Definition of Language

The followings are some expert opinions on what language is:

(i) Language is an organized system of linguistics symbols (words) used by human beings to
communicate with one another.
(a) Language is basic to communication through words. (b) Language encompasses all forms of
expression.
(ii) Language is a symbolic system linking what goes on inside our heads with what goes on
outside. It mediates between self and society. It is a form of representation, a way of
representing the world to ourselves and to others. D. Burton, Literacy (1994).
(iii) Language is a system of conventional symbols used for communication by a whole
community.
A. C. Gibson, An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English (1990) P.3.
(iv) Language is for negotiating meaning, building understanding and relationships and the
activity of using language for any of these purposes always involves creating what is technically
called a text – a stretch of language which is coherent and meaningful.
F. Christie. Factual Writing in the First Years of School (1987) P. 209.
(v) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Wardhough. Reading: A Linguistic Perspective (1969)
(vi) Language refers to the particular set of symbols that allow for intelligible communication in
a culture. Language skills include the ability to speak, write and to comprehend the symbols of
one’s language.
P.J. Megan, Child Development and Personality (1979)
Language is frequently used, but rarely defined. Many definitions imply that language is speech
alone or speech and writing; that is, codes based on words, recognition of the legitimacy of
native signs. Language certainly involves producing and receiving information (speaking or
signing and listening or watching), and decoding and coding text reading and writing. However,
we believe that it is not very helpful to ignore non-verbal codes.
Native sign language is visual-spatial languages that are not derived from the language that is
spoken by the surrounding culture. Signs are visual symbols including facial expression. It is
not only in sign languages, however, that non-verbal cues are important. If you think of a
situation where you actually speak such as in a conversation with a friend, you will realize that
you frequently use more than one way of conveying and interpreting meaning. Speech is
prominent but so are a range of non-verbal cues, such as facial expression and writing: it is a
complex and abstract phenomenon that can be realized through a number of verbal and non-
verbal codes.
A language is seen as one of many social practices that operate interactively in a society to
represent and make meaning (Halliday 1978: Hodge & Kriss 1988: Furlough (1996)
Language is centred on meaning: it is the most powerful and persuasive means used by human
beings for communication. Because language is centred on meaning which is shared culturally, it
follows that it is rooted in the culture of the group that uses it. It makes no sense to think of a
language used by only one individual. To make sense out of our world or environment we learn
language and to do this we use verbal and/or non-verbal systems. For instance, speech, gestures
scribbling, drawing and writing are all used for communication.
Functions of Language
Language is extremely important to human interaction because of its labeling, interaction and
transmission functions. The labeling function serves to identify or name a person object, or act
so that he, she or it may be referred to in communication. The interaction function is concerned
with the sharing and communication of ideas and emotions. And transmission is the process by
which you pass information to others. These functions are generally considered as the primary
purposes of communication there are other functions and purposes that are equally important.
Crystal (2004) identified six additional purposes language facilitates in addition to maintaining
social and individual needs. Such functions are: emotive expression, thinking, phatic interaction,
and control of reality, the keeping of history and identity expression.
a. Emotive Expression
Language permits you to express your internal emotional states. This form of expression may
range from a simple statement such as “I feel sad” to the cursing of something that is not
functioning properly e.g. (PHCN). Whether in the absence of others or in their presence, this use
of language serves as a means of getting rid of nervous energy when you are under stress.
b. Thinking
People tend to be both visual and verbal thinkers and engage in both forms depending upon their
activity. Verbal thinking, however, plays an extremely important role in human communication
where language functions as an instrument of thought when you speak your thoughts out loud as
an aid to problem solving or thinking.
c. Phatic Interaction
Another function is phatic interaction where messages with no factual content help maintain a
comfortable relationship between people. Such commentary as “Bless you” to a sneeze, and
“Good morning” or Nice day” as a greeting are examples of phatic messages. The topic of phatic
communication can be culturally diverse. Rundi women in Burundi, Central Africa, for instance,
are likely to say “I must go home now or my husband will beat me” as a phatic form of leave
taking. In other cultures, the people prefer silence and little is said in a phatic sense.
d. Control of Reality
Communication may also function to assist in the control of reality. The use of prayers or
blessings which involve supernatural beliefs, involves the use of language to control the forces
that are believed to control one’s life. For instance, in the Roman Catholic Church, the speaking
of the words “This is my body” is believed to identify the moment when the communion bread
becomes the body of Christ.
e. Keeping of History
Language also function as a record for facts, which is represented by all kind of record-keeping
ranging from historical records, geographical surveys and business accounts to scientific reports,
legislative acts, and public record data banks. This arena “is an essential domain of language
because the material guarantees the knowledge-base of subsequent generations which is a
prerequisite of social development and the perpetuation of cultures.
f. Identity Expression
The last major function of language is the expression of identity. Many social situations involve
the use of language that unite the participants rather than presenting information. Cheering at a
football game or shouting names or slogans at public meetings can reveal a great deal about
people. - In particular their regional origins, social background, level of education, occupation,
age, sex and personality.
Beyond shouting slogans or cheers, language functions to express and maintain your social
identity. Your sociolinguistic identity derives from the way in which people are organized into
hierarchically ordered social groups or classes. The way people talk reveals a great deal about
their social position and their level of education.
Homo sapiens have over centuries evolved the anatomy necessary to produce and receive
sounds: in a short time, they have created cultural systems in which those sounds have taken on
meaning by representing things, feelings and ideas. This combination of evolution and culture
has led to the development of four part process that enables you as human being to share your
internal states with other human beings. In short, you can receive, store, manipulate and
generate symbols to represent your personalized realities. But to an extent, your language
behaviour is mediated by your culture. How you use language, the forms of language that you
use, and the purposes to which you choose to apply language are subject to cultural diversity.
Cultural diversity in language behavior is one of the most difficult and persistent problems
encountered in ethnic conflict and communication. For this reason we will examine three
prominent issues in language.
 LANGUAGE BARRIERS IN CONFLICT AND RESOLUTION
Language–Based Barriers to Communication
There are over 450 different languages in use everyday in Nigeria. The number includes various
dialects spoken in various regions of the country. We must recognize that communication is a
symbolic interaction rich in subtlety. It will never be strictly concrete or objective and always
carry the potential for misunderstanding and conflict. Misunderstandings occur for numerous
physical, mental and cultural reasons. Ineffective use of language is one reason. Among the
most common language-based barriers to communication are bypassing, indiscrimination and
polarization.
1. Meaning Can Be Misunderstood
What is said and what is heard and understood by the listener often differ. Such
misunderstanding between a sender and a receiver is called bypassing. How many times have
you said to someone “But that is not what I meant?”
Bypassing usually results from the false belief that each word has only one meaning and that
words have meaning in themselves; but a glimpse at our everyday language quickly illustrates
that most words have multiple uses and meanings. Words acquire many meanings because they
change over time and are used and understood differently in various cultures and regions and
often they reflect the knowledge and situation of the user. Therefore it is crucial as
communicator and peace professionals to stay alert to the fact that words can be interpreted
differently by different people.
Some speakers deliberately introduce bypassing by using euphemisms or double speak to soften
or distort meanings. It is important to be aware of this while you interact with people. Politicians
and advertisers for instance sometimes will say one thing in order to get people to believe or
accept something else. As a listener, you should critically examine what is being said. Both
speaking and listening and conflict situation involve ethical considerations. Issues of conscience
i.e. what is right or wrong and what is beneficial or harmful are everyone’s responsibility.
How to Reduce Bypassing
a. Be Approachable. Encourage open and free communication. The most frequent barrier to
effective communication; and consequently dispute and conflict is the unwillingness to listen to
others. Allow others to question and paraphrase your messages and show respect for their
enquiries; Being patient and receptive is not always easy but the effort will ensure a clear
exchange of information
b. Be Person–Minded, not Word-Minded. Think about words and their meanings, but you
should also consider the persons using the words and the meanings they might give to them.
Constantly question your own interpretation i.e. “This is what the word mean to me, but what
does it mean to others.
c. Query and Paraphrase. Ask questions and paraphrase your message or the meaning you
have derived from others message whenever there is a potential for misunderstanding.
Differences in background, age, gender, perception may affect communication. If you are
uncertain, ask others to explain and if it is in a peace workshop you may ask the mediator to
paraphrase. Restating a message in your own words gives you and the other party or the sender a
chance, to check that you receive a similar message to what sent. As the importance and
complexity of a message in conflict resolution situation is, so is the need to ask questions and
paraphrase.
d. Be Sensitive to Contexts. Consider the verbal and situational contexts in which
communication occurs. The meaning of a word can be more precisely interpreted by considering
the words, sentences and paragraphs that precede and follow it and the setting in which
communication takes place.
2. Language Can Shape Our Attitudes
Indiscrimination is the neglect of individual differences and the overemphasis of similarities. It
is also a form of perceptual set in which a person chooses to ignore differences and changes in
events, things and people. Language plays a significant role in our tendency to see similarities
between things even when they do not exist. Nouns that categorize i.e. teenager, divorce,
student, professor, facilitator, northerner, Niger Delta, government official, politician etc,
encourage us to focus on similarities. Statements such as “Politician are crooks and students
cheat in exam may be interpreted to include all politicians and all students, instead of some
politicians and some students. They fail to distinguish between individuals. Such categorization
often results in stereotyping.
Stereotype is categorizing events objects and people without regard to unique individual
characteristics. Stereotypes are often negative but they may be positive, for example, all teachers
are dedicated professional or all mediators are dedicated peace professionals or “All
environmentalists are concerned citizens.” Whether the stereotyping is negative or positive, the
problem is the same. Individual qualities are ignored. Stereotyping is quick and easy to do
because it does not require analysis, investigation, or thought. By precluding distinctions,
stereotypes give us neat, oversimplified categories that facilitate our evaluation of people
situations and events.
There are ways to reduce discrimination in our interaction. Indexing points out differences that
distinguish various members of a group and thus reduces indiscrimination. Indexing identifies
the specific person, idea, event or object to which a statement refers i.e. “politicians are corrupt”,
athletes are dumb or any statement that lumps people ideas, events, or objects into a single
category immediately ask,” which ones are you talking about?” No matter what people may
think, not all politicians are corrupt. Politician A is different from politician B, and politician B
is different from politician C. The same is true of Athletes. They might belong to a class or
group that has an identity and whose members have similarities, but the group is composed of
individuals, each different from the other.
3 Language Can Cause Polarization
Polarization is the tendency to view things in terms of extremes – rich or poor, beautiful or ugly,
large or small, high or low, good or bad, intelligent or stupid though most things exist
somewhere in between. This definitive way of thinking is aggravated by aspects of language.
Polarization can be destructive, escalating conflict to the point at which two parties simply
cannot communicate. This escalation is referred to as the pendulum effect in peace studies. The
pendulum represents a person’s perception of reality, which includes feelings attitude, opinions
and value judgements about the world. When the pendulum is hanging in the centre, a person’s
perception is considered to be realistic, virtuous, intelligent, sane, honest and honorable. Of
course, most of us believe that our pendulums are at or near the centre most of the time. When
two individuals disagree in their perception of reality, their pendulum begins to move in opposite
directions. The distance the pendulum swings represents their differences in opinion or
conviction. As the conversation intensifies, each remark provokes a stronger reaction from the
party to whom it is directed until both parties are driven to positions at opposite extremes. For
instance, when two roommates argue over whose turn it is to clean, one might begin by saying
“it is your turn. I did it the last time.” The other is likely to respond. “No I did it the last time.
Now its your turn”. If the disagreement continues and no solution is found, both will become
more entrenched in their positions and their comments may turn into personal attacks”. The
situation can degenerate to the point at which one of the other threatens to move out. Such an
extreme outcome is typical of discussion driven by the pendulum effect.
Speaker can avoid the danger of polarization by recognizing the potential for misunderstanding
and by making statement that do not represent nuanced extreme
4 Language can be Sexist
There is a difference in how men and women may use language and converse with one another.
Some communication and language theorists believe that men tend to use language to assert
status whereas women use language to establish and maintain social relationships. They also
believe that men use language to dominate or compete. The result, according to them is that the
game of communication for men and women is the same but the rules are different. When men
and women communicate with each other, there is the potential for class and conflict because of
different language use. The problem is magnified when sexist language is used either
consciously or unconsciously. Our goal should be to use gender- inclusive language. Language
that does not discriminate against male or female.
Unfortunately, English language is structured with an inherent bias in favor of men. There are,
for example, no singular gender – neutral pronouns in the English language. Therefore,
traditionally, the masculine pronouns (he, him, and his) have been used to refer to people in
general, even if the referent could be a male or female. User of the masculine pronoun is not
incorrect grammatically, but its use in generic situations is a social issue. Language sets
expectations that at times discriminate against the stereotype use of he and him and the general
absence of she or her subtly, but powerfully give the impression that men hold important roles
but women do not. Thus our language creates the expectation that the female gender is inactive
and does not hold important roles. Furthermore, sexist language can be misleading, we use only
he or she when describing the symptoms, the effect ,the reasons, and the treatment, the group that
was not included in the discussion might believe that it is a “male disease” or a “female disease”
and does not pertain to them. If that happens half or more of the audience members will not pay
attention to the speech and thus might not heed the precautions and expose them to greater
danger.
Sexual stereotypes and the assumption that the male gender is superior to the female gender
characterize sexist language. In most society, sexist language involves attitude as much as the
use of specific words. Words with a positive connotation are used to describe males:
independent, logical, strong, confident, aggressive. Females are associated with words having
negative connotations – dependent, illogical, weak. For instance, a sentence like this could be
termed a sexist communication”. She is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the company and
she is a woman”. Chizoba got that position because she is a woman”. These sentences describe
women who have risen to high authority positions or that the only reason Chizoba got the
position was because she is a woman. In other words, they imply that women are less qualified
than men.
Stereotypes do not occur in a social vacuum. On the contrary, they often exert powerful
influence on the lives of those who are stereotyped. Gender stereotypes influence perceptions
and behaviour of both men and women. Stereotypes of women affect both how they are treated
in society and how they see themselves. Language and substituting gender – inclusive terms
represent a positive step toward doing away with them.
Other stereotypes are reinforced in the use of homophobic language. When someone asks
another to “tell me what to look for so I can recognize gays and lesbians and then avoid them”.
The speaker is demonstrating both insensitivity to individuals and a general negative
categorization of a group of people, each of whom is unique.
Metaphors used in our culture to describe men and women are often sexist. A metaphor is a
figure of speech that associated two things or ideas, not commonly linked, as a means of
description. These stereotypical animal metaphors illustrate the use of sexist language. Men are
likely to be described as aggressive wolf, and women as harmless pets i.e. kitten or chick or as
unattractive animals i.e. cow, pig, dog. The effective communicator must avoid such negative
metaphorical stereotyping. Find more positive metaphors related to men, and use inclusive
language in general.
It is important that the language we use as peace students be inclusive and not demeaning to any
group of individuals. Language influences how we see others around us. Inappropriate language
causes perceptual and social problems that should not be tolerated in any society.
 How to Use Language Effectively
The ability to use language efficiently and effectively as peace students will require not good
education alone but, years of consistent practice. Although many variables will influence the
effectiveness of language use, five aspects of language according to Seiler (2005) merit special
attention. They are accuracy, vividness, immediacy, appropriateness and metaphor.
.1 Use Accurate Language
Using accurate language is critical to speaking. Choosing a wrong word can distant your
intended message, misguide your receiver, and undermine your credibility. When you speak you
need to ensure that your goal should be precision. Do not leave room for misinterpretation. You
should constantly ask yourself “What do I want to say” and “what do I mean? And when
necessary, consult a dictionary to be sure you have chosen the correct word to express your
message.
The more words you can use accurately, the more likely it is that you will find the one you need
to make your meaning clear. You must expand your vocabulary. Two of the best ways to do this
are through listening to others and reading. Pay attention to words that you do not understand.
Whenever, you come across an unfamiliar word, determine the context in which it is sued, and
consult a dictionary to find its meaning. Once you have acquired a new word, try to put it to use.
Words that are not used are typically forgotten. Expanding your vocabulary takes effort and
time, but with practice, it can become part of your daily routine.
A word of warning: As you develop your vocabulary, avoid the temptation to use long or little-
known words when short or common words would serve the purpose. Also be sure you know
the shades of meanings and connotations of new words. Before you use them, remember that
words may have different meanings for different people. Sometimes a message is unclear
because it is not structured effectively. Poor sentence and word usage can wreak havoc on a
statement’s clarity.
2 Use Vivid Language
To communicate effectively, make your message animated and interesting. Direct fresh
language given in the active voice can bring a sense of excitement, urgency and forcefulness to
what you say. Such vividness tells your audience that they had better listen because what you
have to say is important.
For example, suppose an NGO is trying to raise money for homeless Bakassi people. It could
take one of two approaches in seeking a donation from you: (i) present statistics to illustrate the
number of people who are believed to be homeless. (2) Present cases of actual individuals who
are homeless, including children and their families.
The first approach is rational, informative, abstract, and emotionally distance. The second
approach is emotional urgent, concrete and forceful. The vividness of the second approach is
likely at least to get your attention and perhaps influence you to contribute. According to social
psychologist, vivid language affects us in several ways. It is more persuasive than a flat, pallid
presentation of information, because it is more memorable and has an emotional impact. Vivid
messages are more likely to create readily retained and recalled mental images. People tend to
listen more attentively to vivid messages than to mainspring or uninteresting messages.
.3 Use of Immediate Language
Verbal immediacy identifies and projects the speakers feelings and makes the message more
relevant to the listener. Verbal immediacy draws listeners in and involves them in the subject at
hand. The following statements illustrate different levels of verbal immediacy. The first sentence
displays a high immediacy level and the last displays a low immediacy level:
1. We certainly will enjoy the football game
2. You and I will enjoy the football game.
3. I think you and I may enjoy football
4. People often enjoy football games
The first statement is directly related to the speaker, the listener, and the situation. It is assertive,
and the speaker makes a connection with the listener by using the word we. In each successive
statement, the speaker decreases the intensity of this association with the listener and the event.
The language becomes less immediate, more distant in tone.
Verbal immediacy also makes the speaker appear relaxed, confidence, competent and effective.
Also receivers tend to view messages characterized by immediacy as similar to their own beliefs
more readily than those cast in language related to the speaker, topic, or receiver.
.4 Use of Appropriate Language
Each time you speak, your listeners have specific expectations about the kind of language you
will use. Different kinds of language are appropriate to different situations. For instance, the
language you would use in addressing the student union president or leader in your school would
be much more formal than the language you would use when chatting with friends. You are not
likely to call the president by a nickname and would be equally unlikely to call a friend Dr or Mr.
or Mrs. or Ms, except in jest.
Using language that is inappropriate for a given situation damages your credibility and your
message might be misunderstood or misinterpreted or disregarded. It is therefore crucial to
assess each speaking situation and adjust your language accordingly.
5. Use Metaphorical Language
According to some language scholars, our way of looking at the world around us is
fundamentally metaphorical. Metaphors help us to structure what we think, how we perceived
things, and what we do. Metaphorical language pervades our everyday language and our
thoughts. A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase relates one object or idea
to another that is not commonly linked to it. A successful use of this figurative expression makes
an object or idea more clear and vivid.
Metaphorically language is culture bound, and most metaphors have meanings only within a
specific language community. If your receivers cannot identify with a particular metaphor you
use, it will be meaningless to them.

Meaning and Definition of Information and Communication

Information has been severally defined, and it means many things to different people.
Information is regarded as news, facts, knowledge and processed data. However, information
can be defined as processed data, that is, data that has been processed into worthwhile form.
When information is seen from this perspective, it is being regarded as an assemblage of data in
a detailed form capable of communication and use. This implies that information entails
attaching meanings to raw facts. Information can also be considered as what it is known beyond
random chance prediction. When it is seen in this way, information must reduce the uncertainty
the recipient has about a particular issue or state of the world. Also, information can mean an
idea communicated from one individual or group to another individual or group. The idea
communicated pass through a medium which can be oral, written or by electronic means.

From the definitions or descriptions provided above, we can draw some basic characteristics of
information. These are:
• Information increases the level of recipient knowledge
• Information resolves uncertainty
• Information adds value to decision making
• Information extends the frontiers of knowledge, it is a surrogate of knowledge
• Information is available in published and unpublished formats.
• Information is relevant only when it is organized, available to users, and used.

Also, Buckland (1991) viewed information from three perspectives. These perspectives are:
• Information as a process i.e. when someone is informed of what he/she does not know or
knows little about. Information in this sense refers to the act of informing or communicating
knowledge, news or some facts.
• Information as knowledge i.e. pieces of information being made known to a recipient, serve to
reduce uncertainty and improve existing knowledge. Information in this sense refers to the
knowledge communicated.
• Information as a thing or as an object. This is used attributively for object such as data in
documents because they are regarded as being informative or having the quality of
communicating or imparting knowledge..
Information is crucial to human interaction and management activities. The basic purposes of
information are basically to provide information; platform of evaluation; persuasion or
organization of other information to bring about changes; creation of new concepts,
identification of problems, provision of basis for solving problems and decision making; and
planning, motivating, and controlling of human activities. However, for information to be
meaningful and serve these purposes, it must be timely, relevant, authoritative, appropriate in
scope and medium of dissemination and recent.
Communication on the other hand is seen as a process through which we share information,
ideas, and feelings. The process involves not only the spoken and written words but also the
body language, personal mannerism, and styles i.e. anything that adds meaning to a message.
Also, it is seen as a process whereby people share information about ht things they want to know
about. Encyclopedia Britannica (2004) considers communication as “the exchange of meanings
among individuals through common system of symbols”. Onatola (2004) defines communication
in a simple way when he states that:
Communication is a process whereby people share information about the things they want to
know or hear about.
Information is the man element in communication; information is being communicated in the
process of communication. Communication of information involves transmission of information
to individuals, group of people, organizations, devices etc anywhere in the world. Information
can be communicated in many ways, it could be by written language body language, or by
electronic device. It can be between two individuals or between an individual and a group via
printed materials, computer message or broadcast. Communications like information facilitate
pleasure, research, teaching and learning, and crucial to decision making and conflict resolution.
Components of Communication
From the definitions of communication provided above, we can draw out certain elements
peculiar to communication. These are:
• Source (Sender and Receivers of Message): senders are individuals who decode messages, and
receivers are individuals who encode messages. All human communication are people oriented,
they send and receive information simultaneously.
• Message (Contents of Communication): The ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver wants to
share. What is talked about, the words used to express thoughts and feelings, the sound involved
and other non-verbal expression constitute the contents of communicative act. Ideas and feelings
in the communicative act are represented by symbol which can be verbal and non-verbal. A
symbol is a sign that represent something else. Verbal symbols are the signs in language that
represent distinct concepts or ideas. Non-verbal symbols are communication without using
words. It involves the use of facial expression, gesture, posting, appearance etc to pass a message
or an idea. Everything a sender or receiver says (verbal) and does (non-verbal) is a potential
message as long as the statement or the act can be interpreted, and effect changes.
 Channels or Media of Communication
These are the means through which a message is sent. The medium of communication is crucial
and can affect the understanding of the idea to be communicated. Messages are sent and receive
via all the five human senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell). Sight messages are received
when we observe things or people; we send or receive sound messages when we hear respective
voice, noise or verbal message; we receive message by touch when we touch the smoothness of
otherwise of objects, handshakes, huge etc; taste messages are received when taste with our
tongues. Thus, the senses are the channels through which messages are sent, and everything a
sender does or says via the sense organs are potential message as long as there are people to
receive and interpret the action.
• Context of Setting: Context is the environment in which communication takes place. The
environments have significant influence on communication and can affect communication
without realizing it consciously. The environment can be formal and informal. For example,
lecturers, speeches and other presentations are better done in boardroom and auditorium.
Whereas, discussions, conversations and other interpersonal discussions are better done in rooms
that will permit facial contacts. Mood of the parties in the communication is also part of context
of communication. Mood of the parties to communication determines the way they interact and
nature of their communication encounters. Mood to a large extent determines how certain
environments alter or modify the posture, mannerism, attraction and interaction of the sender and
receiver.
• Noise: This is another factor that determines the success of communication or otherwise.
“Noise is anything that interferes with or distorts the message”. Noise in the context of
communication can be internal, external, or language. Internal noise has to do with the
attentiveness or state of mind of the sender and receiver of the message. It can also be attributed
to the psychological make-up, intellectual ability, or physical conditions of the parties to
communication. This occurs when their minds, thoughts or feelings are focused on something
other than the issue being communicated. Distrust, prejudice, lack of interest, and beliefs are
also the sources of internal noise.
External noise is environmental constraint that prevents proper understanding of the message
being passed across. Example of this are noise from passers-by around offices, homes etc, noise
from people unconnected with the communication, noise from communication media such radio,
telephone etc. and uneasy feelings between the parties in communicative act due to some
unbearable conditions (hot, cold, noise, unorganized environment).
Language of communication can also be noise in communication. This occurs when language of
communication is not understood by the receiver or he is uncertain about the actual meaning of
words used by the other party to the communication. Ambiguous, profane, racist, ethnic, sexist
etc words constitute noise in the process of communication and they can distort all or part of the
message.
• Feedback: This is the reaction of the receiver on the extent of comprehension of the message
sent to him or her i.e. information returned to the sender of message. Feedback is crucial to
communication because it allows the parties to the process to know whether ideas, thoughts or
feelings have been shared in the desired way. Feedback can be positive and negative, and can
originate from internal and external sources.
Positive feedback encourages positive behaviour or action; negative feedback discourages
positive reactions. It can be corrective in nature and can help in eliminating unwanted
behaviours. Positive and negative feedback emanate internally, when from the feedback one
gives himself or herself from a transaction and behavior; and externally when the feedback is
from others involved in the communication. Effective communication is dependent on
sensitivity to feedback from oneself and others.
• Effect: This is the main essence of communication. Ideas thoughts, and reaction shared in the
process are to cause change or influence behaviors, knowledge and education. The effect of
communication can be emotional, physical, cognitive or combination of the three. Effect of
communication will be emotional when it raises feelings of anger, joy, or sadness. It is physical
when it causes violent reactions, argument and public disobedience; and cognitive when it brings
about new insights, new knowledge or idea, silence, confusion, or formulation of new opinions
or reconsideration of the existing ones.
And the effect can be combination of the three human domains as earlier stated. A message can
cause anger (emotional reaction) which may lead to public disturbance (physical reaction) that
may eventually result into public order and new insights (cognitive reaction).
 Information and Conflict
Conflicts are wherever there are unresolved difference among people or groups in an
organization or a community. Conflicts may arise in response to interpersonal and
intercommunal or cultural differences and as a result of defective system of communication.
Conflict can also be seen as a thinning point of events between two individuals or groups that
have been having some kind of relationships. These relationships may exist between employers
and employees, teachers and students, government and the governed, communities, nations etc.
Robinson (1998) started that conflict is a lay term in search of scholarly meaning and cannot be
defined to cover all the dimension of conflict situations. He however identified certain element
that can be found in any conflict situation. These elements are:
• A conflict situation is acute rather than chronic, although its length is usually unspecified;
• Conflict result in behaviour that is frequently pathological such as inefficiency and scape
goating; • Conflict threatens the goal of individuals or group involved;
• Conflict is relative, what is conflict for one party or participants may not be fore another and;
• Conflict causes tension in societies and organizations.
• Conflict has its cost and benefits on individuals, organizations or communities involved in
conflicts.

Information is crucial and central to conflict situation in organizations and societies. It is one of
the courses of conflict, and a veritable means of resolving it. Inadequate information
communication and its breakdown between the government and the governed, and within
organizations can result into conflict. Also, when there are deficiencies in information
dissemination system, conflict results. Information deficiency means that there is
misinformation in the community or organization and this can result into discontentment with
government policies, can cause information distortions, communication failure, and lack of
understanding among the people.
Effective conflict management requires proactive measures in understanding the potential causes
of conflict in the society or workplace and devising means of managing them. Other potential
causes of conflict, as identified by Katman and Katman (1990) are:
• Individual differences
• Intercommunal relations/inter departmental relations
• Environmental stress
• Unfavorable government actions or policies
Dealing with conflict situations require effective problem solving skills and management of
information. Effective management of information dissemination ensures hitch free or conflict
free societies or organizations. Information on government activities and policies should be
carefully packaged and disseminated to the members of the society. Also meetings can be
effectively used to resolve conflicts. At meetings, information are sent and received by the
participants, and issues relating to the conflict resolve. This is because conflict by nature
involves two or more individuals or communities. The meetings for conflict resolution should be
problem solving in nature and must be guided by the following principles as postulated by
Katman and Katman (1990).
• What is the issue to be resolved?
• Who are the stakeholders? Who has essential information?
• What role will the participant play: are they to recommend, made the final decision, or provide
background information to someone else?
• When must the decision be made? Without specific deadlines, the group can wander aimlessly.