Course Contents:

• Introduction to DSA
• Linked List
• Stack and Queue
• Binary Tree
• Binary Search Tree
• Heap
• Sorting
• Searching
• Hashing
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 Introduction

❑ A computer program is a collection of instructions to perform a specific task. For this, a

computer program may need to store data, retrieve data, and perform computations on
the data.

❑ A data structure is a named location that can be used to store and organize data.

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 Good Computer
Program

❑ Run efficiently and correctly.

❑ User friendly interface.

❑ Easy to read and understand.

❑ Easy to debug.

❑ Easy to modify.

❑ Easy to maintain.

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 Good Computer
Program

Program consists of 2 things:

a) Algorithms

b) Data Structures

*Good program is combination of both.

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 DSA Introduction

❑ An algorithm is a step by step process to solve particular problem statement.

❑ A data structure represents the logical relationship that exists between individuals

elements of data to carry out certain tasks.

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 Algorithm??

❑ An algorithm is a precise procedure for solving a problem in finite number of steps.

❑ An algorithm states the actions to be executed and the order in which these actions are

to be executed.

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 Algorithmic
Properties

❑ It must be correct.

❑ Composed of series of concrete steps.

❑ No ambiguity.

❑ Composed of finite number of steps.

❑ Must terminate.

❑ It takes zero or more inputs.

❑ It should use less memory space as much as possible.

❑ It results in one or more outputs.

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 Efficiency of an
algorithm.

❑ Algorithms are programs in general form.

❑ It is an idea upon which program is designed.

❑ It should be independent of the programming language.

❑ Every programmer having enough knowledge and

experience should understand it.

❑ It should be applicable to inputs of all sizes.

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 Efficiency of an
algorithm.

❑ Efficiency of an algorithm denotes the rate at which an algorithm solves a problem of size n.

❑ Time and Space

❑ Time = no. of steps algorithm executes.

❑ Space = no. of unit memory storage it requires.

❑ Algorithm complexity calculation: Time taken & Space required.

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 Characteristics of an
algorithm.

❑ Unambiguous

❑ Input

❑ Output

❑ Finiteness

❑ Feasibility

❑ Independent

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 How to write an
Algorithm?

❑ It is problem and resource dependent.

❑ Algorithm are never written to support a particular programming code.

❑ Problem domain should be well defined.

❑ Example: Design an algorithm to add 2 numbers and display the result.

Step 1 − START
Step 2 − declare three integers a, b & c
Step 3 − define values of a & b
Step 4 − add values of a & b
Step 5 − store output of step 4 to c
Step 6 − print c
Step 7 − STOP

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Measuring Running Time of an Algorithm
• Implement the algorithm in a language
(Dependent on s/w and h/w)
• Run it on different inputs (Limited number
of inputs)
• Record the exact running time (Not
feasible for algorithms that take longer
Experimental
time to execute)
Method
Measuring
Running Time
Analytical
Method • Analyze running time based on input size.
• Independent of software and hardware
• Consider all possible inputs

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Asymptotic Analysis

• Running time is dependent on size of input(n).

• Small input size = less running time.
• Big input size = more running time.
• Example: Array Elements Sorting.

• This kind of behavior of algorithm is studied in Asymptotic Analysis.

• If the running time increases very rapidly on the basis of input then that algorithm is
not considered as efficient algorithm.

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• Consider below example:

Input Size 2 4 7 100 1000 10000

n
Algo A. 4 8 14 200 2000 20000
(time)
Algo B. 4 16 49 10000 1000000 100000000
(time)

• Algo B will take more time as compared to Algo A.

• We will definitely choose Algo A.
• Algo B. will be very inefficient for larger input.
• To determine the efficiency of the algorithm we have to see how the algorithm behaves
when the input size is increased.
• To find the rate of growth of running time we will use Big O Notation.
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 Time Complexity of
an algorithm.

❑ The time taken for an algorithm is comprised of:

Compilation Time

Run Time

❑ Compile time is the time taken to compile an algorithm.

It checks syntax and semantic errors.

❑ Run time is the time to execute the compiled program.

Is runtime calculated only for executable statements or declaration statements?

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 Time Complexity of
an algorithm.

❑ Time complexity of an algorithm is generally classified as three types:

Worst Case

Average Case

Best Case

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 Time Complexity of
an algorithm.

❑ Worst Case: Longest time that an algorithm will use to produce desired results.

❑ Average Case : Average time that the algorithm will use. It depends upon probability distribution.

❑ Best Case: Shortest time that the algorithm will use to produce desired results.

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 Space Complexity of
an algorithm.

❑ Space complexity of the program is the amount of memory consumed.

❑ Fixed amount of memory.

❑ Variable amount of memory.

❑ Memory taken by instruction not in control of programmer.

❑ Memory taken by variable is in control of programmer.

Datatype Array[size];

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 Space Complexity of
an algorithm.

❑ There are 3 different spaces considered for determining the amount of memory used by the algo.

1. Instruction Space: occupied by compile version of program.

2. Data Space: used to hold variables, data structures, data elements.

3. Environment Space: used for run time stack on function call.

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 Asymptotic Notations

❑ The efficiency of an algorithm is dependent on amount of time, storage and other resources. The efficiency

is measured with the help of asymptotic notations.

❑ Asymptotic notations are mathematical notations used to describe the running time of an algorithm.

❑ Example: Bubble Sort:

1. If input array is already sorted: best case

2. If array is in reverse condition: worst case

3. Array is neither sorted nor in reverse condition: average case

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 Asymptotic Notations

There are mainly three asymptotic notations:

•Big-O Notation (O-notation) --------------→ represents upper bound of running time of algo.

(worst case complexity)

•Omega Notation (Ω-notation)-------------→ represents lower bound of the running time of algo.

(best case complexity)

•Theta Notation (Θ-notation)--------------→represents upper & lower bound of the running time of algo.

(average case complexity)

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 Finding Big O

• Keep the fastest growing term and discard the lower terms and constants.

• Ignore coefficients.

• If f(n) is constant then we say that f(n) is O(1).

• Base of logarithm is not important.

• Example: f(n)=8log2n = f(n) is O(logn)

f(n)=23log10n=f(n) is O(logn)

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 Tight and Loose Upper bounds

• For a function f(n) there can be many functions g(n) such that f(n) is O(g(n)).

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Que 1: In asymptotic analysis, the exact running time is calculated.

a) True
b) False

Question 2:
For analyzing an algorithm, we study how the running time of the algorithm
increases with the increase in input size.

a) True
b) False

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Question 3:
Growth rate of n is more than growth rate of logn.
a)True
B) False

Question 4:
For finding big O for a function, we have to keep the ____ growing term of
the function, and we can discard all the lower terms and constants.

a) Fastest
b) slowest

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Question 5:
While computing the O notation, base of the logarithm is not important.

a) True
b) False

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Big O analysis of Algorithms

• Express the running time as function of input size(n).

• T(n) is running time in terms of n.

• Find Big O for function T(n).

• We have to find the rate of growth.

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Calculating Time Complexity

• Running time is proportional to the primitive operations executed during run time.
• Primitive operations include comparisons, arithmetic operations, assignments,
input and output operations.
• To find function T – Express the number of primitive operations executed during
run time , in terms of n.

def somealgo(int n):

input #c1 T(n)=c1+c2+c3*n+c4
assignment #c2 T(n) is O(n)
for I in range(n):
comparison #c3*n

arithmetic operation #c4

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• So, in Asymptotic Analysis we are not interested in “how much time an operation
takes to execute on a computer”.

• We are interested in, “How many times that operation is executed”.

• We will be concerned about while writing function T, about whose numbers

depends on input size n.

• Basically, we have to look into operations of loops whose iterations are dependent
on n.

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Big O Analysis of Algo…Examples

• We can ignore assignment and output

def somealgo(int n):
operation as they don’t depend on n. Last
for loop as well can be ignored because it
assignment
will execute for 6 times always.
• Arithmetic operation will execute (n-2)
for I in range(n-2,0,-1):
times.
arithmetic operation
• So, T(n) = (n-2)+n
output
• = n+n-2
for I in range (n):
• = 2n-2
comparison
• Ignore coefficient and constant we will get,
for I in range (6):
• T(n) = n
assignment

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Big O Analysis of Algo…Examples

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Big O Analysis of Algo…Nested Loops

• Outer loop will execute n times.

def somealgo(int n):
• For each iteration of outer loop the inner
loop will execute n times.
input
• Total iterations will be: n+n+n….n times
for I in range(n):
= n*n =n^2
assignment
T(n)=n+n^2
T(n) is O(n^2)
for j in range (n):
comparison
arithmetic operation
output

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Big O Analysis of Algo…Nested Loops
Examples

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Worst, Average and Best Case Analysis

Data D1 of Running
size n time T1
Algo A.
Data D2 of Running
size n time T2

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• Worst Case:

• Max running time that an algo will take for input size n.

• Best Case:
• Minimum running time that an algo will take for input size n.

• Average Case:
• Average running time that an algo will take for input size n.

• Usually worst case is done which is very informative.

• Best case is not informative.
• Average case is very difficult.

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• Common Complexities

• O(1) Constant
• O(log n) Logarithmic
• O(n) Linear
• O(n log n) Linear Logarithmic
• O(n^2) Quadratic
• O(n^3) Cubic #matrix operations
• O(n^k) polynomial
• O(a^n) Exponential #tower of Hanoi problem

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