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Chapter 11: Applications and

Classification of Metal Alloys
Processing of Metal Alloys Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &

ISSUES TO ADDRESS... Rethwisch 9e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their <1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
common applications?
T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques 1600 graphite/cementite
δ
for metals? 1400 L
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the 1200 γ
γ+L
1148ºC L+ Fe3C
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys? austenite
4.30
Eutectic:
1000

γ + Fe3C
α800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 α + Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
Chapter 11 - 1 Chapter 11 - 2

Steels Refinement of Steel from Ore

Low Alloy High Alloy Coke
Iron Ore Limestone
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt%C 0.6-1.4wt% C
BLAST FURNACE
heat heat generation
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless gas
treatable C+O2 CO2
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V, refractory
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304, 409
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe +3CO2
EL + + 0 - - -- ++ air purification
high T slag
Uses auto
struc.
bridges
towers
crank
shafts
pistons
gears
wear
applic.
drills
saws applic. Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 13.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 3 Chapter 11 - 4

Ferrous Alloys Cast Irons

Iron-based alloys • Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
• Steels
• Cast Irons – more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
10xx Plain Carbon Steels • Generally brittle
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%) • Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
Fe3C  3 Fe (α) + C (graphite)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C – generally a slow process
Stainless Steel >11% Cr

Chapter 11 - 5 Chapter 11 - 6

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Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram Types of Cast Iron

Figs. 11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron (least expensive) Callister &
T(°C) Rethwisch 9e.]
• graphite flakes
1600 • weak & brittle in tension - flakes are sharp and
Graphite formation
pointed and may serve as points of stress
promoted by L concentration
1400 Liquid +
• Si > 1 wt% γ+ L Graphite • stronger in compression
1200 γ 1153°C • excellent vibrational dampening
• slow cooling Austenite 4.2 wt% C • wear resistant
•Fe3C (metastable) 1000 • casting shrinkage is low
α+γ
γ + Graphite Nodular - Ductile iron
• 3 Fe (α) + C (graphite) 800
740°C • add Mg and/or Ce; lowering the silicon content or
increasing the cooling rate
0.65

tendency to form graphite is 600 • graphite as nodules not flakes

regulated by the composition and  + Graphite • matrix often pearlite – stronger but less ductile
rate of cooling 400 • heat treatment for several hours at about 700 0C
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
(Fe) yields a ferrite matrix,
C, wt% C graphite • Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray
iron
• valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and
Chapter 11 - 7 other automotive and machine components. Chapter 11 - 8

Types of Cast Iron (cont.) Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

Figs. 11.3(c) & (d),
Courtesy of Amcast Industrial Corporation

Callister &
White iron Rethwisch 9e. Compacted graphite iron

Courtesy of Sinter-Cast, Ltd.

• < 1 wt% Si • Silicon content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0
wt%, whereas carbon concentration is
• pearlite + cementite normally between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%.
• very hard and brittle • Graphite wormlike shape;
• Unmachinable • mechanical properties of CGIs are related to
microstructure: graphite particle shape, as
• rollers in rolling mills well as the matrix phase/ micro constituent
Fig. 11.3(e), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Iron Castings Society, Des Plaines, IL
Reprinted with permission of the

Malleable iron increase in degree of nodularity – stronger;

ferritic matrices have lower strengths than
• heat treat white iron at 800-900°C pearlite matrix
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile • relatively high thermal conductivity
• Connecting rods, transmission gears, and • good resistance to thermal shock
differential cases for the automotive industry, and • lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for
railroad, marine, and other heavy-duty services. Chapter 11 - 9 Chapter 11 - 10

Production of Cast Irons Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

3 - 4.5 wt% C

Fig.11.5, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G. W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p.
1) Relatively high densities
195. Copyright © 1964 by John Wiley &
Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 11 Chapter 11 - 12

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Nonferrous Alloys Metal Fabrication

• Cu Alloys – work • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low ρ: 2.7 g/cm3 • How do we fabricate metals?
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions – Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip. – Cast molten metal into mold
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging) • Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape
gear)
Cu-Be :
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low ρ: 1.7 g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength Hot working vs. Cold working
-aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys • Deformation temperature • Deformation below
-relatively low ρ: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals high enough for recrystallization
-high melting T’s recrystallization temperature
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta • Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
• Small deformations
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 13 Chapter 11 - 14

Metal Fabrication Methods (i) Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts)
force
(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate) • Casting- mold is filled with molten metal
open roll – metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
die Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao elements added, then cast in a mold
elev. T – common and inexpensive
roll
force
Adapted from
– gives good production of shapes
• Drawing • Extrusion Fig. 11.9,
Callister &
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing) Rethwisch 9e. – weaker products, internal defects
Ao – good option for brittle materials
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
die
container
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 15 Chapter 11 - 16

Metal Fabrication Methods (iii) Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting • Investment Casting
(large parts, e.g., (low volume, complex shapes
• What material will withstand T >1600°C
auto engine blocks) and is inexpensive and easy to mold? e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)

• Answer: sand!!! • Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I

Sand Sand plaster of paris around wax pattern.
• To create mold, pack sand around form Plaster allowed to harden.
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. III
jewellery and dental crowns and inlays.
Chapter 11 - 17 Chapter 11 - 18

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Metal Fabrication Methods (v) Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
-- high volume -- simple shapes
part is impractical)
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs, pressure
temperatures cylinders) filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
molten heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
solidified contact Fig. 11.10, Callister
piece 1 piece 2 & Rethwisch 9e.
densify [From Iron Castings
Handbook, C.F. Walton
• Heat-affected zone: and T.J. Opar (Ed.),
Iron Castings Society,
point contact densification
by diffusion at
(region in which the Des Plaines, IL,1981.]
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11 - 19 Chapter 11 - 20

Thermal Processing of Metals Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
a) Full Annealing A
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels): b) Quenching
stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for P
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for c) Tempering
- phase transform.
At low T, cooled in air to room T 15-25 h. (Tempered
• Full Anneal (steels): Martensite) A
B
Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get γ, then furnace-cool
• Process Anneal: to obtain coarse pearlite.
Negate effects of
cold working by • Normalize (steels): Deform Fig. 10.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(recovery/ steel with large grains. Then heat
[Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
recrystallization) treat to allow recrystallization Transformation Diagrams, 1977.

and formation of smaller grains.

Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.] b) a)
fine-grained microstructure
c)
Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 21 Chapter 11 - 22

Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
A cylindrical specimen
1ASTM 25.4 mm in diameter
Standard A255 and 100 mm long
flat ground
specimen
(heated to γ
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

First 12.8 mm readings are

taken at 1.6-mm remaining
38.4 mm (112 in.),
every 3.2 mm
Hardness, HRC

each steel alloy has its own

unique hardenability curve.

Distance from quenched end Chapter 11 - 23 Chapter 11 - 24

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Reason Why Hardness Changes with Distance

Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end. • Hardenability curves for
60

Hardness, HRC
five alloys each with, 100
Hardness, HRC

60
80 %M
C = 0.4 wt% C 4340
40 50
40 4140
20 distance from quenched end (in)
0 1 2 3
Fig. 11.15, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
8640
T(°C) 0% (Adapted from figure furnished courtesy
Republic Steel Corporation.) 5140
100% 20
600 0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 11.14, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. Distance from quenched end (mm)
[Adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.), Atlas of

• "Alloy Steels"
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
400 Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced 800
the rate of heat
by permission of ASM International, Materials
T(°C) TE
M(start) Park, OH.] (4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) transfer is nearly
200 600 independent of
AM -- contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B composition
(0.2 to 2 wt%) 400
0 M(finish)
-- these elements shift
the "nose" to longer times 200 M(start)
(from A to B) M(90%)
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0
Time (s) -- martensite is easier 10
-1 3 5
10 10 10 Time (s)
to form
Chapter 11 - 25 Chapter 11 - 26

0.40 wt% C,
(4140, 4340, 5140, and 8640) are alloy steels
All same (57 HRC), function of composition only

At the quenched end,

where the quenching rate
is approximately 600 C/s,
100% martensite
cooling rates less
than about 70 C/s,
predominantly pearlitic,
bainite content increases
with decreasing cooling
rate

Chapter 11 - 27 Chapter 11 - 28
Time

Influences of Quenching Medium &

Specimen Geometry
Precipitation Hardening- leave out
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
• Effect of quenching medium: • Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600 +L
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
α θ+L
air low low A
oil moderate (get α solid solution) 500 θ
moderate
water -- Pt B: quench to room temp. C α+θ
high high 400
(retain α solid solution)
• Effect of specimen geometry: -- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small θ particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases: (Al) wt% Cu
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases α phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
-- hardness throughout interior increases • Other alloys that precipitation
Fig. 11.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
harden: Temp. (Adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985. Reprinted by
Position Cooling rate Hardness • Cu-Be Pt A (sol’n heat treat) permission of ASM International.)
center low low • Cu-Sn
surface high high • Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate )

Adapted from Fig.

11.23, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 9e. Pt B
Chapter 11 - 29 Chapter 11 - 30

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Influence of Precipitation Heat

Treatment on TS, %EL
Summary
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Non-ferrous alloys:
• Increasing T accelerates
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
process. • Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
tensile strength (MPa)

30 -- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.

%EL (2 in sample)
400 -- increases with alloy content.
20
• Precipitation hardening
300
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC precipitate particles.
204ºC
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Fig. 11.28, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys
and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.] Chapter 11 - 31 Chapter 11 - 32

An overview of important heat treatments

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading: HEAT TREATMENT

BULK SURFACE
Core Problems:
ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING THERMO-
THERMAL
& CHEMICAL
TEMPERING
Full Annealing Carburizing
Self-help Problems: MARTEMPERING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing Induction Nitriding

Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding

Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

Chapter 11 - 33 Chapter 11 -