiderivatives! Must be in your blood
from Cal I.
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I)
Rb
If f : [a, b] → R is continuous, and if F is an antiderivative of f on [a, b], then a
f (x)dx = F (b) −
F (a) = F |ba .
The above theorem is useful in computations .But there is a point here: who is telling us that F
exists? What if F does NOT exist? Then the theorem is dry, not useful. This is taken care in the
next:
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II)
Rx
Consider/Construct the function: g(x) = a f (t)dt. Then g is differentiable on (a, b) and g 0 (x) =
f (x) forall x in (a, b).
This shows you that the integration is the inverse process of differentiation!
We shall incorporate the above 2 theorems in exercises (using Parts, SUB etc) and in one applica-
tion. Next lecture more apps.
R2 √
Ex 1. Compute 0 e2x 1 + e2x dx.
R2 √
Solution: By FTC part I we have 0 e2x 1 + e2x dx = F (2) − F (0), where
R √ du du
F (x) = e2x 1 + e2x dx. Use a SUB now: u = 1 + e2x , hence = 2e2x , or = e2x dx. Our
dx 2
R 1 du 3/2
1u
1
R 1 3
F (x) = u 2 = 2 u du = 2
2 = 13 (1 + e2x ) 2 .
2 3/2
3 3
So F (2) − F (0) = 31 {(1 + e4 ) 2 − (1 + 1) 2 } = now use a calculator.

2
 R 2π sin(x)
Ex 2. Find 0
dx.
3 + cos(x)
R 2π sin(x)
Solution: By FTC part I one has that 0
dx = F (2π) − F (0), where:
3 + cos(x)
R sin(x) du
F (x) = dx. Now just use a SUB: u = 3 + cos(x), so = − sin(x), or in other words:
3 + cos(x) dx
R −du
= − u1 du = − ln |u| = − ln |3 + cos(x)| = − ln(3 + cos(x))
R
−du = sin(x)dx. Then our F (x) =
u
because the inside expression is positive...
Then: F (2π) − F (0) = − ln(3 + cos(2π)) + ln(3 + cos(0)) = use a calculator now.
√
R3 e x
Ex 3. Compute 1 √ dx.
x
√
R3 e x
Solution: By FTC part I one has that 1 √ dx = F (3) − F (1), where:
x
√
R e x √ du
F (x) = √ dx. Just use a SUB now as follows: u = x, so = 21 x−1/2 or: 2du = dx
√
x
. Then our
x R R √
dx
antiderivative is F (x) = eu 2du = 2 eu du = 2eu = 2e x .
√
3
Then: F (3) − F (1) = 2e − 2e = now use a calculator
Practice makes Perfect:
R3 1
Ex 4. Use a SUB to find 2
dx.
x(ln(x))2
du 1 dx
Hints: The SUB one needs is: u = ln(x), then = , or du = . Then use Power rule.
dx x x
Let us switch the gear toward another method of integration:
R1
Ex 5. Find 0 ex xdx.
R1
Solution: No good SUB here! We shall use PARTS. By FTC part I one has that 0 ex xdx = F (1) −
F (0) where:
R
F (x) = ex xdx.
First recall the PARTS: f 0 (x)g(x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)dx.
R R

In our case the ingredients for parts are: f 0 (x) = ex , and g(x) = x. Then one has:
f (x) = f 0 (x)dx = ex dx = ex and g 0 (x) = 1.
R R
R R
Hence F (x) = ex xdx = ex x − 1 × ex dx = ex x − ex .
Then going back to our F (1) − F (0) = e1 × 1 − e1 − (e0 × 0 − e0 ) = 1

3
 R2
Ex 6. Compute: 1
x ln(x)dx.
R2
Solution: By FTC part I we have that 1 x ln(x)dx = F (2) − F (1), where:
R
F (x) = x ln(x)dx. No Good SUB here....
x2 1
Use parts: f 0 (x) = x and g(x) = ln(x). Hence we have f (x) = and g 0 (x) = .
R
xdx =
2 x
x2 R x2 1 x2 1R x2 1 x2
We get: F (x) = ln(x) − dx = ln(x) − xdx = ln(x) − .
2 2 x 2 2 2 2 2
22 22 1
So: F (2) − F (1) = ln(2) − − (0 − ) = use a calculator
2 4 4
The hard part starts now...
R 4x2
Ex 7. Find the derivative of k(x) = 3 cos(t)dt.
Solution: If you attempt to use Part II of FTC you will see it is not the same shape...
So, to overcome this situation one must use FTC part II together with your arch –enemy: CHAIN
RULE... Do you feel it in the air?!
Let us first invent 2 functions: f (x) and g(x) such that f (g(x)) = k(x).
The only guess is this (think of inner, and outer function!!!):
Rx
f (x) = 3 cos(t)dt and g(x) = 4x2 . Let me prove for you that this works: f (g(x)) = f (4x2 ) =
R 4x2
3
cos(t)dt = k(x) WOW
Now the rests is as follows: By Chain Rule one has:
k 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) HOPE YOU REMEMBER THIS FAMOUS FORMULA!
We need the ingredients: f 0 (x) = cos(x) by FTC part II
and g 0 (x) = 8x by Power Rule.
Let us finish it: k 0 (x) = f 0 (4x2 )8x = cos(4x2 )8x DONE PHEW
Practice Makes Perfect:
R −e−x et
Ex 8. Find the derivatives of a) M (x) = 4
sin( )dt,
t2 + 1
R x2 +1
b) N (x) = −x
(et + 666)dt.
SOLUTION a) LOOK at the IDEA in the exercise above with FTC and Chain rule:
−x −x
0 e−e −x 0 e−e
M (x) = sin( )(−e ) = sin( )e−x
(−e−x )2 + 1 (−e−x )2 + 1
R x2 +1 R0 R x2 +1 t
HINT b) Here the trick is: ) N (x) = −x (et + 666)dt = −x (et + 666)dt + 0 (e + 666)dt =
R −x t R x2 +1 t
− 0 (e + 666)dt + 0 (e + 666)dt. NOW apply same idea as above for each of the pieces
(integrals).
Section 2 Average value of a function over an interval
If I give you some 666 numbers you can easily find their average: you add up them, then you
divide that sum by 666. DONE.
What if I am asking you to find the average of a function f : [a, b] → R? The point is: the interval
contains infinitely many numbers.... how can you add up them?????
4
Same story:
b−a
Divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x = n
by using the cut points
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ........... < xn = b
.

1
Select randomly sample points x∗i in each subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. RECALL that (from above) =
n
∆x
.
b−a
f (x∗1 ) + · · · + f (x∗n ) f (x∗1 ) + · · · + f (x∗n )
Now you can do an average: = ∆x
n b−a
Pass to limit when n → ∞ and get:
1 Rb
DEFINITION: The average value of f over [a, b] is: f (x)dx.
b−a a
x
Ex 9. Find the average value of f (x) = 2 over [0, 3].
x +4
1 R3 x 1 R3 x
Solution: The formula is: 0 2
dx = 0 2
dx = 31 {F (3) − F (0)} By FTC part I.
3−0 x +4 3 x +4
R x du du
Now F (x) = 2
dx. Use a SUB: u = x2 + 4. Hence = 2x, or = xdx.
x +4 dx 2
R du 1 1
Our F (x) = = ln |u| = ln |x2 + 4|.
2u 2 2
Our average is 61 {ln(13) − ln(4)} = 0.1964.
Please study the above, do NOT cry, and enjoy Cal II responsibly!

5
More Practice In Case You Love Calculus: There are 3 parts!
Part A.
R6
Ex 1 Find 0
x dx.
R x2 62 − 02
Sol: An antiderivative is F (x) = x dx = . So Our integral is F (6) − F (0) = = 18.
2 2
R2
Ex 2 Find 1
(x − 1)2 + 2 dx.
R R R x3
Sol: An antiderivative is F (x) = (x−1)2 +2 dx = x2 −2x+1+2 dx = x2 −2x+3 dx = −x2 +3x.
3
23  13 
So Our integral is F (2) − F (1) = − 22 + 3 × 2 − − 12 + 3 = 7/3.
3 3
R1
Ex 3 Find 0 e2x dx.
R e2x du du
Sol: An antiderivative is F (x) = e2x dx = . I used a sub: u = 2x, so = 2. Thus = dx.
2 dx 2
e2 1
So Our integral is F (1) − F (0) = − .
2 2
R −2 1
Ex 4 Find −3
dx.
x
R 1
Sol: An antiderivative is F (x) = dx = ln |x|. So Our integral is F (−2) − F (−3) = ln | − 2| −
x
ln | − 3| = −0.405465.
R1 √
Ex 5 Find −1 1 − x2 dx.
√ √
1 − x2 dx. Use Parts: f 0 (x) = 1, and g(x) =
R
Sol: An antiderivative is F (x) = 1× 1 − x2 .
1
1 dx = x AND g 0 (x) = (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x).
R
Hence f (x) =
2
√ R 1 √ x2
BY PARTS: F (x) = x 1 − x2 − x (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) dx = x 1 − x2 + √
R
dx =
2 1 − x2
√ R x2 − 1 + 1 √ R√ R 1
= x 1 − x2 + √ dx = x 1 − x2 − 1 − x2 dx + √ dx =
1−x 2 1 − x2
√
= x 1 − x2 − F (x) + arcsin(x).
√ 1 √ 
So: 2F (x) = x 1 − x2 + arcsin(x), that gives: F (x) = x 1 − x2 + arcsin(x) .
2
1 √  1 p 
So Our integral is F (1) − F (−1) = 1 − 12 + arcsin(1) − (−1) 1 − (−1)2 + arcsin(−1) =
2 2
1π 1 π π
− (− ) = .
22 2 2 2
R 10
Ex 6 Find 1 x ln(x3 ) dx.
R 3
R R
Sol:
R An antiderivative is F (x) = x ln(x ) dx = 3x ln(x) dx = 3 x ln(x) dx. USE PARTS to GET
: x ln(x) dx:

0 x2 1
and g 0 (x) = .
R
f (x) = x, and g(x) = ln(x), and note that f (x) = x dx =
2 x
2 2 2 2
R x R x 1 x 1R x 1 x2 x2 x2
Hence: x ln(x) dx = ln(x) − dx = ln(x) − x dx = ln(x) − = ln(x) − .
2 2 x 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
6
  x2 x2 
Thus: F (x) = 3 ln(x) − , so our integral is:
2 4
 102 102 1 
F (10) − F (1) = 3 ln(10) − +
2 4 4
Use a calculator now.
Part B.
R
Ex 1. Find ex xdx.
Solution: No good SUB here! We shall use PARTS.
First recall the PARTS: f 0 (x)g(x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)dx.
R R

In our case the ingredients for parts are: f 0 (x) = ex , and g(x) = x. Then one has:

f (x) = f 0 (x)dx = ex dx = ex and g 0 (x) = 1.

R R

R R
Hence ex xdx = ex x − 1 × ex dx = ex x − ex + c .
R
Ex 2. Compute: x ln(x)dx.
Solution: No Good SUB here....
x2 1
Use parts: f 0 (x) = x and g(x) = ln(x). Hence we have f (x) = and g 0 (x) = .
R
xdx =
2 x
We get:

x2 R x2 1 x2 1R x2 1 x2 x2 x2
ln(x) − dx = ln(x) − xdx = ln(x) − +c= ln(x) − + c.
2 2 x 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
Exercise 3. Find the integrals:
R
a) x sin(x)dx
R
b) ln(x)dx
c) tan−1 (x)dx
R
R
d) x2 ex dx
Solution: a) Note that f 0 (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = x, hence g 0 (x) = 1 and f (x) = − cos(x).
R R
Using Parts, one gets: x sin(x)dx = −x cos(x) + cos(x)dx = −x cos(x) + sin(x) + C.

1
b) One has that f 0 (x) = 1 and g(x) = ln x, hence g 0 (x) = and f (x) = x.
x
R
Using Parts, one gets: ln(x)dx = x ln(x) − 1dx = x ln(x) − x + C.

1
c) Use f 0 (x) = 1 and g(x) = tan−1 (x), hence g 0 (x) = and f (x) = x.
1 + x2
x
Using Parts, one gets: tan−1 (x)dx = x tan−1 (x) −
R R
dx.
1 + x2
du
Use a sub now: u = x2 + 1, ( = 2x) and obtain:
dx
ln(1 + x2 )
tan−1 (x)dx = x tan−1 (x) −
R
.
2
7
d) Because of the degree, we have to use parts 2 times: first use f 0 (x) = ex and g(x) = x2 , hence
g 0 (x) = 2x and f (x) = ex .
R R
Using Parts, one gets: x2 ex dx = x2 ex − 2 xex dx.

For the second integration by parts use f 0 (x) = ex and g(x) = x, hence g 0 (x) = 1 and f (x) = ex .
R R
Then: x2 ex dx = x2 ex − 2{xex − ex dx} = x2 ex − 2{xex − ex } + C = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C.
R
Exercise 4. Find ex sin(x) dx.
R
SOL: The TRICK is to denote by I = ex sin(x) dx. Next:

USE parts (as no good subs here) as follows:

f 0 (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = ex , hence g 0 (x) = ex and f (x) = sin(x)dx = − cos(x).
R

R R
Then: I = − cos(x)ex − − cos(x)ex dx = − cos(x)ex + cos(x)ex dx.

USE again Parts: select f 0 (x) = cos(x) and g(x) = ex , hence g 0 (x) = ex and f (x) =
R
cos(x)dx =
sin(x).
 R 
HENCE: I = − cos(x)ex + ex sin(x) − ex sin(x)dx =

= − cos(x)ex + ex sin(x) − I, so

2I = − cos(x)ex + ex sin(x),

− cos(x)ex + ex sin(x)
thus I = .
2
R − cos(x)ex + ex sin(x)
So: ex sin(x) dx = + c.
2
R ln(x)
Exercise 5. Find dx.
x2
SOL: REwrite it as: ln(x)x−2
R
dx.

1
One has that f 0 (x) = x−2 and g(x) = ln x, hence g 0 (x) = and f (x) = −x−1 .
x
R ln(x) 1
dx = −x−1 ln(x) − −x−1 dx = −x−1 ln(x) + x−2 dx = −x−1 ln(x) −
R R
Using Parts one gets: 2
x x
x−1 + c by Power rule.

R ln(x)
Exercise 6. Find √ dx.
x
√
SOL: One way ( an evil one: do a sub: u = x, then PARTS!).

The other way:

R ln(x) 1
√ dx = ln(x)x− 2 dx, so:
R
Parts from start: Rewrite it as:
x

select f 0 (x) = x−1/2 , and g(x) = ln(x). Hence:

8
 1
f 0 (x)dx = x−1/2 dx = 2x1/2 amd g 0 (x) =
R R
f (x) = .
x
BY PARTS one has:
1
ln(x)x− 2 dx = 2x1/2 ln(x) − 2x1/2 x−1 dx = 2x1/2 ln(x) − 2 x−1/2 dx =
R R R

x1/2 √
= 2x1/2 ln(x) − 2 + C = 2x1/2 ln(x) − 4 x + C
1/2
TRY Home: for practice:
R
Exercise 7. Find ex cos(x) dx.

Sol: See Exc 4 done today!

Exercise 8. Find e−2x x2 dx.

R

HINT: use parts 2 times, and use tons of brackets!

e−2x
To start: f 0 (x) = e−2x and g(x) = x2 . Then: f (x) = e−2x dx and use a sub to get f (x) =
R
, and
−2
of course g 0 (x) = 2x Continue now!
R
Exercise 9. Find a) arcsin(x) dx.
R
b) arccos(x) dx.

HINT: Use parts as in EXC 2c done today!

Morbid Fear of calculus contamination: do you still love calculus? Why?
Part C.
SUBSTITUTION.
0
The THEORY is this: The chain rule says: f (g(x)) = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x). so:


R 0
f (g(x)) = f (g(x)) dx, or
f (g(x)) = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x)dx, and in fact the form you will use is:
R
R 0
f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx = f (g(x)).
WHY is difficult?
Story....
PLAN (ALGORITHM):
1) DEFINE A NEW VARIABLE AS A FUNCTION OF THE OLD VARIABLE: u = . . . ,
2) TAKE THE DERIVATIVE OF THE NEW VARIABLE WITH RESPECT TO THE OLD VARI-
du
ABLE: = ...
dx
3) PUT EVERYTHING IN THE INTEGRAL IN TERMS OF THE NEW VARIABLE
4) INTEGRATE (or at least try it);
5) PUT EVERYTHING BACK IN TERMS OF THE OLD VARIABLE!
R √
Ex 1. Compute e2x 1 + e2x dx.
9
 R √
Solution: To get e2x 1 + e2x dx Use a SUB: u = 1 + e2x ,
du du R 1 du 1
R 1 1 u3/2
hence = 2e2x , or = e2x dx. Our integral becomes u 2 = 2
u 2 du = 2
+c =
dx 2 2 3/2
1 3
3
(1 + e2x ) 2 + c.
R sin(x)
Ex 2. Find dx.
3 + cos(x)
R sin(x) du
Solution: To get dx use a SUB: u = 3 + cos(x), so = − sin(x), or in other words:
3 + cos(x) dx
−du = sin(x)dx.
R −du
= − u1 du = − ln |u| + c = − ln |3 + cos(x)| + c = − ln(3 + cos(x)) + c
R
so our integral is NOW:
u
because the inside expression is positive...
√
R e x
Ex 3. Compute √ dx.
x
√
R e x
Solution:To obtain √ dx use a SUB now as follows:
x
√ du
u= x, so= 12 x−1/2 or: 2du = √dxx .
dx
R R √
Then our integral becomes eu 2du = 2 eu du = 2eu + c = 2e x + c.
R 2
Ex 4. Find xex dx.
du du
SOL: Define u = x2 , so = 2x, or = xdx. Our integral is:
dx 2
R u du 1R u 1 1 2
e = e du = eu + c = ex + c
2 2 2 2
R 3
Ex 5. Find dx.
6 − 8x
du du
SOL: Define u = 6 − 8x, so = −8, or = dx.
dx −8
Our integral is:
R 3 du 3 R 1 3 3
= du = ln |u| + c = ln |6 − 8x| + c
u −8 −8 u −8 −8
3
Ex 6. Find x2 ex −666 dx.
R

du du
SOL: Define u = x3 − 666, so = 3x2 , or = x2 dx. Our integral is:
dx 3
R u du 1 1 1 3
eu du = eu + c = ex −666 + c
R
e =
3 3 3 3
R 6
Ex 7. Find sin(x) cos (x) dx.
du
SOL: DEFINE u = cos(x), then = − sin(x), or −du = sin(x)dx. Our integral is:
dx
R 6 R 1 1
u (−du) = − u6 du = − u7 + c = − cos7 (x) + c
7 7
R
Ex 8. Find sin(x) cos(x) dx.
10
 du
SOL: DEFINE u = sin(x), then = cos(x), or du = cos(x)dx. Our integral is:
dx
1 1
udu = u2 + c = sin2 (x) + c
R
2 2
R sin(ln(666x))
Ex 8. Find dx.
x
du 1 dx
SOLUTION: Use u = ln(666x), simply because = , or du = . Our integral is:
dx x x
R
sin(u)du = − cos(u) + c = − cos(ln(666x)) + c
R sin(x)
Ex 9. Find dx.
1 + cos2 (x)
du
SOLUTION: We use u = cos(x), simply because = − sin(x), or −du = sin(x)dx. Our integral is:
dx
R −1
du = − arctan(u) + c = − arctan(cos(x)) + c
1 + u2
Practice makes Perfect:
R 1
Ex 666. Use a SUB to find dx.
x(ln(x))2
du 1 dx
Hints: The SUB one needs is: u = ln(x), then = , or du = . Then use Power rule.
dx x x
OUR integral is: u−2 du = −u−1 + c = −(ln(x))−1 + c Yayayayayay
R

Ex 66+6.
What is the sub for:
R 1
a) dx
x ln(x)
e66x
Z
b) dx
e66x + 66
R sec2 ( x1 )
c) dx
x2
The Punisher says: a) u = ln(x); b) u = e66x + 66; c) u = 1/x. Muhahahahahhah

11
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on January 18, 2021

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 – Applications of the Integral.

Section 1 Area of regions between curves.

We would like to find the area of a region bounded by some given curves.

The boundary is formed by curves that are given explicitly in statements by formulae. By cutting
the domain in equal subintervals, selecting random sample points, constructing rectangles as in
the definition with limit of the area of a region one has the following:

Theorem: Assume that on the interval [a, b] one has that f (x) ≥ g(x). Then the area of the region
R bounded by:

x = a, x = b, y = f (x), y = g(x) is given by:

Rb
A(R) = a
f (x) − g(x)dx.

The plan is: find the cut points of the curves, graph the curves and the region. Apply tye formula
above.

Exercise 1: Find the area of the region bounded by y = 8 − x2 and y = x + 2

Solution: One has that 8 − x2 = x + 2 can be transformed into (x + 3)(x − 2) = 0, hence x = −3

and x = 2.
2
 R2 R2 3 2
Applying the formula one has: A = −3
8−x2 −(x+2)dx = −3
−x2 −x+6dx = { −x3 − x2 +6x}|2−3 =
125
6
.

√
Exercise 2. Find the area of the region bounded by y = 0, y = 4 − x and y = −x + 2

√
Solution: From −x + 2 = 4 − x, by raising both sides at power 2, one gets: x2 − 3x = 0, or
x(x − 3) = 0, hence x = 0, and x = 3. Only 0 works. In this case y = 2.

It is better to integrate with respect to the y axis:

R2 3 y2
A= 0
4 − y 2 − (2 − y)dy = {− y3 + 2
+ 2y}|20 = 10
3
.

Exercise 3. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 0, x = 2, f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2 − x2 .

Solution: The cut points are obtained by solving f (x) = g(x) in [0, 2]. We have x2 = 2 − x2 , or
2x2 = 2, hence x2 = 1. It follows that x = ±1. We keep only x = 1. A diagram is:
3
 R1 R2 R1
To set up the area: there are 2 regions: A(R) = 0 g(x) − f (x)dx + 1 f (x) − g(x)dx = 0 2 − 2x2 dx +
R2 2 3 3
1
2x − 2dx = (2x − 2x3 )|10 + ( 2x3 − 2x)|21 = 2 − 23 + ( 16
3
− 4 − ( 23 − 2)) = use a calculator now.

Section 2 Volumes

The solids in this sections are obtained by revolving a region in the 2D plane about one of the axis.
Based on the formula of a cylinder, and on the construction of the definite integral one has the
following definition.

Definition: Let S be the solid that lies between x = a and x = b, let A(x) be the area of a cross
Rb
section through S at x. Then V (S) = a A(x)dx.

Most of solids in our encounters are obtained by revolving regions. So we shall use the area of a
disc of radius r, which it is πr2 . How do we visualize a cross section? Select a number x in [a, b],
and cut at x the solid with a plane perpendicular on x axis. What we obtain is a cross section.
The formula of the volume is obtained as follows: cut[a, b] into n subinervals of equal length:
b−a
∆x = by using a = x0 < · · · < xi−1 < xi < · · · < xn = b. Divide the solid into n slabs of
n
equal width ∆x by using planes perpendicuar on the x axis. Think of the solid as a loaf of bread.
Select sample points x∗i in each subinterval. We can estimate each slab by the cylinder with base
area A(x∗i ) and height ∆x. Summing up all estimates, one gets V ≈ {A(x∗1 ) + · · · + A(x∗n )}∆x. Pass
Rb
to limit, and get V (S) = a A(x)dx.

WHEN THE SOLID IS OBTAINED BY ROTATING A REGION ONE GETS A WASHER or A

DISC:
4
If you rotate a region:

WHAT IS THE AREA OF A WASHER? This: πR2 − πr2 where R is the big (outer) radius, and r is
the small (inner) radius!

SEE the pdf file with disks, washers, solids!

Exercise 1. Consider the region bounded by y = x2 and y = x, and rotate it about the x axis. Find
the volume of the solid.

Solution: The cut points of curves are obtained as follows: x2 = x implies that x(x − 1) = 0, hence
x = 0, x = 1.

5
 R1 x3 x5 1 2π
WE deal with a washer here! The formula for volume is V = π 0
x2 − x4 dx = π{ − }|0 =
3 5 15
by power rule and FTC part 1.

Exercise 2. Consider the region bounded by y = x3 and y = 8, x = 0 and rotate it about the y axis.
Find the volume of the solid.

Solution: The cut points of curves are obtained as follows: x3 = 8 implies that x = 2. So the first 2
1
curves cut at (2, 8). Isolating x one gets x = y 3 . (JUST use y = x3 and get x.)

WE deal with a disck here!

R8 2 3 5 96π
The formula for volume is V = π 0
y 3 dy = π{ y 3 }|80 = by power rule and FTC part 1.
5 5
Exercise 3. Consider the region bounded by y = x2 and y = 0, x = 2 and rotate it about the x axis.
Find the volume of the solid.

Solution: The region is found below, and we note that the solid (or region) expands between 0
and 2.

R2 x5 2 32π
The formula for volume is V = π x4 dx = π{ }| = by power rule.
0
5 0 5
6
Exercise 4. Consider the region bounded by y = 2x and y = 6, x = 0 and rotate it about the y axis.
Find the volume of the solid.
Solution: The region is found below, and we note that the solid (or region) expands between 0
y
and 6 while x = .
2

R 6 y2 y3 6
The formula for volume is V = π dy = π{ }| = 18π by power rule.
0
4 12 0

7
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on May 20, 2021

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 – Arctan function and Partial Fractions.

Section 1 ARCTAN.
π π sin(x)
Recall that the tangent function tan : (− , ) → R is given by tan(x) = , so set up your
2 2 cos(x)
calculator in Radians MODE.
0 cos(x) cos(x) − sin(x)(− sin(x)) 1
You know its derivative by Quotient Rule: tan (x) = 2
= =
cos (x) cos2 (x)
sec2 (x) > 0. So the tangent is increasing. Its graph is on the left:

It is one-to-one (see its graph), so the inverse exists. It is denoted by tan−1 (x) = arctan(x) : R →
π π
(− , ). See its graph above on the right.
2 2
Being inverses to each other one has: tan−1 (tan(x)) = x for all in x in the domain of the tangent.
Apply chain rule and get (it is implicit differentiation):
1
(tan−1 )0 (tan(x))×(tan(x))0 = 1, so (tan−1 )0 (tan(x)) = 1, now isolate and get: (tan−1 )0 (tan(x)) =
cos2 (x)
cos2 (x). SET tan(x) = y, and we have:
cos2 (x) cos2 (x) 1 1 1
(tan−1 )0 (y) = cos2 (x) = = 2 = sin(x)
= 2
= .
1 2
cos (x) + sin (x) 1 + ( cos(x) )2 1 + (tan(x)) 1 + y2
WOW, long exercise?!
1
FORMULA: (tan−1 )0 (x) = MEMORIZE it! For us the other way is more important:
1 + x2
1
dx = tan−1 (x) + C. Memorize it!
R
FORMULA:
1 + x2
Section 2 Partial Fractions.
It is a method of integration! First the building blocks:
R 1
a) dx = ln |x + a| + C, here: no absolute value in solutions: we cut marks! :(
x+a
1
dx = tan−1 (x) + C Hahaha
R
b)
1 + x2
R x ln(x2 + 1)
c) dx = + C Use a simple SUB: u = x2 + 1.
1 + x2 2
P (x)
Next: observe that in integrals above we have fractions: where P, Q are polynomials, and
Q(x)
MORE important:
the degree of P < degree of Q.
2
 R P (x)
Our plan is to be able to integrate dx, by splitting this fraction in simpler fractions, such
Q(x)
that we use the blocks above and other methods of integration. Got it?
Step 1. If the degree of P ≥ degree of Q, then perform the long division (divide P by Q to arrive
P (x) R(x)
at = C(x) + WITH degree of r < degree of Q.)
Q(x) Q(x)
STEP 2. Factor the denominator, Q(x), and
i) assume you have distinct real roots: Q(x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ), here x1 6= x2 . In this case split as
P (x) k l
follows: = + . It is our task to find the NUMBERS k, l, and then use block a) 2
Q(x) x − x1 x − x2
times.
P (x) k
ii) assume one repeated root of Q(x) = a(x − x1 )2 ; Then one has the split: = +
Q(x) x − x1
l
. It is our task to find the NUMBERS k, l, and then use block a) for the first integral, and
(x − x1 )2
a POWER rule + SUB for the second integral.
P (x) a1 a2 an
Imagine now Q(x) = a(x − x1 )n ; Then = + 2
+ ··· + . That is the
Q(x) x − x1 (x − x1 ) (x − x1 )n
splitting this case...
iii) assume Q(x) has NO real ROOTS, then complete the square in Q(x), and use a combination of
b), a), c) + SUB. THE IDEA IS:
kx + l
IF Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c is in case iii), its contribution in the spiltting is: , where we
ax2
+ bx + c
need to find k and l by solving a system. See the last exc in today’s lecture!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
IF Q(x) = (ax2 + bx + c)n is in case iii), its contribution in the spiltting is:
k1 x + l1 kn x + ln
2
+ ··· + , where we need to find ALL kn and ln by solving a system.
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)n
2

Now it is time to try ourselves exercises that you love so much.

R x2 + 1
Ex 1. Find dx.
x−1
Solution: We need long division. We get:
R x2 + 1 R 2 x2
dx = x + 1 + dx = + x + 2 ln |x − 1| + C
x−1 x−1 2
R 2x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 4
Ex2. Find dx.
x2 + 1
Solution: We need long division. We get:
R 2x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 4 1
dx = x2 + 3x + tan−1 (x) + C.
R
dx = 2x + 3 +
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
R 2x + 1
Ex 3. Find dx.
x2 + x − 2
Solution: NO LONG divison! We factor x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2), so we are in Real Distinct roots
case!
2x + 1 2x + 1 A B A(x + 2) + B(x − 1) x(A + B) + 2A − B
We split: 2 = = + = = .
x +x−2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2 (x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)(x + 2)
3
Identify: 2x + 1 = x(A + B) + 2A − B. HENCE:
2 = A + B,
1 = 2A − B.
From the first equation one gets: A = 2 − B. Plug it in the second one: 1 = 2(2 − B) − B, or
1 − 4 = −3B, so B = 1. NOW find A = 2 − B = 2 − 1 = 1.
R 1 1
OUR integral is now: + dx = ln |x − 1| + ln |x + 2| + C.
x−1 x+2
R x+5
Ex 4. Find 2
dx.
x − 4x + 4
x+5 x+5
Solution: NO LONG divison! We factor: 2 = . SO REAL repeated root case!
x − 4x + 4 (x − 2)2
x+5 A B A(x − 2) + B xA − 2A + B
We split: 2
= + 2
= 2
= .
(x − 2) x − 2 (x − 2) (x − 2) (x − 2)2
Identify: x + 5 = xA − 2A + B, HENCE
1 = A,
5 = −2A + B. THIS Last equation gives B = 5 + 2A = 5 + 2 = 7 YAHOOOOO!
1 7
dx = ln |x − 2| + 7 (x − 2)−2 dx =
R R
Our Integral is now: dx + 2
x−2 (x − 2)
(x − 2)−1
ln |x − 2| + 7 + C by POWER rule! The result can be written as ln |x − 2| − 7(x − 2)−1 + C
−1
Who is crying?
R 3x + 2
Ex 5. Find dx.
x2 − 2x + 5
Solution: NO LONG divison! We CAN NOT factor!!!! So no real roots case! We shall complete
the square: Recall your childhood:
a2 ± 2ab + b2 = (a ± b)2 .
R 3x + 2 R 3x + 2 R 3x + 2
We have: 2
dx = 2 2 2
dx = dx = pay ATTENTION
x − 2x + 5 x − 2x1 + 1 − 1 + 5 (x − 1)2 + 4
R 3x + 2 1 R 3x + 2
= dx = dx NOW we need a clever SUB:
4(( x−1
2
)2 + 1) 4 ( x−1
2
)2 + 1
x−1 du 1 x−1
Let u = , hence = , or 2du = dx. What is more important is this: FROM u = ONE
2 dx 2 2
GETS BY ISOLATION THAT: x = 2u + 1. Hence 3x + 2 = 3(2u + 1) + 2 = 6u + 5 WOW
1 R 6u + 5 1 R 6u + 5 1 R u R 1 
Our integral is in fact now: 2du = du = 6 du + 5 du =
4 u2 + 1 2 u2 + 1 2 u2 + 1 u2 + 1
1  ln(u2 + 1) 3  x−1 2  5 x−1
+ 5 tan−1 (u) + C = ln ( ) + 1 + tan−1 (

6 )+C
2 2 2 2 2 2
Hard exercise? Easy exercise?
The Punisher is Crying...
R x2 − 2
Ex 6. Find dx.
x2 − 3x + 2
4
 R x2 − 2 R 3x − 4
Solution: One needs long division! We have: 2
dx = 1 + 2 dx = x +
x − 3x + 2 x − 3x + 2
R 3x − 4
2
dx. We factor the bottom: x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2). Hence
x − 3x + 2
3x − 4 3x − 4 A B A(x − 2) + B(x − 1) x(A + B) − 2A − B
= = + = =
x2 − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2 (x − 1)(x − 2) (x − 1)(x − 2)
The tops are the same: 3x − 4 = x(A + B) − 2A − B. HENCE we have a system:
3 = A + B,
−4 = −2A − B.
The first equation gives: A = 3 − B, so plug it in the second: −4 = −2(3 − B) − B, which gives:
B = 2, and in turn this gives A = 3 − 2 = 1.
R 3x − 4 R 1 R 2
OUR famous integral is: x + 2
dx = x + dx + dx =
x − 3x + 2 x−1 x−2
x + ln |x − 1| + 2 ln |x − 2| + C.
R 2x2 − x + 4
Ex 7. Find dx.
x3 + 4x
Solution: Factor as follows: x3 + 4x = x(x2 + 4), and that is it.
2x2 − x + 4 A Bx + C A(x2 + 4) + x(Bx + c)
Next: = + = , so
x3 + 4x x x2 + 4 x(x2 + 4)
2x2 − x + 4 = x2 (A + B) + Cx + 4A, hence we get a system to solve:
A+B =2
C = −1
4A = 4.
The last eq gives A = 1, and from the first one one gets: B = 1.
R 1 R x−1 R x−1 R x−1
Our Integral becomes: dx + dx = ln |x| + dx = ln |x| + dx =
x 2
x +4 2
x +4 4(( x2 )2 + 1)
1 R 2u − 1
ln |x| + 2du=
4 u2 + 1
x du
based on a sub: u = where = 1/2, so 2du = dx. Note here: x = 2u.
2 dx
so we continue here:
1 R u R 1 
= ln |x| + 4 du − 2 du =
4 u2 + 1 u2 + 1
= ln |x| + ( 21 ) ln(u2 + 1) − ( 12 tan−1 (u) + C =
x x
= ln |x| + ( 12 ) ln(( )2 + 1) − ( 21 ) tan−1 ( ) + C
2 2

5
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on January 25, 2021

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 –Improper Integrals.

Section 1 Infinite Domain.

Imagine one wants to compute area under f (x) and its domain is [0, ∞). Below you see the graph
of such a function, its red graph continues to right.

Rt
The idea is: if f : [a, ∞) → R, then compute f (x)dx for t ≥ a, and then let t → ∞:
a
R∞ Rt
DEFINITON: THE IMPROPER INTEGRAL a f (x)dx = limt→∞ a f (x)dx. IF THE LIMIT IS A
NUMBER, WE CALL THE IMPROPER INTEGRAL CONVERGENT. Otherwise is called DIVER-
GENT (so if the limit is ∞, −∞ or Does Not Exist, then we get a divergent Improper integral)
In the same way we define:
Rb Rb
DEFINITION: −∞ f (x)dx = limt→−∞ t f (x)dx. IF THE LIMIT IS A NUMBER, WE CALL THE
IMPROPER INTEGRAL CONVERGENT. Otherwise is called DIVERGENT (so if the limit is ∞,
−∞ or Does Not Exist, then we get a divergent Improper integral)
R∞ Ra R∞
DEFINITION: For −∞ f (x)dx we split in −∞ f (x)dx + a f (x)dx.
These are 2 improper integrals!
R∞
If BOTH integrals are CONVERGENT then we call −∞
f (x)dx a CONVERGENT IMPROPER
INTEGRAL. Otherwise we call it DIVERGENT.
THE CHOICE OF a in last definition is not important! You may choose any a you want.
R −1 2
Exc 1. Find −∞ 4 dx.
(x − 1) 3
Solution: It is an improper integral! By definition one has
R −1 2 R −1 2
−∞ 4 dx = limt→−∞ t 4 dx = limt→−∞ F (−1) − F (t) by FTC part 1.
(x − 1) 3 (x − 1) 3
2 −4 (x − 1)−1/3
= −6(x − 1)−1/3 .
R R
One has that F (x) = 4 dx = 2 (x − 1) 3 dx = 2
−1
(x − 1) 3 3
2
 6
Now one has that limt→−∞ F (−1) − F (t) = limt→−∞ −6(−2)−1/3 + = 4.76 + 0 = 4.76, so
(t − 1)1/3
convergent.
R ∞ ln(x)
Exc 2. Find 1
dx.
x3
Solution: It is an improper integral! By definition one has
R ∞ ln(x) R t −3
1
dx = lim t→∞ 1
x ln(x)dx = limt→∞ F (t) − F (1) by FTC part 1.
x3
One has that F (x) = x−3 ln(x)dx. WE MUST use parts: select f 0 (x) = x−3 , g(x) = ln(x). Hence
R
x−2 1 x−2 R x−2 1 ln(x)
the ingredients are: f (x) = and g 0 (x) = . We get F (x) = ln(x) − dx = − 2 +
−2 x −2 −2 x 2x
1 R −3 ln(x) 1 x−2
x dx = − 2 +
2 2x 2 −2
ln(t) 1  1
Now one has that limt→∞ F (t) − F (1) = limt→∞ − 2
− 2 − 0− = 1/4, so convergent.
2t 4t 4
Practice makes perfect:
R∞ 1
Exc 3. A useful exercise: 1
dx is convergent if p > 1, and it is divergent if p ≤ 1. Split in 3
xp
cases p = 1, p > 1, p < 1.
R∞ 1
Ex 4. Find 4 x+66 dx.
R∞ 1
Rd 1
Solution: It is IMPROPER! Why? By definition we have 4 x+66
dx = limd→∞ 4 x+66
dx = limd→∞ F (d)−
F (4) By FTC

where:
1
R
F (x) = x+66
dx = ln(x + 66)

Hence limd→∞ F (d) − F (4) = limd→∞ ln(d + 66) − ln(70) = ∞, so it diverges!

R∞
Ex 5. Find 1 xex dx.

Solution:

It is an improper integral.
R∞ Rd
Use the definition and get 1
xex dx = limd→∞ 1
xex dx = limd→∞ F (d) − F (1) By FTC

where:

F (x) = R xex dx = xex − R 1 × ex dx by PARTS: f 0 (x) = ex , g(x) = x, so f (x) = ex , g 0 (x) = 1. Hence

R R

F (x) = xex dx = xex − 1 × ex dx = xex − ex .

We continue as follows: limd→∞ F (d)−F (1) = limd→∞ ded −ed −{1×e1 −e1 } = limd→∞ ed (d−1) = ∞,
so divergent.

Section 2 Discontinuous integrand

R 10 3
THINK now about this: how to compute 1
f (x)dx when f (x) = when f : (1, 10] → R? Its
x−1
graph is below.
3
This function is NOT defined in 1. There is an asymptote there: x = 1. As before we rely on limits:
DEFINITION: Assume f : [a, b) → R, and we define the improper integral
Rb Rt
a
f (x)dx = limt→b− a f (x)dx.
IF THE LIMIT IS A NUMBER, WE CALL THE IMPROPER INTEGRAL CONVERGENT. Other-
wise is called DIVERGENT (so if the limit is ∞, −∞ or Does Not Exist, then we get a divergent
Improper integral)
DEFINITION: Assume f : (a, b] → R, and we define the improper integral
Rb Rb
a
f (x)dx = limt→a+ t f (x)dx.
IF THE LIMIT IS A NUMBER, WE CALL THE IMPROPER INTEGRAL CONVERGENT. Other-
wise is called DIVERGENT (so if the limit is ∞, −∞ or Does Not Exist, then we get a divergent
Improper integral)
As in the first section: if f is NOT defined in a point (number) c in [a, b], we split in 2 IMPROPER
integrals:
Rc Rb
a
f (x)dx + c f (x)dx. If both are convergent, then our integral is convergent, otherwise it is
divergent.
R1
Ex 1. Find 0 ln(x)
x
dx.
Solution: It is improper, the issue is that function is NOT defined in 0. By definiton we have:
R 1 ln(x) R 1 ln(x)
0 x
dx = limd→0+
d x
dx = limd→0+ F (1) − F (d) by FTC,
where:
ln(x)
udu = 12 u2 = 21 (ln(x))2 , because we use a SUB: u = ln(x), hence du
= x1 , or
R R
F (x) = x
dx = dx
du = dx
x

We continue as follows:
limd→0+ F (1) − F (d) = limd→0+ 12 (ln(1))2 − 21 (ln(d))2 = −∞, so divergent.
R2 ex
Ex 2. Find 0 ex −1
dx.
Solution:
R 2 ex It is IMPROPER!
R 2 ex Where is the issue? AT 0 it is the issue... So use the definition:
0 ex −1
dx = limd→0+ d ex −1 dx = limd→0+ F (2) − F (d) by FTC
where:
4
 R x
F (x) = exe−1 dx = du du
R
u
= ln |u| = ln |ex − 1|, because we use a SUB: u = ex − 1, hence dx
= ex , or
du = dxex
We continue as follows:
limd→0+ F (2) − F (d) = limd→0+ ln |e2 − 1| − ln |ed − 1| = ∞, so divergent.
Re 3
Ex 3. Find 1 p dx.
x ln(x)
Solution: It is improper because of 1: we have at the bottom of the fraction: ln(1) = 0. The function
is NOT defined (not continuous) at x = 1. Its domaian is (1, e].
Re 3 Re 3
By definition: our integral is 1 p dx = limt→1+ t p dx = limt→1+ F (e) − F (t) by FTC
x ln(x) x ln(x)
part 1.
R 3
The antiderivative is computed as follows: F (x) = p dx. WE MUST use a SUB: u = ln(x),
x ln(x)
du 1 dx
hence = , or du = .
dx x x
1 u1/2 √ p
dx = 3 u−1/2 du = 3
R R
Our F (x) = 3 p = 6 u = 6 ln(x).
x ln(x) 1/2
p p
The improper integral becomes:limt→1+ F (e) − F (t) = limt→1+ 6 ln(e) − 6 ln(t) = 6 − 0 = 6, so
convergent.
Practice makes Perfect:
R∞ 1
Ex 4. Find −∞ dx.
1 + x2
R0 1 R∞ 1
HINT: Split in −∞ 2
dx + 0 dx.
1+x 1 + x2
R∞ 1 Rt 1
Let us show how to deal with the second one: 0
dx = limt→∞ 0
dx = limt→∞ F (t) −
1 + x2 1 + x2
F (0) by FTC (I) where
1
dx = tan−1 (x) by Partial Fraction Lecture in week 2.
R
F (x) =
1 + x2
π π
Hence limt→∞ F (t) − F (0) = limt→∞ arctan(t) − tan−1 (0) = − 0 = , so this piece is convergent;
2 2
R0 1 R 0 1
The other improper integral is: −∞ 2
dx = limt→−∞ t dx = limt→−∞ F (0) − F (t) by
1+x 1 + x2
FTC (I) where
1
dx = tan−1 (x) by Partial Fraction Lecture in week 2.
R
F (x) =
1 + x2
−π π
Hence limt→−∞ F (0) − F (t) = limt→−∞ arctan(0) − tan−1 (t) = 0 − = , so ALSO this piece is
2 2
convergent;
π π
THUS THE WHOLE INTEGRAL IS CONVERGENT, AND ITS VALUE IS: + = π, Done,
2 2
yahooooo
Ok, one more:
R π/2 cos(x)
Ex 5. Find 0 p dx.
sin(x)
5
HINT: It is NOT a definite integral, it is IMPROPER!!!!!!!!!!! WHY? Think of the bottom: sin(0) = 0,
we can NOT divide in this galaxy by 0, even if you are in a far galaxy, you can NOT divide by 0.
R π/2 cos(x) R π/2 cos(x)
By defintion: 0
p dx = limt→0+
t
p dx = limt→0+ F (π/2) − F (t) by FTC part 1.
sin(x) sin(x)
R cos(x) du
We have: F (x) = p dx. Hahaha: we need a sub: u = sin(x), hence = cos(x), or
sin(x) dx
−1
R u1/2 √ p
du = cos(x)dx. Our antiderivative becomes now: F (x) = u 2 du = = 2 u = 2 sin(x).
1/2
p p
Our improper integral is now: limt→0+ F (π/2) − F (t) = limt→0+ 2 sin(π/2) − 2 sin(t) = 2 − 0 = 2,
so convergent.
MORE EXERCISES in the pdf files posted in Brightspace. DO NOT CRY, and try as many sample
exercises as u can! From BriSpace....
Ok, yet one more:
R4 3
Ex 6. Find 1 dx.
2x − 6
SOL: It is improper! DENOMINATOR is 0 in the number 3.
R4 3 R3 3 R4 3
Split in: 1 dx = 1 dx + 3 dx. BOTH are IMPROPER!!!!!
2x − 6 2x − 6 2x − 6
R3 3 Rt 3 ln |2x − 6| t 3
NOW: 1 dx = lim− 1 dx = 3 lim− |1 = lim− ln |2t − 6| − ln(4) = −∞, so
2x − 6 t→3 2x − 6 t→3 2 2 t→3
our original improper integral is DIVERGENT! Can you see the absolute value? USE IT! Did you
see the left limit?
TRY MORE HOME:
R2 3
Find: a) 1 √ dx
x−1
R1
b) 0 ln(x) dx
R2 666
c) 1
dx
(2 − x)2
Are these INTEGRALS improper or not? WHY?

6
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on May 22, 2020

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 –Autonomous Differential Equations.

Section 1 Diffrential Equations.

DEFINITION: A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION is an Equation that includes at least a derivative of
a function (which can be called STATE VARIABLE).
EXAMPLE 1. Let t be the time, let P (t) be the population of pink superheroes in our city at time
t. This population follows (obeys) the equation:
dP
= P 2 (t) + cos(t) − 2 ln(t) + 666.
dt
NOTE: IT IS A differential equation! Here P is the state variable.
EXAMPLE 2. Let t be the time, let T (t) be the temperature of the heart of the Punisher when he
meets Melania T. The temperature is described by
d2 T eT + T
= + 1.
dt2 (1 + T )2
NOTE: IT IS A differential equation! Here T is the state variable.
Question: What is the difference between these 2 equations?
DEFINITION: A differential equation is called AUTONOMOUS if the rate of change (=derivative)
of the state variable depends ONLY on the state variable itself.
DEFINITION: A differential equation is called NON-AUTONOMOUS if the rate of change (=de-
rivative) of the state variable depends on BOTH: TIME and STATE VARIABLE.
Exercise 1. Classify the equations:
dy
a) = xy + 1 it is NON-AUTONOMOUS
dx
dy
b) = x + x2 + 3 it is NON-AUTONOMOUS (called sometimes: pure time Diff. eq.)
dx
df
c) = e3 ln(f )+5 + f 2 it is AUTONOMOUS
dx
DEFINITION: A SOLUTION of a differential equation is a FUNCTION that will make the differ-
ential equation a true statement when the function replaces the state variable.
Example: Check that G(t) = 1 + et IS a solution of the INITIAL CONDITION DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION:
dG
= G − 1,
dt
G(0) = 2.
Solution: First NOTE that it is a differential equation! We need to check to things:
dG
a) That = G − 1 is TRUE, and that
dt
b) G(0) = 2 is valid too.
Let us check b) as follows:
G(0) = 1 + e0 = 1 + 1 = 2 Yahooo, checked!
2
Let us check a) as follows:
dG
Left side is = (1 + et )0 = 0 + et = et , and the right side is:
dt
G − 1 = 1 + et − 1 = et YAHOOO THE LEFT AND RIGHT SIDES ARE THE SAME: DONE!
√
Ex 2. Check that z(t) = 1 + 1 + 2t IS a solution of the INITIAL CONDITION DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION:
dz 1
= ,
dt z−1
z(0) = 2.
Solution: First NOTE that it is a differential equation! We need to check to things!
√
The easy one is: z(0) = 1 + 1 + 2 × 0 = 1 + 1 = 2, checked! Now note that by chain rule
dz 1 −1 1
= 0 + (1 + 2t) 2 × 2 = √ .
dt 2 1 + 2t
1 1 1
Also the left side is: = √ =√ , DONE!
z−1 1 + 1 + 2t − 1 1 + 2t
THE TRICK IS THIS: IN DA FUTURE WE SHALL LEARN METHODS TO FIND OURSELVES
THE SOLUTION(s).... Hahaha. Today we just checked a function given on a tray is a solution,
that was the easy part!
Catalogue of basic Differential Equations:
1. EXPONENTIAL MODEL
Let t be the time, P (t) be a population that grows according to:
dP
= kP , for a given constant k. IT is AUTONOMOUS!
dt
ITS solution is: P (t) = P (0)ekt and this explains the name of the MODEL!
The words in the back of the model: the rate of change of the population is proportional to the
dP
dt
population itself! Or: the relative growth rate ( ) is constant!
P
EX: Check that the above function is A solution! Why this IS the ONLY solution, we shall see later
when we develop a method of solving differential equations.
dP
Solution: Left side is (by your best friend: chain rule) = (P (0)ekt )0 = P (0)ekt × k. Now the
dt
right side is: kP = kP (0)ekt WoW they are the same!
Assume P > 0. What Cal 1 tells you about the model? This:
i) If k > 0, then P is increasing (since its derivative is positive)
ii) If k < 0, then P is decreasing (since its derivative is negative)
iii) If k = 0, then P = P (0) is constant.
The first 2 interesting cases are below:
when we graph i)
3
 and when we graph ii)

2. LOGISTIC MODEL
Some populations start growing exponetially (as in the previous model), and then reach a limit:
the carrying capacity: L of the environment (lake, forest, island etc).
Too many individuals implies less food so some die.
dP P
The model is described by: = kP (1 − ), with k and L positive constants! Here L is the
dt L
carrying capacity!
Q: DID you memeorize already the formulae in these 2 models? Haha! Do it!
Cases:
dP
i) If P < L, then > 0, so P is increasing;
dt
dP
ii) If P > L, then < 0, so P is decreasing;
dt
dP
iii) ii) If P = L, then = 0, so P is constant.
dt
4
Case i) is below (where carrying capacity is L = 1000, and the initial condition: P (0) = 100):

Case ii) is below (where carrying capacity is L = 1000, and the initial condition: P (0) = 2000):

3. Newton’s Law Of Cooling/Heating

Here t is time, T (t) is the temperature of an object at time t. Imagine you have an environment
that has a constant temperature, say A (think of the fridge in Beer Store), and imagine you put
your object in that environment, it will be an exchange of heat there, but in time the object will
reach the ambient temperature. Makes sense? The temperature follows the law:
dT
= α(A − T ), where α is a constant that depends on the environment.
dt
dT
i) If A > T , then > 0, so HEATING;
dt
dT
ii) If A < T , then < 0, so COOLING;
dt
iii) If A = T , then T is constant, always is A. NO heat exchange!
Now: to be able to solve these models, or other interesting models, one needs a method of solving
differential equations! It is based on Cal 1!
5
Section 2 Separable Equations.
dy
DEFINITION: A differential equation is called SEPARABLE if it can be written as: = f (y)g(x)
dx
for 2 functions!
dy
PLAN: 1. SEPARATE: = g(x)dx;
f (y)
R dy R
2. INTEGRATE: = g(x)dx; and compute both sides.
f (y)
3. Isolate y (if possible). If an initial condition is given, find the constant C of integration!
Exercise 1. Solve
dy
= −8ty 2 ,
dt
y(0) = 3.
Solution: IT is SEPARABLE! Step 1 is this:
y −2 dy = −8tdt. Step 2 is this: y −2 dy = −8tdt. Hence:
R R

y −1 t2
= −8 + C,
−1 2
−1
= −4t2 + C.
y
−1
Use the INITIAL condition now: = 0 + C, or C = −1/3.
3
−1
Step 3: We isolate y as follows: = −4t2 − 1/3, hence
y
−1
y= .
−4t2 − 1/3
Exercise 2. Solve
y 0 − (x − 3)(1 + y 2 ) = 0,
y(0) = −1.
dy
Solution: IT is SEPARABLE! WHY? Because it can be written as: − (x − 3)(1 + y 2 ) = 0, or
dx
dy 2
= (x − 3)(1 + y ).
dx
dy
Step 1 is this: = (x − 3)dx
1 + y2
R dy R
Step 2 is this: = (x − 3)dx
1 + y2
x2
Hence we get: arctan(y) = − 3x + C.
2
π
Use the initial condition and get: arctan(−1) = 0 − 0 + C, hence C = − .
4
2 2
x π x π
We get: tan−1 (y) = − 3x − . Thus: y = tan( − 3x − ) Hahahahahaha
2 4 2 4

6
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on May 26, 2020

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Chapter 1 –Separable Equations.

Section 1 Separable Equations.

dy
DEFINITION: A differential equation is called SEPARABLE if it can be written as: = f (y)g(x)
dx
for 2 functions f and g!
dy
PLAN: 1. SEPARATE: = g(x)dx;
f (y)
R dy R
2. INTEGRATE: = g(x)dx; and compute both sides.
f (y)
3. Isolate y (if possible). If an initial condition is given, find the constant C of integration!
dL
Exercise 1. Solve: = 1000e0.2t , given that L(0) = 1003.
dt
Solution It is separable. So apply the 3 step plan: First separate:
R R e0.2t
dL = 1000e0.2t dt, then dL = 1000e0.2t dt. Now we integrate both sides: L = 1000 + C BY A
0.2
SUBSTITUTION u = 0.2t.
1000
To find C plug in the values given in initial condition: 1003 = + C, hence C = 1003 − 5000 =
0.2
−3997. Final aswer is: L = 5000e0.2t − 3997.
Exercise 2. Find the solution of the exponential model.
dP
Solution The model is = kP . It is separable. So apply the 3 step plan: First separate:
dt
dP R dP R
= kdt, now integrate: = kdt. Now compute both sides:
P P
ln |P | = kt + c. Kill log with the exp function:|P | = ekt+c . Hence P = ±ekt+c .
NOW: we rewrite it as: P = ±ec ekt = ±ec ekt = aekt . In other words:
P (t) = aekt for a number a.TO GET a plug t = 0, and get P (0) = a × 1 = a. HENCE:
P (t) = P (0)ekt . DONE
Exercise 2. Find the solution of the logistic model.
dP P
Solution The model is = kP (1 − ). It is separable. So apply the 3 step plan: First separate in
dt L
this cool way:
dP kP (L − P ) LdP R LdP R
FROM = one gets: = kdt; NOW integrate: = kdt, OR
dt L P (L − P ) P (L − P )
R L
dP = kt + c. For the left side we need your bff: Partial Fractions!!!
P (L − P )
L a b a(L − P ) + bP
WE have: = + = .
P (L − P ) P L−P P (L − P )
Identify now: L = P (b − a) + aL, hence a system:
0 = b − a,
1 = a.
2
THIS gives a = 1 = b. Wow!
Our equation becomes now:
R 1 R 1
dP + dP = kt + c.
P L−P
du
So: ln |P | − ln |L − P | = kt + c BY A CHEESY SUB u = L − P , thus = −1.
dP
TRICK: rewrite as
− ln |P | + ln |L − P | = −kt − c to use log laws:
|L − P |
ln( ) = −kt − c
|P |
|L − P | L−P
Now use the inverse and isolate: = e−kt−c , OR = ±e−kt−c , and (see ex 2 again for
|P | P
this trick):
L−P
= ±e−c e−kt .
P
L L
We get − 1 = Ae−kt , or = 1 + Ae−kt , HENCE:
P P
L
P =
1 + Ae−kt
WHAT is A??????????
L L
Plug t = 0 into − 1 = Ae−kt , and get: A = − 1.
P P (0)
FINAL ANSWER:
L
P = P (t) =
L
1+( − 1)e−kt
P (0)
NOTE that for k ≥ 0 one has limt→∞ P (t) = L as we saw in the graphs in the previous lecture! Did
you memorize it?!
dP P
Ex 3. The population of aliens on Mars follows = 0.08P (1 − ), where P (0) = 100. Find
dt 1000
the population when t = 80. And also find at what time the population reach 900.
1000
Solution: Here L = 1000, and k = 0.08 so use the above formula and get P (80) = ≈
1 + 9e−6.4
985.3
1000
For the second part: find t such that P (t) = 900, or = 900
1 + 9e−0.08t
This is solved as follows:
10 1
1 + 9e−0.08t = , so e−0.08t = , use LOG now
9 81
ln(81)
−0.08t = ln(1/81) = − ln(81) or t = ≈ 54.9
0.08
Ex 4. Solve the Newton’s Law of cooling/heating model!
dT
Solution: The model is = α(A − T ). It is a separable equation.
dt
3
 dT R dT R
Separate: = αdt, integrate: = αdt. We get:
A−T A−T
− ln |A − T | = αt + c, or ln |A − T | = −αt − c, use the inverse of log and get:
|A − T | = e−αt−c , so A − T = ±e−αt−c , or T = A − (±e−αt−c )
REwrite it as: T = A − (±e−c e−αt ) = A + de−αt where d is a number that can be FOUND from
making t = 0 as follows:
T (0) = A + d, hence d = T (0) − A.
Final answer: T (t) = A + (T (0) − A)e−αt
Ex 5. Punisher learned to cook up a big pot of zombie soup (zesty goulash) late at night, just before
closing time of his junk food restaurant (called DESTROY), so that there would be plenty of soup
to feed aliens the next day. He also found out that, while refrigeration was essential to preserve
the soup overnight, the soup was too hot to be put directly into the fridge when it was ready. (The
soup had just boiled at 100 degrees C, and the fridge was not powerful enough to accomodate a
big pot of soup if it was any warmer than 20 degrees C). Punisher discovered (in his dreams) that
by cooling the pot in a sink full of cold blood, (kept running, so that its temperature was roughly
constant at 5 degrees C) and stirring occasionally, he could bring tht temperature of the soup to 60
degrees C in ten minutes. How long before closing time should the soup be ready so that Punisher
could put it in the fridge and leave on time to kill corrupt cops and politicians?
Solution: We assume the Newton’s Law here, hence T (t) = 5 + (100 − 5)e−αt = 5 + 95e−αt .
55
Since T (10) = 60 it follows that 60 = 5 + 95e−10α , or 55 = 95e−αt . Hence = e−αt , and now use a
95
LOG to isolate for α as follows:
ln(55/95)
ln(55/95) = −10α, or α = . This can be computed using a calculator.
−10
NOW: when to put it in the fridge?
ln(55/95)
t
Solve 20 = 5 + 95e 10 as follows:
ln(55/95)
t
15/95 = e 10 . Use LOG to isolate now:
ln(55/95) ln(15/95)
ln(15/95) = t, so t = which can be computed using a calculator, it is 34.18, so
10 ln(55/95)
10
just a bit more than half an hour for the soup to cool off enough to be put into the refrigerator. On
the fridge there is a magnet saying : study Cal 2!
dy
Ex 6. Solve: − x2 y 2 = x2
dx
dy
Solution: The way to rewrite it is this: = x2 y 2 + x2 = x2 (1 + y 2 ) and now it looks separable!!
dx
dy 2
R dy R 2 −1 x3
= x dx, hence = x dx, and by integrating both sides: tan (y) = + c, or
1 + y2 1 + y2 3
x3
y = tan( + c).
3
dy x
Ex 6. Solve: =− , if y(0) = 1.
dx y−3
Solution: it is separabe, hence we apply our plan:
4
 R R y2 x2
Separate: (y − 3)dy = −xdx, now INTEGRATE: (y − 3)dy = −xdx, or − 3y = − + c.
2 2
1
Plug x = 0 and y = 1 to get c as follows: − 3 = c, or c = −5/2.
2
y2 x2 5
Our equation is now: − 3y = − − .
2 2 2
p
2 2 2 2 6 ± 36 − 4(x2 + 5)
Hence: y −6y = −x −5, or y −6y +x +5 = 0. Treat it as a quadratic: y = =
p 2
6 ± 4(9 − (x2 + 5)) √
= 3 ± 4 − x2 . BUT which one shoud we choose?
2
RECALL that y(0) = 1, hence:
√
y = 3− 4 − x2 ONLY!
Recall 3 − 2 = 1.

5
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on May 28, 2020

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Ch 1 –Equilibria. Stability. Phase line Diagram Solution curves.

Section 1 Equilibria.
NOTE: We consider in this lecture ONLY autonomous Differential equations! So the shape of such
an equation is:
dm
= f (m),
dt
where m is the state variable.
DEFINITION: A value m∗ of the state variable is called an EQUILIBRIUM FOR THE AUTONOMOUS
dm
differential equation = f (m) IF f (m∗ ) = 0. One can use the words: Steady-State! So in other
dt
words: when the rate is 0.
Equilibria is the set (collection) of all equilibrium points.
An equilibrium point m∗ is called BIO meaningful if m∗ ≥ 0.
dm
PLAN: 1. Check that your (differential) equation IS autonomous; 2. From = f (m), set up
dt
f (m) = 0, and solve (MIGHT NEED to factor) it!
3. Interpret the results.
db
Exercise 1. Bacterial Population Find equilibria for = λb, where λ is a nonzero real number.
dt
Solution It is autonomous! MORE: think of the EXPONENTIAL model! Here f (b) = λb. From
f (b) = 0 one gets that b∗ = 0 (extinction) is the only equilibrium point since λ is NOT 0.
dT
Exercise 2. Newtons’s LAW Find equilibria for = α(A − T ), where α is a nonzero real number.
dt
Solution It is autonomous! Here f (T ) = α(A − T ). From f (T ) = 0 one obtains that α(A − T ) = 0,
or T ∗ = A, exactly what one would expect.
Exercise 3. Find the equilibria of the logistic model.
dP P P
Solution The model is = kP (1 − ). It is autonomous. Here f (P ) = kP (1 − ). From
dt L L
P
f (P ) = 0, one gets that kP (1 − ) = 0. It is Factored Already: so P1 = 0 (extinction) or P2∗ = L
∗
L
(the carrying capacity).
dp
Ex 4. The bacterial selection model between 2 cultures is = (µ − λ)p(1 − p). Find its equilibria!
dt
Solution: Think of p as a fraction! Here λ and µ are 2 real numbers related to the 2 cultures. If we
solve
(µ − λ)p(1 − p) = 0 WHEN λ 6= µ then p∗1 = 0 and p∗2 = 1. That means one culture dies, and the
other takes over!
Section 2 Graphical Display of Differential Equations
STEP 1: DRAW A LINE (IT WILL REPRESENT THE STATE VARIABLE)
STEP 2: DRAW A BULLET FOR EACH EQUILIBRIUM POINT YOU ALREADY FOUND!
STEP 3: IN EACH SUBINTERVAL DRAW ARROWS:
2
i) draw right-pointing arrows if the state variable is increasing;
ii) draw left-pointing arrows if the state variable is decreasing.
Example:

Ex 5. Create the phase line diagrams for the equations in EX: 1,2,3,4. SEE the file L8lines.pdf
Section 3 STABILITY
DEFINITION: i) an equilibrium point (steady-state) is called stable if solutions that begin near
that equilibrium approach the equilibrium!
ii) an equilibrium point is called unstable if solutions that start near that equilibrium move away
from the equilibrium.
THEOREM: (CRITERION FOR STABILITY USING THE DERIVATIVE) Consider the autonomous
dm
differential equation: = f (m). Let m∗ be an equilibrium of this equation. Then:
dt
i) m∗ is STABLE if f 0 (m∗ ) < 0,
ii) m∗ is UNSTABLE if f 0 (m∗ ) > 0.
NOTE: the criterion can NOT be used if the derivative is 0.
Ex 6. For the equations in EX: 1,2,3,4. apply the criterion and see that you get SAME ANSWERS
as in Ex 5.
Classify the stability of the equilibrium points of:
dx
Ex 7. = 1 − ax, where a > 0.
dt
1
Solution: f (x) = 1 − ax = 0 GIVES: 1 = ax, or x∗ = .
a
1 1
Now the derivative is: f 0 (x) = −a < 0. HENCE : f 0 ( ) < 0, so x∗ = is STABLE!
a a
dx
Ex 8. = cx + x2 , where c > 0.
dt
Solution: f (x) = cx + x2 = 0 GIVES: x(c + x) = 0, hence x∗1 = 0 and x∗2 = −c.
Now the derivative is: f 0 (x) = c + 2x. HENCE : f 0 (0) = c > 0, so 0 is UNSTABLE!
Also: f 0 (−c) = −c < 0, so −c is STABLE!
dw
Ex 9. = αeβw − 1, where α > 0 and β < 0.
dt
Solution: f (w) = αeβw − 1 = 0 GIVES: αeβw = 1, or eβw = α−1 , hence βw = ln(α−1 ), or w∗ =
ln(α−1 )
.
β
ln(α−1 )
−1 β
ln(α ) β −1
Now the derivative is: f 0 (w) = αeβw β. HENCE : f 0 ( ) = αβe = αβeln(α ) =
β
−1
ln(α )
αβα−1 = β < 0, so w∗ = is STABLE!
β
dy
Ex 10. = ye−βy − ay, where a > 1 and β < 0.
dt
3
Solution: f (y) = ye−βy − ay = 0 GIVES: y(e−βy − a) = 0, so:
y1∗ = 0 and e−βy − a = 0, OR:
y1∗ = 0 and e−βy = a, OR:
y1∗ = 0 and −βy = ln(a), OR
ln(a)
y1∗ = 0 and y2∗ = .
−β
Now the derivative is: f 0 (y) = 1 × e−βy + ye−βy (−β) − a.
WE HAVE: f 0 (0) = 1 − a < 0 , so 0 is stable.
ln(a) ln(a)
ln(a) −β ln(a) −β ln(a)
WE HAVE: f 0 ( ) = e −β + e −β (−β)−a = a+ln(a)a−a = ln(a)a > 0 so y2∗ =
−β −β −β
is unstable.
dy
Ex 11. ASSUME that a population y obeys the differential equation: y 0 = = y 3 − 4y 2 − y + 4.
dt
Find bio menaingful equilibria, classify it, and draw the phase line diagram.
Solution: Here f (y) = y 3 − 4y 2 − y + 4 = 0 can be solved by factorig: y 2 (y − 4) − (y − 4) = 0, or
(y − 4)(y 2 − 1) = 0, so
(y + 1)(y − 1)(y − 4) = 0. This gives y1∗ = −1, y2∗ = 1 and y3∗ = 4, BUT ONLY y2∗ = 1 and y3∗ = 4 are
BIO meaningful!
WE NEED the derivataive: f 0 (y) = 3y 2 − 8y − 1.
Now: f 0 (1) = 3 − 8 − 1 < 0 so 1 is stable.
NOW: f 0 (4) = 3 × 42 − 8 × 4 − 1 > 0 so 4 is unstable.
dz
Ex 12. Pink aliens invaded my world. They reproduce at a rate: = z − 8z 2 + 7z 3 . (Here the
dt
units are : time t in hours, and z in millions).
a) find the bio meaningful Equilibria.
b) classify them.
c) draw a phase line diagram.
d) if now there are 100000 pink aliens in my world, what will happen?
Solution: a) 0 = f (z) = z−8z 2 +7z 3 can be solved as follows: z(1−8z+7z 2 ) = 0, or z(1−z)(1−7z) =
0.
Thus gives z1∗ = 0, z2∗ = 1/7, z3∗ = 1. ALL are bio menaingful.
b) Need the derivative: f 0 (z) = 1 − 16z + 21z 2 . Hence:
i) f 0 (0) = 1 > 0, so 0 is unstable.
ii) f 0 (1/7) = −0.857 < 0, so 1/7 is stable.
iii) f 0 (1) = 6 > 0, so 1 is unstable.
c) see the accompanying pdf file (as well see it for all the other phase line diagrams in this Lecture!)
d) LOOK at the phase line diagram:
and note that 100000 is in between 0 and 1/7 th of a million( ≈ 142857)! So based on the ARROW,
in time, the population will reach 1/7 th of a million pink aliens!
4
Section 4 Solution curves
A. Recall the logistic model:
LOGISTIC MODEL.
dP P P
The model is = kP (1 − ). It is autonomous. Here f (P ) = kP (1 − ). From f (P ) = 0, one
dt L L
P
gets that kP (1 − ) = 0. It is Factored Already: so P1 = 0 (extinction) or P2∗ = L (the carrying
∗
L
capacity).
Consider L = 1500, and k = 0.008. The solution curve (see last lecture when you found the
formula of P (t)) is the RED curve for and P (0) = 100, and the BLUE curve for P (0) = 500 (and
recall that 0 is UNSTABLE, and L = 1500 is stable!)

If the initial conditon is P (0) = 2500 then the GREEN curve is the solution curve (again population
stabilizing at L = 1500 (which is STABLE) in time):

B. Recall the exponential MODEL.

The Blue curve is for P (0) = 100, k = 0.0008.
and the black curve is for P (0) = 300 and k = −0.0005.
RECALL THAT P ∗ = 0 IN THIS CASE!!!
5
AND SEE HOW THE BLACK CURVE GETS CLOSER AND CLOSER TO THE line P = 0. (WHY?
when k < 0, the equilibrium point is stable, if k > 0, the equilibrium point (0 in our case) is UN-
STABLE, so the blue curve moves away from the line P = 0. SEE again the Bacterial Population
example!

6
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on June 1, 2020

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Ch 1 –Equilibria. Stability. Phase line Diagram Solution curves.

Section 1 EXERCISES
NOTE: We consider in this lecture ONLY autonomous Differential equations! So the shape of such
an equation is:
dm
= f (m),
dt
where m is the state variable.
DEFINITION: A value m∗ of the state variable is called an EQUILIBRIUM FOR THE AUTONOMOUS
dm
differential equation = f (m) IF f (m∗ ) = 0. One can use the words: Steady-State! So in other
dt
words: an equilibrium point occurs when the rate in that point is 0.
Equilibria is the set (collection) of all equilibrium points.
An equilibrium point m∗ is called BIO meaningful if m∗ ≥ 0.
PLAN: 1. Check that your (differential) equation IS autonomous;
dm
2. From = f (m), set up f (m) = 0, and solve (MIGHT NEED to factor) it!
dt
3. Interpret the results.
dx
Ex. 1 Classify the equilibrium points of = ax + x3 , where −1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
dt
Solution: It is autonomous. Let f (x) = ax + x3 . Solve f (x) = 0 as follows:
ax + x3 = 0, or x(a + x2 ) = 0. Which at least gives x∗1 = 0.
Case 1. If 1 ≥ a > 0, then x∗1 = 0 is the ONLY equilibrium point!
√ √
Case 2. If −1 ≤ a ≤ 0, then from x2 = −a, one has x∗2 = − −a and x∗3 = + −a.
To start the classification we need the derivative: f 0 (x) = a + 3x2 .
Case 1. We have f 0 (0) = a + 3 × 02 = a > 0, so x∗1 = 0 is UNSTABLE.
Case 2. We distinguish 2 cases:
i) Assume a = 0. In this case we ALSO have x∗2 = x∗3 = 0, and f 0 (0) = 0 and we can NOT apply
the criterion.
ii) Assume −1 ≤ a < 0.
We have f 0 (0) = a < 0 so x∗1 = 0 is stable.
√ √ √
We have f 0 (− −a) = a + 3(− −a)2 = a + 3(−a) = −2a > 0, so x∗2 = − −a is unstable.
√ √ √
We have f 0 ( −a) = a + 3( −a)2 = a + 3(−a) = −2a > 0, so x∗3 = −a is unstable.
dN 5N 2
Ex. 2 Classify the equilibrium points of = − 2N , where N is the number of voices I
dt 1 + N2
hear while I solve integrals in a far galaxy. Draw the phase-line diagram.
Solution: It is autonomous. Based on the statement we have a poulation, so N ≥ 0. Let f (N ) =
5N 2
− 2N . Solve f (N ) = 0 as follows: (factor N first!!!)
1 + N2
2
  5N  −2N 2 + 5N − 2 
WE get that N1∗ = 0. For the other 2 equilibrium points

0=N − 2 = N
1 + N2 1 + N2
use the quadratic:
p
−5 ± 25 − 4(−2)(−2) −5 ± 3
= , which gives:
−4 −4
1
N2∗ = and N3∗ = 2.
2
10N (1 + N 2 ) − 5N 2 × 2N
To start the classification we need: f 0 (N ) = − 2.
(1 + N 2 )2
Note that: f 0 (0) = −2 < 0, so 0 is stable.
Note that f 0 (1/2) > 0, so 1/2 is unstable.
Note that f 0 (2) < 0, so 2 is stable.
For the phase line diagraam see the file for L9.
dp  
Ex. 3 I hear a lot of voices, but the proportion of pink voices follows: = 2(1 − p) − 1.5p p(1 − p)
dt
Classify the equilibrium points of it. Draw the phase-line diagram.
Solution: It is autonomous. Based on the statement we have a poulation, so 1 ≥ p ≥ 0.
 
Let f (p) = 2(1 − p) − 1.5p p(1 − p), and solve f (p) = 0 as follows:
4
(2 − 2p − 1.5p)p(1 − p) = 0, or (2 − 3.5p)p(1 − p) = 0 which gives p∗1 = 0, p∗2 = and p∗3 = 1.
7
To start the classification we need: f 0 (p). First note that
f (p) = (2 − 3.5p)(p − p2 ) = 2p − 2p2 − 3.5p2 + 3.5p3 = 2p − 5.5p2 + 3.5p3 . Hence:
f 0 (p) = 2 − 11p + 10.5p2 .
Note that f 0 (0) = 2 > 0 so p1 = 0 is Unstable.
4 4
Note that f 0 ( ) = −0.857 < 0, so p∗2 = is stable.
7 7
0
Note that f (1) = 1.5 > 0, so p3 = 1 is unstable.
See the handwritten file for the phaseline.
dx
Ex. Consider = 3(x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) Classify the equilibrium points of it. Draw the phase-line
dt
diagram. Draw solution curves for
i) x(0) = 1.5;
ii) x(0) = 2.3.
Solution: It is autonomous. Just a DRILL problem. NO population involved. Let f (x) = 3(x −
2)(x − 1)(x + 1). It is factored! From f (x) = 0 one has: x∗1 = −1, x∗2 = 1, x∗3 = 2.
Note that f (x) = 3(x − 2)(x2 − 1) = 3(x3 − x − 2x2 + 2), so we
next compute the derivative: f 0 (x) = 3(3x2 − 1 − 4x).
One has f 0 (−1) = 18 > 0, so −1 is unstable.
One has that f 0 (1) = −6 < 0, so 1 is stable.
One has that f 0 (2) = 9 > 0, so 2 is unstable.
3
See the same pdf file for phaseline and solution curves.
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT: CLASSIFY THE EQUILIBRIUM POINTS AND DRAW THE PHASE
LINE DIAGRAM FOR:
dy
a) = y(1 − y)(y − 2),
dx
dP
b) = P 3 − 5P 2 + 6P
dt
Hints: a) already factored! Easy to get the equilibria, next find the derivative and plug in.
b) Factor first P , then the quadtratic can be either factored in 2 brackets or just use the quadratic
formula! Find the derivative and start plugging in.
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT: Consider the equation:
dx
= x2 − 5x + 6, x(0) = 0.
dt
i) Solve the equation.
ii) Draw the phase line diagram.
Hint: separable equation, but in the left side use Partial Fractions. Use the blocks with ln. Indeed:
dx
= dt is the separation step. The integration is this:
(x − 2)(x − 3)
R dx R 1 a b
= dt = t + c. For partial fractions use = + . Now find
(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 2)(x − 3) x−2 x−3
a and b, and use the log block. DO NOT forget to get the constant of integration c from the initial
condition! By the way, did you get that a = −1 and b = 1?? I was curiuos. Did youget that the
constant of integration is c = ln(3) − ln(2) = ln(3/2)?
We shall start our last topic next lecture, so we shall teach several lectures on Complex Numbers
and Linear Algebra, that stuff will be used in systems (linear or not) of differential equations.
Yahoooo!
IMPORTANT for your MOBIUS assignments: What Mobius implemented is this:
asymptotically stable = stable from our lecture notes!
BUT in our WRITTEN tests and Final exam we use only stable, unstable terminology!

4
 — C AL II FOR L IFE SCIENCES —

MAT 1332

 This notes are intended for the use of students registered in MAT 1332.

 You may print this notes to write on them (or save a copy to use with a device).

 Organization: The book is divided into Chapters, and each Chapter contains certain Sec-
tions (based on the outline).

 Topics in MAT 1332 are best understood by solving a variety of problems. The theorems
and definitions from your lecture notes will make more sense after you’ve spent some time
working on a variety of concrete examples.

 Remember: on midterms/exams, you need to have practiced enough to solve problems

without needing to consult your notes, and in a limited amount of time. Prepare yourself
with plenty of math exercises.

 Last updated on October 28, 2020

 THIS BOOK BELONGS TO 

1
Ch 1 –Complex NUMBERS.

Section 1 INTRO
Recall that the equation x2 + 1 = 0 DOES NOT have real roots. WHY? Simply because x2 = −1
means that -1 is positive (as a square). Our plan is to enlarge the set R of real numbers to a larger
set in which the equation x2 + 1 = 0 has roots, and in fact in which any polynomial equation of
any DEGREE has roots.
DEFINITION: A complex number is a number of the form: z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R (are real
numbers) and i is a number such that i2 = −1. The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.
We shall give a representation of the complex numbers using that system of axes xOy.
Notation: Re(z) = a is called the real part of z, while Im(z) = b is called the imaginary part of z.
Examples: a) The number z = −1 − 3i ∈ C, here Re(z) = −1 and Im(z) = −3.
b) The number w = 4 = 4 + 0i ∈ C, here Re(w) = 4 and Im(w) = 0. WHEN A COMPLEX
NUMBER HAS THE real PART 0, WE CALL IT purely imaginary!
1 3 1 −3
c) The number y = − i ∈ C, here Re(y) = and Im(y) = .
3 991 3 991
DEFINITION: Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and their imaginary parts
coincide. As an example z 6= w where z = 2 − i, and w = 2 + i (their imaginary parts are different).
We denote by 0 = 0+0i the complex number 0. Moreover every real number is a complex number:
If x ∈ R is a real number, then x = x + 0i ∈ C.
Operations:
DEFINITION: If z = a + bi and w = c + di are complex numbers, we define their addition as
follows:
z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i ∈ C
Example: If z = −23 + 3i and w = 19 − 9i, then z + w = −4 − 6i.
DEFINITION: If z = a + bi and w = c + di are complex numbers, we define their subtraction as
follows:
z − w = (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i ∈ C
Example: If z = −3 + 3i and w = 9 − 4i, then z − w = −12 + 7i.
DEFINITION: If z = a + bi and w = c + di are complex numbers, we define their multiplication as
follows:
zw = (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i ∈ C.
Example: If z = −3 + 3i and w = 2 − i, then zw = (−6 + 3) + (3 + 6)i = −3 + 9i.
IN ORDER do derive the formula of division we need more definitions from the world of Complex
Numbers:
DEFINITION: Given a complex number z = a + bi, we denote by z = a − bi ∈ C and we call it:
THE CONJUGATE OF z. (We read z bar.)
Example: If z = 23 − 3i, then z = 23 + 3i. If w = 5 = 5 + 0i, then w = 5 − 0i = 5. If v = −23 − 3i,
then v = −23 + 3i.
Basic Properties of CONJUGATION:
2
a) z + w = z + w; b) z − w = z − w; c) zw = zw; d) z = z
DEFINITION: If z = a + bi is a complex number, we define its ABSOLUTE VALUE (OR MODU-
LUS) to be
√
|z| = a2 + b2 ∈ R. Moreover, one sees that |z| ≥ 0 (being a root!).
p √
Example: If z = −3 + 4i ∈ C, then |z| = (−3)2 + (4)2 = 25 = 5.
IMPORTANT NOTE: If z = a + bi ∈ C, then zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2 = |z|2 , HENCE:
zz = |z|2

1 z
IF z 6= 0 we define = 2 ∈C
z |z|
DEFINITION: Consider 2 complex numbers: z ∈ C and 0 6= w ∈ C.
z 1 w
We define (based on the above idea) the DIVISION: = z = z 2.
w w |w|
z
Example: If z = 1 − 2i and w = −3 − 4i, find .
w
z 1 w −3 + 4i (−3 + 8) + (4 + 6)i 5 10
Solution: One has: = z = z 2 = (1 − 2i) 2 2
= = + i.
w w |w| (−3) + (−4) 25 25 25
z z
ANOTHER Property: = .
w w
We visualize the real numbers using the real number line. How about complex numbers? Think
of z = x + yi ∈ C as an ordered pair (x, y) , and this suggests we should visualize them as a
plane, with the x axis being the real axis and the y axis being the imaginary axis. This is called the
complex plane C, it’s the same thing as the usual Cartesian plane but we label the axes as real and
imaginary.
More accurately, we think of a complex number as the vector from the origin to the point with
coordinates x + yi in the complex plane (or to the point (x, y) in the plane):
See http://pirate.shu.edu/ wachsmut/complex/numbers/plane.html for a nice picture below:

Section 2 POLAR FORM

Consider a complex number z = x + yi, and visualize it in the complex plane. The angle between
positve x axis and the vector
p from the origin to the point with coordinates (x, y) is called θ. The
absolute value is r = |z| = x2 + y 2 . The point (x, y) can be in any quadrant.
The following cool pic can be found at: https://www.intmath.com/complex-numbers/4-polar-
form.php
3
 x y
Note that cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = , from where we isolate:
r r
x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ). What we get is this:
x + yi = r cos(θ) + r sin(θ)i = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)).
The form of z = x + yi is the ALGEBRAIC FORM and
z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) is called the polar form of z.
The special values of trig ratios:

EX. 1. Express the following complex numbers in polar form:

a) z = 1 + i,
b) z = 7i,
c) z = −7i,
d) z = −3 − 4i.
SOLUTION:
see the file!
√
In general, if z = a + bi then r = |z| = a2 + b2 , but the argument θ is not uniquely defi
ned. If we restrict it between −π and π the we get:
θ = arctan(b/a) if a > 0;
θ = arctan(b/a) + π if a < 0, and b > 0
θ = arctan(b/a) − π if a < 0, and b < 0
Section 3 EXPONENTIAL FORM
Once we have the polar form, we can get the exponential form. The conversion is based on:
4
 r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) = reiθ
Rules:
a) MULTIPLICATION: If z = reiθ and w = seiα are in exponential form, then zw = (rs)ei(θ+α) .
z r
b) DIVISION: If z = reiθ and w = seiα are in exponential form, then = ei(θ−α) .
w s
c) De Moivre’s FORMULA is an application of the above: if z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) = reiθ , THEN:
z n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) = rn einθ , forany integer n.
1 1
Ex 2. If z = + i, find z 666 .
2 2
Solution: See the handwritten file for the polar pic and solution!
EX 3. If z = 2 − 2i, find z 8 .
Solution: see same file.
Section 3 Quadratic FORMULA
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Consider ax2 + bx + c = 0. Its roots are: x = .
2a
EX. 4. Solve x2 + x + 5 = 0
Solution: a = 1, b = 1, and c = 5.
√ √
−1 ± 12 − 4 × 1 × 5 −1 ± −19 √
Hence x = = = (NOW recall that i2 = −1, or i = −1)
2×1 2
√ √ √
−1 ± 19 −1 −1 ± 19i
= = . Hence the 2 COMPLEX roots are:
2 2
√ √
−1 19 −1 19
x1 = − i and x2 = + i
2 2 2 2
SEE the accompanying file for an extra exercise. Haha!